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Wis.  Bull.  No.  70. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN. 


Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


BULLETIN  NO.  70. 


•CONSTRUCTION  OF.  CHEESE  CURING  ROOMS  FOR 
MAINTAINING  TEMPERATURES  OF  58°  TO  68°  F. 


MADISON,  WISCONSIN.  J AN  U ARY,  1899. 


<.&e~The  Bulletins  and  Annual  Reports  of  this  Station  are  sent  free  to  all 
residents  of  this  State  upon  request. 


Democrat  Printing  Company,  State  Printer,  Madison,  Wis. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN 


AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 


BOARD  OF  REGENTS. 

STATE  SUPERINTENDENT  ....  EX  officio 

PRESIDENT  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY  - - - - ex  officio. 

JOHN  JOHNSTON,  State  at  Large,  - - - - - - President 

B.  J.  STEVENS,  (2d  District),  - - - Chairman  Executive  Committee 

State  at  Large,  - ...  ...  WM.  F.  VILAS 

1st  District, - OGDEN  H.  FETHERS 

3d  District, J.  E.  MORGAN 

4th  District,  GEORGE  H.  NOYES 

5th  District,  JOHN  R.  RIES& 

6th  District,  - - FRANK  CHALLONER 

7th  District,  - - - - - - - - WM.  P.  BARTLETT 

8tk  District, ORLANDO  E.  CLARK 

9te  District J.  A.  VAN  CLEVE 

10th  District,  ........  j.  h.  STOUT 

Secretary,  E.  F.  RILEY,  Madison. 


Agricultural  Committee. 

Regents  CLARK,  CHALLONER,  FETHERS,  RIESS,  and  MORGAN. 


OFFICERS  OF  THE  STATION. 


THE  PRESIDENT  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY. 

W.  A.  HENRY, 

S.  M.  BABCOCK,  .... 

F.  H.  KING,  - ... 

E.  S.  GOFF, 

W.  L.  CARLYLE,  .... 

F.  W.  WOLL,  .... 

H.  L.  RUSSELL,  . 

E.  H.  FARRINGTON. 

J.  A.  JEFFERY,  - 

J.  W.  DECKER,  - 

ALFRED  VIVIAN,  - 

FRED  CRANEFIELD 

LESLIE  H.  ADAMS,  .... 

IDAHERFURTH, 


Director 
Chief  Chemist 
Physicist 
Horticulturist 

- Animal  Husbandry 

Chemist 
Bacteriologist 
Dairy  Husbandry 
Assistant  Physicist 
Dairying 

- Assistant  Chemist 
Assistant  in  Horticulture 

Farm  Superintendent 
- Clerk  and  Stenographer 


FARMERS’  INSTITUTES. 

GEORGE  McKERROW, Superintendent 

HATTIE  V.  STOUT,  ......  Clerk  and  Stenographer 

General  Offices  and  Departments  of  Agricultural  Chemistry,  Animal  Hus- 
bandry, Bacteriology,  Farmers’  Institutes  and  Library,  in  Agricultural  Hall, 
near  University  Hall,  on  Upper  Campus. 

Dairy  Building  and  joint  Horticultural-Physics  Building,  west  end  of  Obser- 
vatory Hill,  adjacent  to  Horticultural  Grounds  and  Experiment  Farm. 
Telephone  to  Station  Office,  Dairy  Building  and  Farm  Office.  ] 


Co  3 6 .7 

\AJ1S1 r 

~bal 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  CHEESE  CURING  ROOMS  FOR 
MAINTAINING  TEMPERATURES  OF  58°  TO  68°  F. 

F.  H.  KING. 


£ 


c 

-c 


It  is  the  purpose  of  this  bulletin  to  present  methods  for  utilizing  the 
lower  degree  of  heat  possessed  by  the  subsoil  and  the  deeper  ground- 
water  in  maintaining  temperatures  for  cheese  curing  rooms  within 
the  range  of  58°  to  68 °F.  It  has  not  yet  been  established  that  this 
range  of  temperatures  is  the  most  desirable  one  for  the  purposes  of 
our  cheese  industry,  but  it  is  agreed  that  within  these  limits  a better 
product  can  be  secured  than  is  possible  during  the  summer  season 
under  the  temperatures  which  must  prevail  in  the  majority  of  facto- 
ries as  now  constructed. 

In  the  Fourteenth  Annual  Report,  p.  195,  Drs.  Babcock  and  Russell 
speak  upon  this  point  as  follows: 

“The  effect  of  these  high  temperatures  is  very  deleterious  to  the 
quality  of  cheese.  They  are  not  only  diminished  in  value  by  the  melting 
and  leaking  of  the  fat,  but  the  texture  and  flavor  are  both  impaired 
by  such  abnormally  high  temperatures. 

In  the  following  thermograph  record,  actual  temperature  variations 
as  found  in  an  imperfectly  constructed  curing  room,  are  shown  in 
comparison  with  those  taken  from  the  Dairy  School  cheese  cellars. 


Fig.  1. — Showing  recorded  temperatures’  in  an  ordinary  cheese  curing  room, 
curve  B;  and  the  same  in  a cellar  cheese  curing  room,  curve  A. 


51276 


4 


Bulletin  No.  70. 


Tko  line  B B shows  the  temperature  fluctuations  that  are  too  often 
found  in  our  cheese  curing*  rooms.  The  more  pronounced  harmful 
effect  of  these  high  temperatures  is  designated  by  the  heavier  shading. 
It  is  noteworthy  that  the  cheese  under  these  conditions  were  in  a 
safe  temperature  for  only  a small  fraction  of  the  three  days  here 
shown.  The  diagram  represents  the  actual  conditions  as  found  in  the 
month  of  September  of  the  present  year  (1897).  No  doubt  if  examples 
had  been  taken  from  the  usual  midsummer  season,  the  cheese  at  no 
time  would  have  been  at  temperatures  that  could  be  regarded'  as  safe. 

As  opposed  to  this,  line  A A represents  the  temperature  conditions 
that  prevailed  during  the  same  period  in  our  own  cheese  cellars.  The 
•effect  of  perfect  insulation  in  preventing  diurnal  fluctuations  is  thus 
graphically  shown. 

We  may  therefore  divide  the  range  in  temperatures  that  is  likely  to 
<o  occur  into  three  more  or  less  well  defined  zones. 

(1)  A temperature  range  that  is  invariably  detrimental,  ranging 
from  the  maximum  limit  that  may  be  reached  (approximating  and 
sometimes  exceeding  100°F.)  down  to  about  75°F.,  depending  upon  the 
character  of  the  cheese  made. 

(2)  An  intermediate  zone  ranging  from  above  minimum  limit  to  a 
point  below  which  no  injurious  effects  are  observed.  This  range, 
which  we  may  term  a hazardous  zone,  varies  from  about  75°  to  65*1?. 

(3)  A lower  zone  that  is  invariably  consitent  with  favorable  results. 
This  embraces  a range  in  temperature  from  65°  downward.  Of  course 
cheese  cannot  be  cured  successfully  at  or  very  near  the  freezing  point, 
but  we  have  in  our  experiments  obtained  excellent  results  when  cheese 
was  cured  in  the  neighborhood  of  40°F.  The  main  objection  to  this 
low  temperature  curing  appears  to  be  in  the  length  of  time  required 
to  perfect  the  product.” 

THE  TEMPERATURE  OF  THE  SOIL  AND  OF  THE  GROUND-WATER  IN 

WISCONSIN. 

Since  the  degree  of  refrigeration  in  curing  rooms  which  is  secured 
■through  the  cooling  power  of  ground  temperatures  cannot  be  quite  as 
low  as  the  temperature  of  the  soil  and  of  the  ground-water,  it  is  impor- 
tant to  know  what  these  are. 

In  northern  Wisconsin  the  temperature  of  the  deeper  spring  water 
is  as  low  as  45°F.  in  some  cases  in  Douglas  county  after  the  middle  of 
August.  At  Marshfield  the  water  in  the  well  at  the  factory  of  Mr. 
John  Henseler,  and  also«  at  a livery  stable  in  the  city  has  a tem- 
perature of  47 °F.  the  last  of  September.  At  Mr.  Steinwahn’s  fac- 
tory near  Colby,  north  of  Marshfield,  we  observed  a well  water  tem- 
perature of  46°  early  in  October.  At  Dale,  west  of  Appleton  and  far- 
ther south  than  the  others  mentioned,  the  temperature  was  found  to 
be  49°F.,  while  in  the  southern  counties  of  the  state  temperatures  as 


Bulletin  No.  70. 


5* 


high  as  50°  and  52°F.  are  found  in  the  latter  part  of  summer.  We 
have  therefore  in  the  state  available  ground-water  temperatures  for 
cooling  purposes  ranging  from  45°F.  in  the  extreme  northern  portion 
of  the  state  to  50°  or  52°  in  the  southern  counties. 

The  temperature  of  the  soil  above  the  level  of  ground-water  and 
10  to  12  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  ground  will  usually  range  from 
5°  to  8°F.  warmer  than  the  deeper  ground- water  of  the  place  which 
makes  the  available  cooling  temperature  from  the  subsoil  itself  range- 
from  48°  to  51°F.  in  the  extreme  nort  to  55°  to  60°  in  the  south. 

We  have  therefore  at  our  command  for  cooling  purposes  ground- 
water  temperatures  of  45°  to  52°F.  and  subsoil  temperatures  from 
48°  to  60°F.,  and  how  nearly  a curing  room  may  be  held  to  these  temper- 
atures will  depend  wholly  upon  the  construction  and  management 
of  the  room  and  upon  the  rate  at  which  the  air  in  the  room  is  changed*. 

AIR  TEMPERATURES  IN  WISCONSIN. 

The  mean  annual  temperature  of  Wisconsin  for  1896,  as  given  by  the- 
Weather  Bureau,  is  represented  on  the  map,  Fig.  2,  where  the  heavy 
lines  drawn  across  its  face  show  the  mean  annual  te  Tiperature  at  the 
places  crossed  by  them.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  mean  temperature 
for  the  year  ranges  from  47°  in  the  south  to  40°  in  the  northern  por- 
tion of  the  state.  It  will  be  seen  therefore  that  the  deeper  ground- 
water  from  levels  of  30  to  80  feet,  has  a temperature  about  3 warmer 
than  the  mean  annual  temperature  of  the  locality. 

But  the  temperature  of  the  air  in  the  summer  months  is  much 
higher  than  the  mean  annual  temperature,  and  as  this  is  the  degree 
of  heat  which  must  be  counteracted,  it  is  important  to  'know  what 
this  is.  In  Fig.  3 the  heavy  curves  show  what  the  mean  temperature 
was  during  the  month  of  July,  1898.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  extreme 
northwest  and  the  extreme  northeast  parts  of  the  state  had  a mean 
temperature  of  68°F.,  while  the  highest  mean  temperatur  es  were  74  in 
the  extreme  southwestern  portion. 

For  the  month  of  August  the  same  year  the  temperatures  are 
plotted  on  the  map  Fig.  4 and  show  the  lowest  mean  to  be  64°  F.  in 
the  northeast  and  the  highest  mean  of  72°F.  in  the  southwest.  Again 
the  same  features  are  shown  for  September  in  Fig.  5,  where  it  will 
be  observed  that  the  lowest  mean  temperature  is  58°F.  and  again  in 
the  northeast  portion  of  the  state;  while  the  highest  is  again  in  the 
southwest  and  66°F. 

It  appears  therefore  that  the  northeastern  portion  of  the  state  has 
the  most  favorable  temperatures  for  curing  cheese,  while  in  the  south- 
west the  conditions  are  least  favorable. 

It  must  be  remembered,  however,  in  studying  the  maps  that  there 
are  always  during  the  day  time  much  higher  temperatures  than  the 


6 


Bulletin  No.  70, 


Fig.  2.— Showing  mean  annual  temperature  in  Wisconsin  for  1896.  Heavy  lines 
pass  through  the  places  having  the  temperature  designated  by  the  numbers. 


Bulletin  No.  70. 


*6° 


Fig.  4.— Showing  the  mean  temperature  in  Wisconsin  for  August,  1898.  Heavy 
lines  pass  through  places  having  the  temperature  designated  by  the  numbers. 


Fig.  5.— Showing  the  mean  temperature  in  Wisconsin  for  September,  1898.  Heavy 
lines  pass  through  places  paving  the  temperature  designated  by  the  numbers. 


8 


Bulletin  No.  70, 


maps  show,  because  the  lines  on  the  map  show  the  average  between' 
the  night  and  the  day  conditions,  and  hence  make  it  appear  that  there- 
is  less  need  of  cooling  the  air  of  curing  rooms  than  there  is. 

It  must  be  further  kept  in  mind  that  there  are  often  several  days 
in  succession  when  the  air  temperatures  are  much  higher  than  the 
average,  even  of  the  day  temperatures,  and  if  these  are  not  counter- 
acted great  damage  may  be  done  to  the  cheese  product  of  the  state. 
The  report  of  the  Weather  Bureau  for  1898  shows  that  the  mean  maxi- 
mum and  minimum  temperature  for  Wisconsin  was  as  follows: 


Table  showing  mean  maximum  and  ^minimum  temperatures  in 
Wisconsin  in  1898. 


Northern  Section. 

Middle  Section. 

Southern  Section. 

Mean 

Maximum 

Temp. 

Mean 

Minimum 

Temp. 

Mean 

Maximum 

Temp. 

Mean 

Minimum 

Temp. 

Mean 

Maximum 

Temp. 

Mean 

Minimum 

Temp. 

June 

75.5 

51.5 

78.8 

55.5 

79.2 

56.9 

July 

82.7 

55.6 

84.0 

57.8 

84.8 

59.5 

August 

78.1 

52.0 

78.8 

56.1 

80.9 

57.6 

September 

73.0 

48.5 

74.8 

50.4 

75.1 

52.9 

Mean 

77.3 

51.9 

79.1 

54.0 

80.0 

56. T 

In  this  table  the  mean  maximum  temperatures  show  how  high  the 
extreme  heat  is  liable  to  run  in  this  state  and  what  the  construction 
and  management  of  the  curing  room  must  counteract.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  columns  of  mean  minimum  temperatures  show  the  lowest 
point  the  thermometer  is  likely  to  reach  during  the  night,  and  hence 
wEat  is  the  coldest  air  which  could  be  used  to  cool  curing  rooms  by 
direct  night  ventilation. 

WORK  WHICH  HAS  BEEN  DONE  IN  THE  STATE. 

In  1893  and  again  in  1897  in  papers  before  the  Wisconsin  Cheese- 
makers’  Association  the  writer  pointed  out  different  available  methods 
of  cooling  curing  rooms,  and  called  attention  to  the  possibility  of 
utilizing  the  lower  temperature  of  the  subsoil  and  of  the  ground- 
water  for  this  purpose.  Since  the  earlier  date,  stimulated  by  the 
energy  of  Mr.  E.  L.  Aderhold,  traveling  cheese  instructor,  two  of  the 
methods  suggested  have  been  put  to  a practical  test  at  a number  of 
factories,  and  some  of  the  results  which  have  been  attained  will  be 
here  stated. 

Quite  a large  number  of  sub-earth  ducts  of  various  lengths  and 
constructions  have  been  placed  at  different  depths  below  the  surface. 


Bulletin  No.  70. 


9 


The  first  one  which  we  visited  was  in  the  factory  of  the  Dale  Cheese 
and  Butter  Co.,  at  Dale,  and  has  a length  of  100  feet  placed  7 feet  below 
the  surface  of  the  ground.  The  duct  is  a single  flue  made  of 
cement  tile,  having  an  oval  cross  section  of  12  by  18  inches  and  such 
as  are  commonly  used  in  the  construction  of  road  culverts. 

The  air  was  entering  the  curing  room  through  a rectangular  open- 
ing 11.5  x 11  inches  at  the  rate  of  198.88  cubic  feet  per  minute.  The 
curing  room  was  a basement,  having  the  dimensions  of  72  x 28  x 8 feet, 
and  hence  the  air  in  the  room  was  being  changed  at  the  rate  of  once 
in  81  minutes.  The  temperature  of  the  duct  was  58°F.;  that  of  the 
air  in  thq  curing  room  was  62°F.  when  the  outside  air  was  69 °F. 
There  was  therefore  a cooling  effect  of  7°.  The  humidity  of  the  air 
in  the  curing  room  was  74  per  cent,  when  that  of  the  air  outside  was 
39  per  cent.,  and  there  was  thus  an  increase  of  saturation  amounting 
to  35  per  cent.,  and  Mr.  J.  D.  Cannon  stated  that  at  times  the  air 
became  too  moist,  causing  the  cheese  to  mould.  He  also  states  that 
in  very  calm  weather  there  is  no  draft,  and  that  if  the  weather  is 
very  warm  and  the  draft  strong  the  air  is  not  sufficiently  cooled,  so 
that  it  becomes  necessary  to  close  the  flue. 

At  the  factory  of  Mr.  A.  C.  Werth,  Neenah,  there  has  been  con- 
structed this  year  a sub-earth  duct  104  feet  in  length,  placed  12  feet 
below  the  surface  of  the  ground,  the  flue  being  made  of  13  lines  of 
6-inch  unglazed  drain  tile  laid  in  two  tiers,  one  of  7 lines  on  the  bot- 
tom covered  with  about  2 inches  of  earth  and  then  upon  this  6 other 
lines,  thus  forming  a multiple  flue  having  an  aggregate  cross-section 
of  2.55  sq.  ft. 

The  thermometer  placed  in  the  bottom  of  this  duct  at  the  factory 
end  registered  55.5°F.  the  last  of  September  when  the  air  outside  was 
68.5°F.  at  4:20  p.  m.  At  the  same  time  the  temperature  of  the  curing 
room  was  63.5°,  with  a humidity  of  60  per  cent.,  when  the  air  was 
entering  through  the  duct  at  the  rate  of  68  cubic  feet  per  minute. 

The  wind  velocity  outside  at  a height  of  4.5  feet  above  the  surface 
of  the  ground  when  the  above  observations  were  made  was  242  feet  per 
minute.  The  actual  wind  velocity  80  feet  above  the  ground  at  the 
level  of  the  intake  of  the  duct  was  of  course  considerably  greater 
than  this,  so  that  had  there  been  no  reduction  in  the  velocity  of  the 
wind  in  passing  to  the  curing  room  it  should  have  entered  it  at  the 
rate  of  more  than  189  cubic  feet  per  minute.  The  wind  velocity  was 
therefore  reduced  by  the  shaft  and  duct  at  least  as  much  as 
189  — 68  = 121  feet  per  minute. 

or  nearly  two  thirds.  That  is  to  say,  the  air  was  able  to  enter  the 
room  less  than  one-third  as  rapidly  as  the  wind  was  passing  the 
intake. 

The  next  factory  visited  was  that  of  Mr.  P.  H.  Kasper,  of  Nicolson, 
Waupaca  Co.,  represented  in  Fig.  6.  Here  the  sub-earth  duct  has  a 


10 


Bulletin  No.  70. 


length  of  108  feet  and  is  placed  10  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  ground, 
it  being  covered  with  two  feet  of  sawdust,  above  which  is  a foot  of 
earth. 

This  duct  is  constructed  essentially  as  show  in  Fig.  7,  with  6-inch 
drain  tile  laid  in  three  tiers  separated  by  about  two  inches  of  earth, 
and  the  intake  rises  50  feet  above  the  surface,  with  the  mouth  of  the 
funnel  three  feet  in  diameter  and  the  neck  one  foot.  At  the  time  of  the 
visit  the  thermometer  at  the  bottom  of  the  shaft  registered  56.5°F. 
when  the  air  outside  was  67°  at  9 a.  m.  The  temperature  of  the  room  at 
the  same  time  was  60° F.,  with  a relative  humidity  of  89  per  cent.  At 
the  mouth  of  the  duct  where  the  air  entered  the  room  it  had  a temper- 
ature of  58.5°,  or  1.5  below  that  of  the  room  and  2°  above  that  of  the 
bottom  of  the  duct  itself,  when  these  relations  of  temperature  ex- 
isted the  air  was  entering  the  room  at  the  rate  of  129  cubic  feet  per 
minute,  or  at  a rate  which  would  change  the  air  in  the  room  once  in 
every  40  minutes,  the  dimensions  being  34  x 18  x 8.5  feet. 


At  the  factory  of  Mr.  Pat  Wallace,  near  Hortonville,  the  sub-earth 
duct  has  a length,  of  100  feet  and  is  made  of  three  tiers  of  tile  placed 
one  above  the  other  and  having  four  lines  of  6-inch  tile  in  the  upper 
tier,  four  in  the  lower  tier  and  five  in  the  middle  tier,  but  two  of  these 
lines  are  8-inch  tile.  The  bottom  of  this  duct  is  10  feet  below  the  sur- 
face at  the  far  end  and  7 feet  next  to  the  factory,  which  stands  partly 
in  a side  hill.  The  intake,  with  its  funnel  36  inches  in  diameter  and 
neck  of  12  inches,  rises  80  feet  above  the  bottom  of  the  duct,  but, 
through  an  accident  in  the  raising,  the  vane  was  broken,  and  at  the 
time  of  my  visit  the  funnel  was  not  squarely  facing  the  wind  and  the 
duct  was  not  doing  service. 

There  was  also  a ventilating  shaft  rising  30  feet  above  the  ceiling 
of  the  curing  room,  through  which  there  was  a strong  draft  at  the 
time  of  the  visit,  but  the  construction  of  the  curing  room  was  suffi- 
ciently open  to  supply  all  the  air  required  for  the  draft  without  suck- 


Bulletin  No.  70. 


1L 


Fig.  7. — Section  of  cheese  curing  room  andhorizontal  multiple  sub-earth  duct. 
A,  inlet  to  curing  room;  B,  end  of  sub-earth  duct  in  bricked  entrance  to  fac- 
tory; C,  cross-section  of  the  multiple  ducts  as  placed  in  the  factory  of  A.  C. 
Werth;  D,  E,  bricked  entrance  under  funnel  at  outer  end  of  sub-earth  duct; 
F,  funnel  with  mouth  36  inches  across  ; G,  vane  to  hold  funnel  to  the  wind. 

ing  any  in  from  the  sub-earth  duct.  By  closing  up  the  mouth  of  the 
duct  so  as  to  leave  only  a narrow  opening  it  was  noted  that  occasion- 
ally a current  of  air  strong  enough  to  move  the  anemometer  was  set 
up,  but  this  was  sometimes  in  and  sometimes  out. 

Under  these  conditions  the  temperature  of  the  curing  room  between 
1 p.  m.  and  2 p.  m.  was  66°F.  when  the  temperature  outside  was  70° 
and  the  relative  humidity  inside  was  68  per  cent.  The  temperature 
at  the  bottom  of  the  duct  next  to  the  curing  room  was  61.5JF. 


12 


Bulletin  No.  70. 


At  the  factory  of  *J : F.  Steinwahn  near  Colby  a well  64  feet  deep  is- 
utilized  as  a sub-earth  duct  in  the  manner  represented  in  Fig.  8.  The 
intake  pipe  ten  inches  in  diameter,  with  its  36-inch  funnel,  rises  just 
barely  above  the  roof  of  the  factory  starting  two  feet  below  the  sur- 
face of  the  ground,  at  which  level  it  extends  horizontally  entering 
the  well  and  then  descends  to  a distance  of  8 feet,  as  shown  at  A A A 
Another  10-inch  galvanized  iron  pipe  starts  40  feet  below  the  surface 
of  the  ground  and  rising  to  within  5 feet  of  it  passes  horizontally  26 
feet  until  it  is  beneath  the  curing  room  and  then  enters  it  directly 
as  shown  at  B B B C.  The  top  of  the  well  is  closed  tightly,  so  that  the 
air  forced  into  it  through  the  funnel  is  obliged  to  escape  through  the 
duct  which  leads  to  the  curing  room. 

Under  these  conditions  we  found  the  temperature  of  the  curing 
room  60.5°  when  that  of  the  air  outside  was  70°.  The  thermometer 
at  the  bend  of  the  duct  below  the  entrance  to  the  curing  room  was 
at  the  same  time  53.5°  and  that  of  the  air  as  it  left  the  duct  55.5°. 
The  air  was  entering  the  room  at  the  rate  of  61.45  cubic  feet  per 
minute,  and  as  the  room  had  the  dimensions  of  25  x 28  x 11,  7,700  cubic 
feet,  the  air  was  being  changed  at  the  rate  of  once  in  125  minutes. 

It  should  be  stated  that  these  obesrvations  were  made  between  12 
and  1 p.  m.  on  a clear  day,  and  further  that  the  construction  and  sit- 
uation of  Mr.  Steinwahn’s  curing  room  are  exceptionally  good.  It  is 
located  on  the  north  side  in  the  shade,  and  is  double  boarded  outside 
and  in,  with  paper  between.  His  floor  and  ceiling  are  also  double 
boarded,  with  paper  between,  and  there  are  double  windows  with 
blinds  outside.  To  this  thorough  construction  must  be  ascribed  a 
large  measure  of  the  effectiveness  of  his  sub-earth  duct,  which  shows 
the  highest  efficiency  of  any  one  we  have  examined. 

Mr.  John  Henseler  at  Marshfield  has  a curing  room  situated  in  a 
cellar  having  plastered  stone  wall  sides  8 feet  high  extending  6 feet 
below  the  surface  and  a cenment  floor.  At  the  time  of  my  visit  the 
curing  room  had  a temperature  of  61°F.,  with  a relative  humidity  of 
63  per  cent,  where  the  thermometer  showed  a temperature,  of  67°F. 
outside  and  a humidity  of  30  per  cent. 

It  is  stated  that  on  hot,  damp  days  the  moisture  condensed  upon 
the  lower  two  feet  of  the  walls  and  that  if  several  such  days  occur 
together  the  cheese  is  liable  to  mould.  This  same  characteristic  is 
also  said  to  develop  at  such  times  in  the  basement  curing  room  at 
Dale,  already  described,  showing  that  better  ventilation  for  such 
rooms  is  required.  There  was  a small  ventilating  shaft  in  this  factory, 
as  also  in  the  one  at  Dale,  but  these  are  evidently  not  sufficiently 
effective. 

If  the  observations  cited  above  are  brought  together  in  the  form  of 
a table  they  will  appear  as  given  below: 


Bulletin  No.  70.  13 


'.Fig.  8. — Showing  vertical  section  of  Mr.  J.  F.  Steinwahn’s  factory  and  sub-earth 
duct  in  well.  A,  A,  funnel  taking  air  into  well;  B,  B,  B,  duct  leading  air 
from  well  to  curing  room,  C;  D,  ventilator.  * 


14 


Bulletin  No.  7 0. 


Table  showing  the  observed  temperature  of  the  air  in  curing  rooms 
compared  with  that  of  the  air  outside  at  the  same  time. 


No.  OF 
Factory  . 


1 

2 

3  

4  

5  

6  

Mean 


Temperature  of  Air. 


Outside. 


F. 

69.0 
68.5 

67.0 

70.0 

70.0 

67.0 
68.58 


In  the 
curing 
room. 


F. 

62.0 

63.5 
60.0 
66.0 

60.5 
61.0 
62.16 


In  bottom 
of  duct. 


F. 

58.0 

55.5 

56.5 

61.5 
53  5 


57.0 


Humidity  of  Air. 


Outside. 

In  curing 
room. 

Pr.  ct. 

Pr.  ct. 

39 

74 

60 

60 

89 

68 

36 

78 

30 

63 

Rate  at 
which  air 
entered  curing 
room. 


Cu.  ft.  per  min. 
198.8 
68.00 
129.00 


61.45 


It  will  be  seen  from  this  table  that  with  a mean  outside  tempera- 
ture of  68.58°F.  the  curing  rooms  were  found  to  have  a mean  tempera- 
ture of  62.16°F.,  or  6.42°  below  the  outside  air.  At  the  same  time  the 
mean  temperature  of  the  sub-earth  duct  was  57F0.,  or  5.16  lower  than 
that  of  the  curing  rooms,  and  11.58  lower  than  that  of  the  outside  air. 
It  appears  therefore  from  these  limited  data  that  with  sub-earth 
ducts  the  temperature  of  curing  rooms  may  be  held  at  least  as  much 
as  7°  to  10°F.  lower  than  the  temperature  of  the  outside  air  during  the 
hottest  portion  of  the  day. 

EXPERIMENTS  WITH  AN  AIR  BLAST. 

In  order  to  test  the  efficacy  of  a strong  current  of  air  carried  from 
a well  into  a room  in  controlling  its  temperature  several  trials  were 
made,  using  a small  blower  to  draw  air  from  near  the  bottom  of 
the  well  at  Agricultural  Hall  and  force  it  into  the  lecture  room  of  that 
building.  To  do  this  40  feet  of  4-inch  suction  pipe  were  lowered  into 
the  well  and  connected  with  the  blower,  and  nearly  as  many  more 
feet  of  the  same  size  of  pipe,  wrapped  in  white  cotton  batting,  con- 
veyed the  air  to  the  lecture  room. 

The  lecture  room  is  44  by)  38  by  9.5,  containing  15,884  cubic  feet,  and 
occupies  the  central  section  of  the  ground  floor  of  the  building,  and 
in  order  to  get  a measure  of  the  cooling  effect  of  the  air  forced  into 
the  room,  self-recording  thermometers  were  placed  in  the  three  rooms 
of  the  ground  floor  and  allowed  to  remain  during  the  time  the  ex- 
periment was  in  progress.  It  should  be  further  stated  that  the  build- 
ing is  a heavy  stone  structure,  with  walls  24  inches  thick,  and  that 


Bulletin  No.  70. 


15 


the  four  inside  hall  doors  leading  to  the  lecture  room  were  kept 
closed,  and  the  six  windows  darkened  with  opaque  black  curtains 
on  the  inside.  The  windows  in  the  other  two  rooms  were  not  dark- 
ened and  the  hall  doors  leading  into  them  were  open,  as  were  also 
some  of  the  windows. 

On  August  21,  when  the  outside  air  temperature  in  the  shade  was 
69.9°  at  7 a.  m.,  81.2°  at  2 p.  m.  and  76.5°  at  9 p.  m.,  air  was  forced  from 
the  bottom  of  the  well  into  the  lecture  room  at  the  mean  rate  of  1,081 
cubic  feet  per  minute  from  10:05  a.  m.  to  11:59  a.  m.,  and  from  12:59 
p.  m.  to  4:51  p.  m.,  and  the  temperature  of  the  air  near  the  center  of 
the  room  and  also  that  in  the  two  adjacent  rooms  was  recorded  by 
the  registering  thermometers. 

At  first,  after  starting,  the  temperature  of  the  room  was  lowered 
about  one  degree,  but  after  3 p.  m.  the  temperature  went  up  nearly 
2 degrees,  leaving  the  room  at  the  close  of  the  experiment  1.5°F.  higher 
at  night  than  it  was  at  10  a.  m.  In  the  case  of  the  other  two  rooms, 
the  south  one  sustained  an  increase  of  temperature  of  11°F.  and  the 
north  one  9°F.;  but  it  is  probable  that  if  these  rooms  had  been  closed 
as  closely  as  the  one  into  which  the  air  was  forced  their  temperatures 
would  not  have  raised  as  much  as  the  records  show,  and  it  is  ques- 
tionable whether  the  effect  of  the  air  from  the  well  could  have  been 
more  than  enoug'h  to  lower  the  temperature  7°F.,  or  about  the  same 
amount  as  was  observed  at  the  several  curing  rooms. 

CONSTRUCTION  OF  THE  WOODEN  ABOVE-GROUND  CURING  ROOM. 

Where  a curing  room  is  constructed  entirely  above  ground  it  is  quite 
certain  that  a carefully  built  wooden  structure  may  be  kept  cooler 
than  one  built  of  any  other  available  material  of  moderate  cost. 

The  location  of  the  room  is  an  important  consideration,  for  much  may 
be  gained  by  placing  the  room  where  it  is  screened  as  much  as  possi- 
ble from  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun.  The  north  side  of  the  building  is 
the  best,  place  when  that  is  available,  and  if  a hallway,  stairway  or 
other  room  or  building  screens  the  curing  room  on  the  east  and  west 
this  is  still  better,  for  then  both  the  east  and  west  sun  will  be  cut  off. 

The  windows  of  the  curing  room  should  be  as  few  and  as  small  as 
are  required  for  the  requisite  amount  of  light,  and  they  should  always 
be  double,  for  the  reason  that  the  same  construction  which  excludes 
the  cold  in  winter  will  exclude  the  heat  in  the  summer.  Unless  there  is 
some  reason  why  the  windows  should  be  made  with  sash  to1  slide  up,  it 
will  be  best  to  make  them  in  a single  section,  and  fitted  permanently 
and  closely  in  place.  In  this  way  they  will  be  much  more  nearly  air 
tight,  and  this  is  a matter  of  the  highest  importance,  because  if  the 
hot  summer  air  can  blow  through  cracks  into  the  curing  room  nearly 
the  whole  advantage  of  double  windows  may  be  lost.  If  windows 


■16 


Bulletin  No.  7 0. 


must  be  placed  on  other  than  the  north  side  of  a curing'  room  they 
should  be  provided  with  outside  blinds.  If  the  blinds  are  put  on  the 
inside  the  heat  comes  through  the  glass,  and  the  heated  blinds  then 
warm  the  air  of  the  curing  room.  If  the  blinds  shut  out  too  much 
of  the  light,  then  window  awnings  may  be  used,  but  it  is  very  im- 
portant that  direct  sunshine  be  excluded. 

The  door  to  the  curing  room,  like  the  window,  should  fit  closely  and 
be  built  and  closed  on  the  refrigerator  plan  if  practicable. 

The  construction  of  the  walls  should  be  on  the  principle  of  cold  storage 
and  ice  house  buildings.  The  studding  outside  should  be  covered 
with  matched  sheathing  and  drop  siding,  with  a layer  of  3-ply  acid  and 
water-proof  paper  between.  On  the  inside  there  should  at  least  be 
two  layers  of  matched  sheathing,  with  a layer  of  3-ply  acid  and 
water-proof  paper  between,  as  shown  in  Fig.  9.  A sample  of  suitable 
paper  is  enclosed  in  this  bulletin,  and  is  manufactured  by  the  Standard 
Paint  Co.  of  New  York  and  Chicago. 

A better  construction  for  the  inside  is  first  a layer  of  matched ' 
sheathing  nailed  to  the  studding,  then  strips  of  inch  furring  2 inches 
wide,  to  which  are  nailed  two  thicknesses  of  matched  sheathing,  with 
a layer  of  3-ply  acid  and  water-proof  paper  between,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  9.  When  the  outer  air  space  between  the  studding  is  filled  with 
sawdust  or  some  similar  material  and  the  spaces  left  by  the  furring 
are  closed  air  tight  at  the  ceiling  and  floor  the  wall  is  then  like  a 
good  cold  storage  wall. 

The  ceiling  and  floor  should  also  consist  of  two  thicknesses  of  matched 
lumber,  with  the  layer  of  3-ply  acid  and  water-proof  paper  between, 
and  great  care  should  be  exercised  to  see  that  tight  joints  are  made  at 
the  corners.  This  form  of  construction  may  appear  to  some  to  be  un- 
necessarily expensive,  but  it  should  be  kept  in  mind  that  two  impor- 
tant points  must  he  secured  if  anything  like  full  effectiveness  of  the  sub- 
earth  duct  is  desired;  (1)  the  walls  must  be  so  tight  that  the  pressure 
and  suction  of  the  wind  on  the  building  does  not  drive  out  the  cool 
air  and  leave  in  its  place  the  warm  air  of  the  outside,  and  (2)  the  walls 
must  be  a sufficiently  poor  conductor  to  permit  a relatively  small 
movement  of  air  through  the  sub-earth  duct  to  remove  all  of  the  heat 
which  penetrates  the  walls.  The  curing  room  is  perfect  in  construc- 
tion only  when  its  walls  are  so  tight  that  no  air  can  enter  the  room 
except  through  the  sub-earth  duct  or  at  another  specially  provided 
opening,  which  is  used  only  when  the  air  from  the  duct  is  too  cool  or 
too  damp. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  the  pressure  of  the  wind  on  the  build- 
ing tends  to  force  air  into  it  in  just  the  same  way  that  it  tends  to 
force  air  in  through  the  funnel,  and  if  the  walls  are  so  open  that  they 
offer  less  resistance  to  the  air  current  than  the  funnel  and  duct  do, 


Bulletin  No.  70. 


17 


Fig.  9. — Showing  the  construction  of  wooden  curing  room.  1,  1,  1,  sill  ; 2,  2,  2,  a 
two-by-ten  spiked  to  ends  of  joist;  3,  3,  3,  a two-by-four  spiked  down  after 
first  layer  of  flexor  is~laid  to  toe-nail  studs  to;  4,  4,  4,  a two-by-four  spiked  to 
upper  ends  of  studding  of  first  story;  A,  A,  A,  A,  three-ply  acid  and  water 
proof  paper.  The  drawing  in  the  center  shows  space  between  studding  filled 
with  saw  dust  and  another  dead-air  space  to  be  used  when  the  best  ducts 
cannot  be  provided. 

the  air  will  enter  the  room  direct  rather  than  by  the  longer  funnel 
route.  If  the  walls  permit  any  air  to  pass  through,  then  to  that  ex- 
tent will  the  air  coming  through  the  duct  be  decreased. 

At  the  time  of  our  visit  to  the  factory  of  the  Dale  Butter  and  Cheese 
Company  there  was  enough  air  being  drawn  out  of  the  room  through 
openings  not  intended  for  this  purpose  to  permit  a strong  down 
draft  into  the  curing  room  through  the  ventilator.  This  down  draft 


18 


Bulletin  No.  70. 


was  intensified  by  the  fact  that  the  ventilator  had  been  disconnected 
in  the  upper  story,  where  the  wind  pressure  was  strong  enough  to 
force  a down  current  against  that  coming  from  the  funnel.  -This  case 
is  cited  here  to  show  how  important  it  is  to  have  all  openings  closed 
except  those  through  which  it  is  intended  that  air  should  enter,  and 
also  to  show  that  it  is  important  to  have  the  ceiling  of  the  curing 
room  tight  as  well  as  the  sides. 

MASONRY  ABOVE-GROUND  CURING  ROOMS. 

The  great  difficulty  with  heavy  masonry  walls  like  those  made  from 
stone  and  mortar,  is  their  tendency  to  warm  up  in  the  direct  rays  of 
the  sun  and  by  contact  with  the  warm  air  to  a temperature  somewhat 
above  the  mean  daily  temperature  of  the  place  and  to  hold  this  degree 
of  heat  quite  uniformly  day  and  night  and  from  day  to  day,  the  tem- 
perature rising  as  the  heat  of  summer  becomes  more  intense. 

If  it  were  desirable  to  have  a curing  room  in  which  the  temperatures 
were  quite  uniform,  only  changing  slightly  from  day  to  day  and 
ranging  from  68°  to  75°F.,  this  could  be  secured  by  building  with 
thick  walls  of  stone,  taking  care  to  have  tightly  set  frames,  with 
double  windows  on  the  north  side.  If  it  were  desired  to  hold  the  tem- 
perature of  such  a room  down  to  58°  to  65°F.  by  means  of  a sub-earth 
duct  it  would  only  be  possible  to  do  so  by  lining  it  inside  with  wood 
after  the  manner  of  the  wood  structure,  leaving  a dead  air  space  be- 
tween the  lining  and  the  walls. 

If  brick  were  used  instead  of  stone  for  such  a curing  room  it  would 
be  necessary  to  plaster  the  brick  wall  inside  with  a hand-finish  or 
cement  mortar  in  order  to  close  up  the  pores  of  the  brick  and  prevent 
the  wind  from  driving  and  drawing  the  warm  outside  air  through  the 
walls.  Ordinary  rough  plastering  is  too  porous  to  use  for  this  pur- 
pose, and  a hard-finish  putty  coat  or  cement  finish  must  be  resorted 
to  instead. 


UNDER  GROUND  CURING  ROOMS. 

If  the  inconvenience  of  carrying  cheese  up  and  down  stairs  can  be 
endured,  or  if  the  factory  is  on  a side  hill  and  the  curing  room  may 
be  located  in  the  bank  end  of  the  basement  story,  it  is  possible  to  ar- 
range such  a room  so  as  to  maintain  a temperature  through  the  hot 
season  as  low  as  58°  to  63°F.  if  desired,  or  the  temperature  may  be  per- 
mitted to  go  higher  if  that  is  wished. 

In  order  to  utilize  the  ground  temperature  to  the  best  advantage  it 
is  necessary  that  the  curing  room  end  of  the  basement  should  have  a 
depth  of  not  less  than  9 feet  below  the  level  of  the  ground  outside  and 
10  or  12  feet  is,  of  course,  better  than  9 feet  so  far  as  the  maintenance 
of  a low  temperature  is  concerned. 


Bulletin  No.  70. 


19 


Construction  of  the  Floor.— Various  methods  may  be  followed  in  the 
construction  of  the  floor  of  basement  and  underground  curing  rooms, 
but  there  are  certain  fundamental  conditions  which  should  be  ob- 
served, however  the  details  may  be  varied.  Since  the  cooling  effect  of 
the  basement  or  bank  curing  room  must  be  chiefly  derived  from  the 
floor,  it  should  be  made  of  some  good  conductor,  so  that  it  shall  be 
always  cool.  The  most  available  material  for  this  purpose,  and,  every- 
thing considered,  the  best,  is  a solid  concrete,  with  a good,  smooth, 
hard  cement  finish.  This  should  be  laid  the  last  thing  after  other 
work  is  completed,  and  should  consist  of  4 inches  of  concrete  laid  upon 
an  even,  solid  ground  floor.  If  for  any  reason  the  earth  of  any  por- 
tion of  the  ground  floor  has  been  loosened  this  should  be  thoroughly 
tamped  before  the  concrete  is  laid,  so  that  no  future  settling  shall 
occur  to  crack  the  cement. 

The  concrete  should  be  made  wfth  good  Portland  cement,  using  one 
part  of  cement  with  four  to  six  parts  of  coarse,  clean  gravel  and  sand 
free  from  clay,  earth  or  loam.  The  finishing  coat  should  be  made  with 
fresh  Portland  cement  and  clean,  sharp  sand  or  crushed  granite  of  one- 
eighth  to  one-half  inch  pieces  and  free  from  the  granite  dust.  These 
should  be  in  the  proportion  of  1 of  cement  to  l1/^  to  2 of  sand,  and 
should  be  one-half  to  three-fourths  inches  thick. 

The  concrete  should  be  laid  upon  two  inches  of  gravel  and  sand  in 
strips  about  4 feet  wide  across  the  floor  and  thoroughly  rammed,  then 
cut  crosswise  into  blocks  4 feet  square.  As  soon  as  one  strip  of  the 
concrete  is  laid,  rammed  and  cut  it  should  be  given  its  finishing  coat 
of  Portland  cement,  which  should  be  thoroughly  trowelled  while  set- 
ting to  avoid  shrinkage  checks.  After  trowelling  the  cement  this  must 
be  cut  exactly  above  the  joint  in  the  concrete  below  and  the  edges  of  the 
cut  turned  down  and  smoothed.  If  the  jointing  is  not  done  irregular 
cracks  are  quite  certain  to  form,  which  will  fret  out  with  use  and  be 
more  difficult  to  clean  than  the  smooth,  shallow,  straight  grooves  left 
by  blocking.  After  the  blocks  have  been  trowelled  and  checked  they 
should  be  wet  with  a brush  and  sprinkled  with  dry,  pure  Portland 
cement  and  then  trowelled  smooth  and  hard  so  as  to  give  a glossy 
surface  which  will  be  water  tight  and  easy  to  clean.  Each  strip  of  the 
floor  should  be  completely  finished  up  before  beginning  the  next,  and 
the  concrete  and  cement  should  be  made  only  as  fast  as  needed  for 
use.  A second  batch  of  materials  may  be  mixed  together  dry  ready 
for  wetting  while  the  finishing  of  a strip  is  in  progress  and  thus  save 
time. 

To  avoid  the  danger  of  cracking  the  cement  by  settling  it  may  be 
best  to  dig  holes  12  to  16  inches  square  and  a foot  deep  where  the  sup- 
ports for  the  cheese  racks  are  to  come,  and  fill  these  with  concrete  so 
as  to  form  piers  to  carry  the  weight. 


20 


Bulletin  JSo.  70. 


Construction  of  the  Walls. — These  are  best  made  of  stone  laid  solid 
with  mortar  to  within  five  feet  of  the  surface,  so  as  to  utilize  the  cool- 
ing power  of  the  lower  portion  of  the  walls-  Above  the  level  specified, 
however,  some  form  of  construction  should  be  adopted  which  will 
lessen  the  amount  of  heat  which  may  enter  from  the  upper  soil  and 
through  the  walls  above  ground. 

Where  the  stones  used  are  of  such  size  and  character  as  to  admit  of 
doing  so,  the  upper  portion  of  the  wall  may  be  made  hollow  and  tied 
in  as  few  places  as  safety  requires.  The  thickness  of  the  air  space 
need  not  be  greater  than  an  inch  or  it  may  be  more,  and  the  regularity 
of  the  walls  which  bound  it  is  unimportant.  The  important  point  to 
attend  to  is  to  see  that  the  space  does  not  become  filled  with  mortar 
during  the  process  of  construction.  In  other  cases  a jog  may  be  built 
in  the  upper  portion  of  the  wall  on  the  inside  and  an  air  space  formed 
by  facing  up  with  one  tier  of  brick.  Instead  of  brick  hollow  building 
tile  4 inches  thick  may  be  used,  and  these  may  be  set  so  as  to  form  a 
double  dead  air  space  instead  of  a single  one.  This  inside  finish  should 
be  carried  up  between  the  joists  so  that  when  the  ceiling  is  put  on 
no  open  joints  will  be  left. 

In  case  the  curing  room  occupies  the  bank  end  of  the  basement  of 
the  factory  it  will  be  necessary  to  build  the  partition  between  it  and 
the  work  room,  with  the  same  care  to  exclude  heat  as  if  it  were  an 
outside  wall  wholly  above  ground.  If  the  partition  is  of  wood  the  side 
next  to  the  curing  room  should  have  two  thicknesses  of  tongued  and 
grooved  flooring  with  a layer  of  paper  between,  and  the  door  should 
be  double  and  closed  and  fastened  on  the  refrigerator  plan.  Windows 
should  also  be  double  and  very  close  fitting,  and  if  light  enough  can 
be  secured  from  the  north  side,  windows  should  only  be  placed  here. 

The-  ceiling  of  the  whole  or  part  basement  curing  room  should 
be  made  of  wood  in  the  manner  described  under  the  all  wood  curing 
room. 

METHODS  OP  COOLING  THE  AIR  IN  CHEESE  CURING  ROOMS  PLACED 

ABOVE  GROUND. 

It  is  plain  that  no  matter  how  perfectly  a curing  room  above  ground 
has  been  constructed  or  how  carefully  it  is  kept  closed  during  the 
day,  its  temperature  must  rise  steadily  higher  and  higher  as  the  sum- 
mer advances  and  stand  a little  higher  than  the  mean  air  temperature 
of  each  succeeding  day  of  the  season.  If,  therefore,  these  tempera- 
tures are  to  be  held  down  to  58°  to  68°,  some  cooling  device  must  be 
adopted. 

There  are  various  methods  by  which  this  cooling  may  be  effected 
as  enumerated  below: 

1.  Cooling  by  ventilating  with  night  air. 

2.  Cooling  by  ventilating  through  horizontal  sub-earth  ducts. 


Bulletin  No.  70. 


21 


3.  Cooling  by  ventilating  through  deep  vertical  sub-earth  ducts  and 
wells. 

4.  Cooling  by  means  of  cold  water. 

5.  Cooling  by  ventilating  over  ice. 

6.  Cooling  by  evaporation  of  water. 

7.  Cooling  by  mechanical  refrigerator. 

COOLING  BY  VENTILATING  WITH  NIGHT  AIR. 

It  is  shown  in  table  on  page  8 that  the  lowest  mean  temperature 
of  the  night  air  for  the  months  of  June,  July,  August  and  September  is 
51.9°  in  the  northern  section,  54°  in  the  middle  section  and  56.7  in  the 
southern  section,  and  all  of  these  are  lower  than  the  temperatures 
which  guarantee  good  results  in  the  curing  room.  These  low  tempera- 
tures, however,  will  only  be  occasionally  available,  and  hence  the  re- 
sults in  the  curing  room  must  be  secured  by  the  mean  night  temper- 
atures as  they  occur  from  day  to  day.  Sufficient  data  are  not  yet  at 
hand  to  show  wTiat  the  mean  night  temperature  of  Wisconsin  is  in 
different  parts  of  the  state  during  the  summer  months,  but  it  is  cer- 
tain that  on  very  many,  if  not  the  majority  of  nights,  the  temperature 
of  the  air  falls  as  low  as  58°  to  68°. 

The  well  constructed  curing  room  may  therefore  be  kept  carefully 
closed  during  the  day  time  so  that  there  is  as  little  change  of  air  as 
possible  until  night  and  then  provision  be  made  for  the  low  temper- 
ature air  outside  to  be  forced  through  in  sufficient  volume  to  bring 
the  temperature  of  the  curing  room  down  to  that  of  the  night  air. 

To  do  this  it  will  not  be  sufficient  to  simply  open  windows  at  night. 
There  must  be  some  means  adopted  for  forcing  the  air  into  and  out  of 
the  rooms. 

This  may  be  done  in  the  simplest  manner  by  using  the  wind-funnel 
to  drive  air  down  a 10-inch  galvanized  pipe  into  the  curing  room  at 
tlie  ceiling  in  the  same  manner  as  the  air  is  now  carried  through  the 
sub-earth  ducts.  The  funnel  should  rise  not  less  t)  an  15  feet  above 
the  ridge  of  the  roof  of  the  iactory,  and  may  be  carried  down  through 
the  roof  to  the  curing  room,  or  it  may  be  carried  down  the  north  out- 
side wall  and  be  turned  into  the  curing  room  when  that  level  is 
reached.  The  outside  entrance  is  likely  to  be  best  because  the  room 
under  the  roof  remains  hot  well  into  the  night  and  would  tend  to 
warm  the  air  on  its  way  through.  This  bad  effect  may,  however,  be 
reduced  by  having  a large  ventilator  in  the  ridge  of  the  attic  so  that 
the  hot  air  may  quickly  pass  out  and  be  replaced  by  the  colder  air 
from  the  outside  which  is  permitted  to  enter  through  an  open  window 
or  special  opening  provided  for  the  purpose. 

The  regulation  of  the  curing  room  by  night  ventilation  is  certain  to 
make  a great  improvement  in  the  conditions  over  no  effort  at  control. 


22 


Bulletin  No.  70. 


It  does  not  appear  probable,  however,  that  it  can  give  the  best  results. 

In  the  first  place  the  night  air  will  often  remain  too  high  during 
three  or  four  days  in  succession,  and  as  four  days  is  a large  share  of 
the  time  the  cheese  may  be  held  for  curing,  that  particular  lot  is  quite 
sure  not  to  be  up  to  standard,  and  must  therefore  not  only  sell  at 
a lower  figure,  but,  what  is  more  serious,  help  to  fix  a lower  price  for 
the  next  lot  because  of  the  reputation  gained  by  the  bad  lot. 

In  the  second  place,  the  wind  is  usually  least  during  the  night,  and 
hence  it  will  be  more  difficult  to  secure  a sufficient  movement  of  air 
with  the  funnel  than  in  the  day  time.  Looking  at  the  curves  in  Fig. 
10  it  will  be  seen  how  much  stronger  the  wind  velocities  were  during 
the  hours  from  6 a.  m.  to  6 p.  m.  than  from  6 p.  m.  to  6 a.  m.  This 
difficulty  may  partly  be  overcome  by  having  a door  in  the  galvanized 
iron  outlet  pipe  leading  from  the  curing  room  up  through  the  roof,  so 
that  on  still  nights  a large  lamp  may  be  hung  in  it  to  create  a suction. 
The  lamp  should  be  hung  in  the  pipe  above  the  ceiling  of  the  curing 
room,  preferably  at  the  level  of  the  room  above. 

COOLING  CURING  ROOMS  BY  AIR  FORCED  THROUGH  HORIZONTAL 
SUB-EARTH  DUCT. 

The  horizontal  sub-earth  duct  in  order  to  be  most  effective  should 
not  be  less  than  12  feet  below  the  surface  and  should  have  a length  of 
at  least  100  feet.  Whether  the  duct  should  be  single,  as  in  the  case  of 
that  used  at  the  Dale  factory,  or  whether  it  should  be  multiple,  as  in 
the  case  of  Mr.  Kasper’s  factory  and  represented  in  Fig.  7,  will  depend 
upon  circumstances. 

The  multiple  duct  is  built  on  the  right  principle  in  so  far  as  it  pre- 
sents the  largest  cooling  surface  for  the  air  to  come  in  contact  with, 
but  on  the  other  hand  it  offers  much  more  resistance  to  the  flow  of  air 
through  the  duct,  and  so  on  days  when  the  wind  is  light  it  may  not  be 
as  effective  as  the  sing’le  duct  of  the  same  total  cross  section  and 
length. 

Referring  to  the  observations  on  the  Dale  factory  and  that  of  Mr. 
Werth’s,  it  will  be  noted  that  although  the  wind  was  lighter  and  the 
funnel  lower  at  Dale  than  at  Mr.  Werth’s  factory,  the  air  was  enter- 
ing the  Dale  factory  nearlly  three  times  as  fast  as  it  was  in  the  one 
with  the  multiple  duct,  showing  that  the  multiple  duct  was  not  as 
effective  in  that  way. 

In  the  same  way  placing  the  funnel  at  a high  elevation  so  as  to  take 
advantage  of  the  stronger  wind  currents  which  usually  prevail  there, 
is  in  the  right  direction  so  far  as  wind  velocity  is  concerned,  but,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  high  vertical  shaft  carrying  the  funnel,  with  the 
sun  shining  on  its  walls,  tends  to  act  like  a chimney  and  create  a draft 
in  the  opposite  direction,  and  when  the  wind  is  light  on  a warm  day 


Bulletin  No.  70. 


23 


may  actually  reverse  the  draft,  as  we  found  to  be  the  case  part  of  the 
time  at  Mr.  Wallace’s  factory,  and  as  was  nearly  the  case  at  Mr.  Werth’s 
factory. 

Whenever  the  draft  through  the  funnel  is  reversed  warm  air  is  being 
sucked  into  the  curing  room  and  the  funnel  is  then  doing  positive 
injury,  and  it  is  very  important  that  provision  be  made  for  closing 
closely  the  duct  at  such  times. 

Another  point  must  be  kept  in  mind  in  constructing  the  horizontal 
multiple  duct.  Only  the  lower  lines  of  tile  have  the  greatest  cooling 
effect,  because  these  are  in  closest  contact  with  the  coldest  soil.  The 


Fig.  10.— Showing  the  variation  of  wind  velocity  during  the  different  hours  in  the 
day.  The  upper  curve  shows  the  number  of  miles  of  wind,  and  the  lower, 
the  work  this  wind  did  on  a wind  mill  pumping  water,  and  indicates  how 
little  wind  would  be  available  for  night  ventilation. 

lines  of  tile  above  the  bottom  are  nearly  cut  off  from  the  cold  ground 
below  by  the  air  spaces  formed  by  the  lower  lines  of  tile,  and  the  soil 
above  them  is  relatively  warm  both  from  the  heat  brought  in  by  the 
air  and  that  coming  down  from  above. 

Instead,  therefore,  of  using  thirteen  lines  of  6-inch  tile  in  two  or 
three  tiers  one  above  the  other,  a single  row  of  larger  tile  is  likely  to 
give  as  cool  air  and  not  to  impede  the  flow  of  air  so  much.  I should 
recommend  therefore  for  the  horizontal  sub-earth  duct  12  feet  below 
the  surface  either  three  rows  of  10-inch  drain  tile  or  five  rows  of  8-inch 
tile  100  feet  long.  The  relative  cost  of  the  three  sizes  would  be  about 


as  follows: 

1,300  ft.  6-in.  tile  at  3c $39.00 

500  ft.  8-in.  tile  at  5c 25.00 

300  ft.  10-in.  tile  at  7.5c . 22.50 


24 


Bulletin  No.  70. 


If  the  digging  is  done  by  hand  and  it  is  not  desired  to  remove  so< 
much  dirt,  then  the  trench  may  be  dug  narrower  and  a foot  or  two* 
deeper  and  the  tile  placed  one  above  the  other.  As  each  line  of  tile  ; 
will  be  in  direct  contact  with  the  cold  earth  on  both  sides,  an  even 
better  effect  will  be  produced  than  where  the  tile  lie  side  by  side  at 
a higher  level. 


The  shaft  for  carrying  the  funnel  need  not  be  larger  than  12  inches 


Fig.  11.— Showing  how  funnel' and  vane  may  be  mounted.  A,  funnel;  B,  shaft  of 
funnel;  C,  C,  C,  l-inch  gas  pipe;  D,  D,  1%-inch  gas  pipe;  E,  cap  for  support 
of  1-inch  gas  pipe  ; F,  G,  H,  and  M M and  N N are  stays  of  band  Iron  bolted 
together  and  to  the  sides  of  the  shaft  to  support  the  axis’  of  the  funnel;  J, 
weather  collar  to  turn  rain  out  of  shaft.  K,  L,  band-iron  to  stiffen  vane  and 
attach  it  to  funnel. 

square  inside  if  made  from  plank,  or  12  inches  in  diameter  if  made 
of  galvanized  iron.  Fifty  feet  in  height  is  likely  to  be  as  high  as  it  is 
best  to  carry  it,  unless  there  are  obstructions  to  the  wind  which  are 
in  the  way. 

It  is  very  important  that  the  shaft  be  perfectly  tight,  so  as  not  to 
leak  air,  and  for  this  reason  a shaft  made  from  No.  16  or  No.  18  iron, 
with  the  joints  riveted,  is  likely  to  give  better  service  and  be  more 


Bulletin  No.  70. 


25 

durable  than  one  made  of  plank,  though  it  would  cost  more.  The 
construction  and  mounting  of  the  funnel  is  represented  and  described 
in  Fig.  11. 

COOLING  CURING  ROOM  WITH  AIR  FORCED  THROUGH  DEEP  VERTI- 
CAL SUB-EARTH  DUCTS. 

In  view  of  the  fact  that  the  lowest  available  temperature  for  cooling 
air  is  not  secured  until  the  depths  of  20  to  70  or  80  feet  are  reached,  it 
follows  that  vertical  ducts  of  less  length  will  do  as  much  service  as 
longer  ones  placed  nearer  the  surface.  As  less  piping  will  be  required, 
the  friction  to  be  overcome  will  also  be  less,  and  hence  a current 
secured  in  lighter  winds. 

If  water  is  far  enough  from  the  surface  the  vertical  duct  should 
have  a depth  of  not  less  than  25  to  30  feet,  and  should  be  made  as  rep- 
resented and  described  under  Fig.  12. 

Thirteen  lines  of  6-inch  drain  tile  or  5 inch  galvanized  iron  con- 
ductor pipe  may  be  used  and  placed  as  represented  in  the  cut.  By  this 
arrangement  it  will  be  seen  that  each  air  duct  has  an  equal  advantage 
and  is  placed  against  the  coldest  earth,  while  the  air  in  passing  down 
the  central  duct  will  also  be  cooled  some. 

An  ordinary  open  well  would  be  dug  large  enough  to  receive  the 
duct,  and  then  filled  in,  with  the  earth  removed,  when  the  duct  was 
in  place. 

The  place  for  the  duct  would  be  close  to  the  north  end  of  the  curing 
room  outside,  or  else  directly  beneath  it,  as  represented  in  the  draw- 
ing. From  the  results  which  Mr.  Steinwahn  has  secured  with  his  well, 
as  described  on  page  12,  I believe  that  this  form  of  duct  will  be  found 
more  serviceable  than  the  open  well  and  more  effective  than  the  much 
longer  horizontal  ducts  which  have  been  built. 

If  drain  tile  are  used  for  the  duct  below  ground  they  would  be 
placed  by  a man  working  on  a hanging  platform  just  above  the  ends 
of  the  tile,  and  these  would  be  placed  and  the  earth  carefully  packed 
in  around  them  one  length  at  a time,  care  being  taken  to  prevent  earth 
from  falling  in  the  tile.  If  conductor  pipe  were  used  for  the  small 
air  flues  and  galvanized  iron  for  the  central  air  shaft,  then  these  could 
be  made  in  10-foot  lengths  and  put  in  place  from  a hanging  platform 
in  the  same  way  as  described  for  the  tile. 

COOLING  THE  SOIL  FOR  SHORT  DUCTS. 

Where  it  is  not  practicable  to  go  deeper  than  15  to  20  feet  without 
striking  water  the  same  form  of  construction  may  be  adopted  as  just 
described,  and  then  if  the  soil  is  not  open  and  porous,  sandy  soil  or 
fine  sand  may  be  used  to  fill  in  the  well  around  the  air  flues,  and  then 
once  a week,  or  oftener  if  needed,  cold  water  from  the  well  may  be 
pumped  onto  the  sandy  soil  about  the  flues  and  allowed  to  percolate 


26 


Bulletin  No.  70. 


Fig.  12. — Showing  vertical  sub-earth  duct.  A,  brick  chamber  25  to  30  feet  below 
surface  and  40  inches  inside  diameter;  B,  tile  or  conductor  pipe  of  galvanized 
iron  ; C,  main  shaft  of  funnel ; D,  brick  chamber  at  upper  end  of  duct.  The 
circle  and  section  represent  a cast  iron  plate  to  cover  brick  chamber  A,  and 
can  be  had  of  King  & Walker,  Madison,  Wis. 


down  through  it  to  lower  the  temperature  so  as  to  give  the  cooling  ef- 
fect desired. 

Under  these  conditions  I would  recommend  the  galvanized  iron  flues 
instead  of  drain  tile  to  avoid  percolation  of  water  into  them. 

The  bottom  of  the  duct  should  stop  not  less  than  four  feet  above 


Bulletin  No.  70 . 


27 


standing  water  in  the  ground,  so  that  there  will  be  abundant  drainage 
at  the  lower  end  of  the  flues. 

The  application  of  three  or  four  barrels  of  water  once  a week  is 
likely  to  be  all  that  will  be  required  to  hold  the  temperature  of  the 
surface  soil  down  to  an  effective  degree.  This  water  can  be  carried  by 
hose  directly  from  the  well,  or  a pipe  may  be  laid  permanently  leading 
from  the  well  to  the  duct. 

■COOLING  AIR  OF  CURING  ROOM  BY  FORCING  IT  THROUGH  COLD 

WATER. 


Where  the  ground  water  is  still  closer  to  the  surface,  so  that  a ver- 
tical duct  could  not  be  placed  deeper  than  12  to  15  feet,  then  it  would 
ISe  practicable  to  build  a well-shaped  cistern  about  5 or  6 feet  in  diam- 


Fig.  13.  Showing  method  of  cooling  air  with  cold  water.  A,  curing  room;  B, 
duct  leading  into  curing  room;  C,  L,  galvanized  iron  drums,  air  and  water 
tight;  F,  thirteen  or  more  5-inch  flues  of  galvanized  iron,  10  ft.  long,  soldered 
water-tight  to  drums  to  cool  air;  D,  main  air  duct  from  funnel;  G,  water 
pipe  from  pump;  H,  over-flow  pipe;  I,  damper  in  main  shaft;  J,  4-inch  pipe 
leading  from  blower  to  use  when  there  is  no  wind;  K,  smoke  stack  of  boiler; 
L,  ventilator  from  curing  room  to  smoke  stack;  N,  boiler. 


28 


Bulletin  No.  70. 


eter,  plastering  it  with  cement  after  the  manner  of  ordinary  cisterns- 
In  this  could  be  placed  an  air  duct  made  of  galvanized  iron,  as  repre- 
sented and  described  under  Fig.  13.  The  duct  should  be  water  tight, 
and  when  the  cistern  was  filled  with  cold  water  from  the  well  the  cold 
water  would  be  the  best  possible  medium  for  keeping  the  walls  of  the 
duct  cold,  and  so  of  cooling  the  air. 

At  the  same  time  the  water  in  connection  with  the  w&.lls  of  the 
cistern  provides  the  best  possible  means  of  utilizing  the  cooling  power 
of  the  ground  itself  at  that  depth. 

By  connecting  the  cistern  with  the  well,  as  shown  in  the  figure, 
fresh  water  may  be  added  and  the  Warmer  water  at  the  top  allowed 
to  flow  away  from  time  to  time,  if  it  is  found  that  the  air  is  coming 
into  the  curing  room  too  warm.  The  best  place  to  locate  this  system 
would  be  under  the  curing  room,  or  else  close  to  the  north  end  outside, 
and  I believe  it  is  likely  to  prove  quite  efficient  if  the  air-ducts  do  not 
have  a length  under  water  less  than  10  feet. 

REGULATION  OF  THE  VOLUME  OF  THE  AIR  ENTERING  THE  CURING 

ROOM. 

It  is  quite  important  to  provide  a means  for  diminishing  the  amount 
of  air  entering  the  curing  room  through  the  cooling  duct,  whatever 
form  may  be  used,  because  it  will  often  happen  in  strong  winds  that 
the  air  may  enter  too  rapidly  so  as  to  leave  the  temperature  too  high 
or  the  humidity  too  low.  The  inlet  into  the  curing  room  should 
therefore  be  provided  with  some  arrangement  of  valves  which  will 
permit  the  air  to  be  wholly  or  partly  shut  off  at  will,  and  the  ordinary 
house  register  with  valves  may  be  employed  as  one  means.  If  it  is 
found  that  the  air  is  coming  too  warm  the  current  should  be  partly 
shut  off  so  that  the  air  will  come  more  slowly  through  the  duct  and 
be  more  thoroughly  cooled. 

REGULATION  OF  THE  MOISTURE  IN  THE  CURING  ROOM. 

Where  the  curing  room  is  in  a cellar  or  well  constructed  basement- 
it  occasionally  happens  that  the  air  outside  will  be  sufficiently  moist,, 
so  that  when  cooled  by  the  low  temperature  of  the  curing  room  the 
air  will  become  completely  saturated,  and  if  several  days  of  this  sort 
occur  in  succession  cheese  may  mould.  This,  however,  may  be  nearly 
if  not  entirely  counteracted  by  forcing  in  fresh  air  from  outside  in> 
larger  volumes.  To  do  this  it  will  only  be  necessary  to  provide  a 
funnel  such  as  is  used  on  the  cold  air  ducts,  but  smaller  and  rising 
perhaps  10  feet  above  the  ridge  of  the  factory.  The  pipe  need  not  be 
larger  than  8 inches  and  should  be  provided  with  a close  fitting  cap 
at  the  lower  end  so  as  to  effectively  close  it  when  its  service  is  not 
desired.  There  must  of  course  be  a regular  ventilator  provided  rising 
above  the  roof  through  which  the  air  may  escape  as  the  other  air  is 


Bulletin  No.  70. 


29 


forced  in.  This  ventilator  should  also  be  provided  with  a damper,  so 
as  to  regulate  the  movement  of  air  through  it.  The  diameter  of  the 
ventilator  need  not  be  greater  than  8 inches. 

In  the  above-ground  curing  rooms  it  will  seldom  happen  that  the 
air  will  become  fully  saturated  and  remain  so  for  any  length  of  time. 
The  reason  of  this  is  to  be  found  in  the  fact  that  if  the  air  is  nearly 
saturated  with  water  outside  it  cannot  pass  through  the  cooling  duct 
and  have  its  temperature  lowered  without  at  the  same  time  losing 
some  of  its  moisture  by  condensation  on  the  walls  of  the  duct,  and  then 
when  the  air  enters  the  curing  room,  if  the  temperature  rises  at  all, 
as  it  is  almost  certain  to  do,  this  rise  will  leave  the  air  dryer  than 
complete  saturation.  The  general  tendency  therefore  is  for  the  above- 
ground curing  rooms  to  be  dryer  than  the  underground  ones,  because 
the  cooling  of  the  air  in  the  underground  room  is  effected  in  the  room 
itself,  thus  making  it  possible  to  bring  in  air  from  outside  not 
quite  saturated  and  rendering  it  completely  so  by  cooling  a few  de- 
grees. What  is  required  here  is  a large  movement  of  air  through  the 
room. 

PROVISIONS  FOR  FORCING  AIR  CURRENTS  INTO  CURING  ROOMS. 

Where  the  factory  is  provided  with  an  engine,  and  where  the  cold  air 
duct  is  close  to  the  building,  it  is  a simple  matter,  involving  but  a small 
expense,  to  arrange  a small  blower  so  that  air  may  be  driven  into  the 
intake  of  the  cold  air  duct,  as  represented  and-explained  under  Fig.  13. 
A small  16-inch  blower  connected  with  a 4-inch  pipe  will  supply  an 
abundance  of  air,  and  its  use  for  a few  hours  on  hot,  sultry  days  when 
the  funnel  will  not  work  wrould  greatly  improve  conditions,  and  per- 
haps effectually  prevent  a large  amount  of  cheese  from  becoming  seri- 
ously injured. 

DANGER  FROM  SUB-EARTH  DUCTS  FROM  WINTER  FREEZING. 

Where  sub-earth  ducts  are  made  of  drain  tile  there  will  be  great 
danger  of  the  ducts  crumbling  down  by  the  action  of  frost  if  the  cold 
winter  air  is  allowed  to  be  driven  through  them.  Frost  tends  to  peel 
off  thin  flakes  from  many  tile  until  they  are  entirely  destroyed,  and 
if  the  cold  winter  air  is  allowed  to  be  forced  through  the  tile  con- 
tinuously the  walls  would  be  certainly  frozen  at  times.  On  this 
account,  it  would  be  best  to  use  sewer  tile  or  metal  flues  if  the  extra 
•cost  could  be  borne. 

If  it  were  not  for  injury  to  the  tile  the  right  thing  to  do  would  be 
to  keep  a strong  current  of  air  going  through  the  sub-earth  duct  all 
winter  so  as  to  freeze  the  soil  and  cool  the  ground  deeply.  This  would 
make  the  ducts  much  more  effective  during  the  summer. 

Further  than  this  if  cheese  were  to  be  made  during  the  winter  the 
sub-earth  duct  would  become  available  for  helping  to  warm  the  curing 
iroom  in  that  season. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN. 


Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


BULLETIN  NO.  71. 


SUGAR  BEET  INVESTIGATIONS  IN  WISCONSIN 
DURING  1898. 


MADISON,  WISCONSIN,  FEBRUARY,  1899. 


EW~The  Bulletins  and  'Annual  Reports  of  this  Station  are  sent  free  to  all 
residents  of  this  State  upon  request. 


Democrat  Printing  Company,  State  Printer,  Madison,  Wis. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN 


AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 


BOARD  OF  REGENTS; 


STATE  SUPERINTENDENT  OF  PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION  ex  officio. 

PRESIDENT  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY  - - - - ex  officio. 

JOHN  JOHNSTON,  State  at  Large,  ......  President 

B.  J.  STEVENS,  (2d  District),  - - - Chairman  Executive  Committee 


State  at  Large, 
1st  District, 

3d  District, 

4th  District,  ■ 
5th  District, 
6th  District, 
7th  District, 
Stk  District, 

9th  District 
10th  District, 


WM.  F.  VILAS 
OGDEN  H.  FETHERS 
J.  E.  MORGAN 

- GEORGE  H.  NOYES 
- JOHN  R.  RIESS 

C.  A.  GALLOWAY 
BYRON  A.  BUFFINGTON 
- ORLANDO  E.  CLARK 

- J.  A.  VAN  CLEVE 

J.  H.  STOUT 


Secretary,  E.  F.  RILEY,  Madison. 

GEORGE  H NOYES,  Vice  President.  STATE  TREASURER,  Ex-Officio  Treasurer. 


Agricultural  Committee. 

Regents  CLARK,  STOUT,  FETHERS,  RIESS,  MORGAN  and  PRESIDENT  ADAMS. 


OFFICERS  OF  THE  STATION. 

THE  PRESIDENT  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY. 

W.  A.  HENRY, 

S.  M.  BABCOCK, 

F.  H.  KING,  - - ...  - 

E.  S.  GOFF,  - 


Director 
Chief  Chemist 
Physicist 
Horticulturist 


W.  L:  CARLYLE,  Animal  Husbandry 

F.  W.  WOLL,  ..........  Chemist 

H.  L.  RUSSELL,  ........  Bacteriologist 

E.  H.  FARRINGTON. Dairy  Husbandry 

J.  A.  JEFFERY,  - .....  Assistant  Physicist 

J.  W.  DECKER,  - Dairying 

ALFRED  VIVIA.N,  ........  Assistant  Chemist 

FRED  CRANEFIELD  - - - - - - Assistant  in  Horticulture 

LESLIE  H.  ADAMS,  -------  Farm  Superintendent 

IDA  HERFURTH,  .......  Clerk  and  Stenographer 

EFFIE  M.  CLOSE,  ........  Librarian 


FARMERS’  INSTITUTES. 

GEORGE  McKERROW,  - Superintendent 

HATTIE  V.  STOUT,  - *-  - - - . Clerk  and  Stenographer 

General  Offices  and  Departments  of  Agricultural  Chemistry,  Animal  Hus- 
bandry, Bacteriology,  Farmers’  Institutes  and  Library,  in  Agricultural  Hall, 
near  University  Hall,  on  Upper  Campus. 

Dairy  Building  and  joint  Horticultural-Physics  Building,  west  end  of  Obser- 
vatory Hill,  adjacent  to  Horticultural  Grounds  and  Experiment  Farm. 
Telephone  to  Station  Office,  Dairy  Building  and  Farm  Office. 


SUGAR  BEET  INVESTIGATIONS  IN  WISCONSIN 
DURING  1898. 


F.  W.  WOLL. 

The  investigations  of  problems  connected  with  the  culture  of  the 
sugar  beet  in  Wisconsin  which  have  been  conducted  by  this  Experiment 
Station  for  a number  of  years  past,  were  continued  during  the  season 
of  1898,  according  to  a similar  plan  as  in  previous  years.  This  bulle- 
tin presents  the  results  of  the  work  done  during  the  past  year.  In 
describing  this  work  we  shall  first  give  the  results  of  analyses  of 
sugar  beets  grown  in  different  parts  of  the  state  by  Wisconsin  farm- 
ers, and  shall  then  take  up  for  consideration  the  investigations  in 
sugar  beet  culture  conducted  at  our  Experiment  Station  farm. 

A.  ANALYSES  OF  BEETS  GROWN  BY  FARMERS  IN  DIFFERENT  PARTS  OF  THE 

STATE. 

Farmers  desirous  of  ascertaining  whether  their  land  is  adapted  to 
sugar  beet  culture  were,  on  application,  supplied  with  seed  for  trial 
purposes  in  the  spring  of  1898.  An  effort  was  made  last  year  to 
secure  the  co-operation  of  a limited  number  of  interested  farmers  in 
different  counties,  who  were  to  grow  about  half  an  acre  of  beets 
each,  and  keep  an  accurate  account  of  the  labor  done  and  the  yield 
obtained  from  the  plat;  on  account  of  the  method  of  distribution  fol- 
lowed in  previous  years,  seed  necessarily  fell  into  the  hands  of  many 
farmers  who  took  no  particular  interest  in  the  subject,  and  who  there- 
fore often  failed  to  give  the  beets  the  care  which  they  must  receive  in 
order  to  reach  the  standard  of  sugar  content  and  purity  demanded 
for  manufacturing  purposes.  The  amount  of  seed  supplied  to  each 
farmer  was  for  this  reason  considerably  larger  than  in  previous 
seasons,  viz.:  generally  10  pounds.  To  farmers  who  could  not  grow 
more  than  a small  patch  of  beets  one-pound  samples  were  sent  for 
trial  purposes.  Eighty-one  farmers  agreed  to  grow  half  an  acre  of 
beets  and  to  keep  account  of  the  labor  of  growing  the  crop  and  of 
the  yield  obtained.  Of  these,  seventy-one  in  the  fall  sent  for  analysis 
one  or  more  samples  of  the  beets  grown  by  them,  forty-three  of 


4 


Bulletin  No.  71. 


whom  also  furnished  more  or  less  complete  detailed  reports;  ten  par- 
ties were  prevented  from  doing  the  work  planned  for  various  reasons. 
In  addition,  forty-seven  farmers  were  supplied  with  pound  samples 
of  seed,  thirty-one  of  whom  forwarded  one  or  more  samples  of  beets 
each  for  analysis  in  the  fall. 

Character  of  the  season  — The  season  of  1898  was  on  the  whole 
very  favorable  in  this  state  for  all  crops.  The  Department  of  Agri- 
culture in  its  crop  circular  for  November,  1898,  gives  the  following 
average  data  for  crops  in  Wisconsin,  November  1st,  1898:  Corn,  average 
condition,  94;  tobacco,  99;  potatoes,  94;  sorghum,  91;  hay,  97;  buckwheat; 
92.  The  main  characteristics  of  the  weather  conditions  during  the  season 
are  given  in  the  following  summaries  (condensed  from  Climate  and  Crops, 
Wisconsin  Section;  W.  M.  Wilson,  Section  Director,  Milwaukee,  Wiscon- 
sin): 

May,  precipitation  somewhat  below  normal,  but  rains  were  well  dis- 
tributed over  the  whole  state;  temperature  nearly  normal;  early 
part  of  the  month  cold  and  frosts  occurred  frequently,  especially  in 
western  and  northern  counties;  temperature  during  second  half  of 
the  month  above  normal.  June,  weather  conditions  during  the  whole 
month  very  favorable;  the  rains  were  well  distributed  throughout  the 
month  so  that  the  soil  was  kept  in  constant  moist  condition;  the  pre- 
cipitation for  the  month  slightly  below  normal;  temperature  about 
normal,  with  unusual  freedom  from  marked  or  sudden  changes.  July, 
there  was  a marked  deficiency  in  rainfall  in  the  western  and  north- 
western counties,  while  in  central  and  southern  counties  the  rainfall 
was  slightly  in  excess  of  normal:  Ihe  early  part  of  the  month  cool, 
but  the  mean  temperature  for  the  month  was  but  slightly  below 
normal.  August,  rainfall  half  an  inch  above  normal;  temperature 
normal;  distribution  of  rain  very  good,  somewhat  lighter  in  northern 
section  than  in  other  portions  of  the  state.  September,  precipitation 
nearly  an  inch  below  normal;  from  9-13th,  16-22d  and  24-29th,  there 
was  practically  no  rainfall  over  the  entire  state;  temperature  1.4 
degrees  above  normal;  high  temperature  during  first  week  and  to- 
ward the  end  of  the  month;  frosts  occurred  in  the  northern  section 
during  the  first  two  weeks  and  light  frosts  in  the  middle  and  south 
section.  October,  precipitation  two  inches  in  excess  of  October  nor- 
mal; the  month  was  remarkable  for  the  number  of  days  on  which 
rain  fell  and  the  amount  of  cloudiness  as  well  as  excessive  rainfall; 
heavy  and  very  general  rains  occurred  on  the  10th,  12th  and  13th; 
from  the  16th  to  the  end  of  the  month  frequent,  and  in  some  locali- 
ties, heavy  rains  occurred.  Temperature  slightly  below  normal;  the 
month  opened  warm,  but  during  the  middle  and  latter  half  the  tem- 
perature conditions  were  very  equable. 

The  following  table  gives  the  precipitation  from  May  to  October, 
inclusive,  for  37  weather  stations  in  different  parts  of  the  state  and 


Sugar  Beet  Investigations,  1898, 


5 


a few  stations  near  the  state  line;  the  total  precipitation  for  these 
stations  and  average  data  for  the  whole  state  are  alos  presented.  It 
will  be  seen  that  the  precipitation  for  the  state  was  somewhat  above 
normal  and  the  mean  temperature  was  practically  normal;  the  pre- 
cipitation was  well  distributed  over  the  whole  state;  as  far  as  known 
the  only  counties  of  the  portions  from  which  beet  samples  were 
received  for  analysis  that  did  not  get  a good  supply  of  rain  during 
the  growing  season  were  some  of  the  central  western  and  the  north- 
ern counties,  notably  Eau  Claire  and  Forest  counties. 


Precipitation , May  to  October , 1898 , in  inches. 


Name  of  Station. 

County. 

Elevation, 

feet. 

May 

June 

July 

% 

Aug. 

j Sept. 

Oct. 

Total 

1,400 

1.27 

1. 115 

4.40 

2.27 

1.90 

2.51 

.98 

4.64 

16.70 

616 

3 13 

3 60 

3.16 

2.65 

3.07 

4 04 

19  65 

1, 100 

4.85 

6.00 

1.59 

2.67 

1.90 

5.30 

22.31 

Chilton 

Calumet 

926 

3 50 

( 2.02 

*j . 78 

1.85 

2.12 

Neilsville 

Clark  

600 

1.58 

3.15 

'2^84 

3.33 

1 .35 

4.79 

17.04 

Portage 

Columbia 

809 

2 70 

2.72 

2 18 

4.53 

1.79 

3.27 

17  19 

Prairie  du  Chien. .. 

Crawford 

690 

2.03 

2.26 

3.25 

1 83 

1.86 

3.90 

15.13 

Madison  

Dane 

955 

4.7k 

| 4.4' 

2.88 

2.56 

2.43 

3.08 

20  01 

Duluth,  Minn 

Douglas 

831 

3 30 

3.52 

1.33 

3.39 

1.21 

3.39 

16.14 

Knapo  

Dunn 

2.67 

4.86 

2.11 

3.55 

.69 

4 45 

18.33 

Eau  Claire 

Eau  Claire 

600 

1 96 

1.50 

1.27 

.23 

.37 

5.13 

10  46 

North  Crandon 

Forest 

1, 10J 

1 40 

1.55 

2.65 

.45 

.96 

1.34 

8.35 

Lancaster  . 

Grant 

1,070 

3.30 

4 18 

4.90 

2.51 

2.48 

3.61 

20  98 

Dodgeville 

Iowa  

1,116 

5.30 

5 91 

2.70 

4.98 

2.31 

4.52 

25.72 

Watertown 

Jefferson .-.  . . 

4.32 

4.63 

3.08 

2 64 

1 75 

4.20 

20.62 

Lincoln  

Kewaunee 

817i 

3.28 

3 78 

3 03 

2.94 

3.35 

4 02 

20  45 

La  Crosse  

La  Crosse 

714 

1 10 

2.13 

1.75 

3.25 

1.64 

4.53 

14.40 

Heafford  Junction.. 

Lincoln 

1.91 

5.28 

2.76 

1.44 

2 75 

3.12 

17.26 

Manitowoe 

Manitowoc 

616 

2.86 

2 15 

2.63 

2.46 

2.81 

4.61 

17  52 

Wausau  

Marathon 

1,212 

2 55 

2.07 

4.04 

3.91 

2.19 

5.64 

20.43 

Westfield 

M a rqnette  . . . , . 

925 

1.60 

3.11 

5 8!) 

3.18 

1.25 

2.52 

17.55 

Milwaukee 

Milwaukee 

673 

1.65 

2 44 

3.28 

4.86 

1 .98 

4.38 

18.59 

Valley  Junction  .'. .. 

Monroe 

1 95 

3.88 

3.27 

2.66 

2 9s 

4.74 

19.48 

Oconto 

Oconto 

590 

4 . 37 

2.79 

2.81 

3.39 

2.35 

4.12 

19.83 

New  London 

Outagamie 

762 

3 11 

2.78 

4.73 

3.29 

2 . 67 

3.50 

20  11 

Port  Washington  . . . 

Ozaukee 

717 

2 63 

2.41 

2 . 25 

2.74 

2.07 

4.05 

16.20 

Prentice  

Price  

4.32 

4.97 

2.20 

1.66 

1.79 

4.27 

19.21 

Racine  

Racine 

' 633 

1.81 

2.44 

3 24 

3.20 

2.90 

3.13 

16.72 

Beloit  . . 

Rock , 

750 

3 45 

9 70 

4 79 

5.13 

2 31 

2 44 

27.82 

St.  Paul,  Minn 

St.Croix 

831 

3:loi 

2.71 

1.94 

3.93 

.90 

5^81 

18^69 

White  Mound 

Sauk 

3 . 85 1 

3.10 

6 02 

1.02 

Whitehall  

Trempealeau  .... 

675 

2.00 

"2‘.  90 

3.40 

3.10 

2.40 

5.80 

19.60 

Delavan  

W alworth 

920 

2.77 

6.21 

2.59 

4.58 

2.80 

4.55 

23.50 

Hartford  City 

Washington 

1,017 

3.66 

4.40 

2.31 

2 07 

1.19 

4.99 

18.62 

Waukesha  .... 

Waukesha 

970 

1.92 

1.51 

2.81 

4.08 

1.55 

4 10, 

16.00 

Oshkosh  

Winnebaer* 

741 

3 50 

Averaee  for  state  

2.84 

3.88 

2.87 

3.20 

2 . OOj 

4 01! 

18  80 

Normal  for  state 

3.69 

3.99 

2.66 

2.62 

2.951 

2.19 

18.10 

No  rainy  days  for  state 

8 

9 

6 

6 

10  | 

Mean  temperature  for  state 

55.7 

66  i 7 

70.7 

67.3 

62.4 

45.2  ! 

61.3 

Normal  temperature  for  state 

55.7 

66.4 

70.2 

67.4 

61.0 

46.5 

61.2 

Results  of  Analyses. — The  samples  of  beets  analyzed  under  this  head 


p numbered  253,  102  of  which  were  taken  about  a month  prior  to  har- 
vest, and  151  at  harvesting  time.  The  samples  were  furnished  by  121 
different  farmers,  located  in  56  different  counties.  The  results  of  the 
analyses,  arranged  according  to  counties,  are  given  on  the  following 
pages.  The  Eoman  figures  given  under  Kind  of  seed  refer  to  the  num- 
bers in  the  table  on  p.  16: 


6 


Bulletin  No.  71, 


Results  of  analyses 


a 

o 

Name. 

1 6 

117-32* 

Ashland  Co. 
Angustine,  R.  G. . 

212 

Sib 

329 

Barron  Co. 

Taylor,  C.  S 

Skabo,  T.  G 

Skabo,  T.  G- . 

55-179 

128 

129 

130 
299 

Brown  Co 
Langenberg,  A... 
Larson,  Wm„  & O 
Larson,  Wm.,  & f> 
Larson,  Wm.,  & C< 
Larson,  Wm.,  & O 

51 

171 

118-346 

Radinz,  Clias 

Radlnz,  (Jfias  . 
Van  Beek,  M 

111-348 

324 

Burnett  Co. 
Cornelison,  A ... 
Hedlund,  L.  G.  . 

113 

Calumet  Co. 
Storm,  D.  H . . . . 

114 

Storm,  D.  H 

119-321 

Chippewa  Co. 
Thomas,  J.  W 

97-349 

Brainerd,  F.  N.  .. 

162 

163 

161 

176 

74- 196 

75- 195 
310 

99-222 

100-221 

101-220 

Clark  Co. 
Bartchie,  Jack . . . 

Baxter,  Chas  

Heyndricks,  Geo. 
Sollberger,  John  . 

Mabie,  J.  C 

Mabie,  J C 

Riemer,  L.  J. . . ; . 

Keppert,  Jos 

Keppert,  Jos 

Keppert,  Jos 

355 

183 

Columbia  Co. 

Montross,  S 

Richardson,  R.  D. 

61 

62-264 

59 

108 

Crawford  Co. 
Fliicke,  Joseph... 
Fliicke,  Joseph 
Davidson,  J.  O. . . 
Peterson,  Ever... 

98-265 

121 

199 

69-308 

7.0-309 

Dane  Co. 
Cowles,  S.  E.  . 

Cowles,  S.  E 

Story,  J.  E 

Johnson,  G.  K. 
Johnson,  G.  K 

60-332 

73-33 

64-210 

Dodge  Co. 
Elkinton,  W H... 
Elkinton,  W.  H... 
Kube,  Wm 

First  Sample. 

Date 

Character 

Post  office. 

sown. 

of  soil. 

Gr’w- 

ing 

pe 

riod. 

Wt. 

Sug’r 

Pur- 

of 

be’ts. 

in 

juice. 

ity  of 
juice. 

Days. 

Lbs 

Pr.ct 

Pr.ct. 

Glidden 

June  2 

Sandy  loam. 

113 

.8 

17.16 

84.3 

Barron  ....... 

May  20 
May  17 
May  17 

Clay  loam . . 
Sandy  loam. 
Sandy  loam 

155 

.8 

13.94 

\ 

70.0 

Chetek 

Chetek 

Green  Bay 

May  17 

Black  loam. 

123 

1.7 

15.63 

84  0 

Green  Bay 

May  10 

Clay 

2 1 

12  99 

76.8 

Green  Bay  . . . 

Green  Bay 

Green  Bay  . . 

May  10 
May  10 
May  15 

Clay  

2.0 

14.24 

4 

Clay ■ . . 

3.3 

12.22 

7L9 

Mixed  clay 

and  sand  . 

2 0 

15.29 

77  6 

Green  Bay 

Green  Bay  . . . 
Green  Bay 

May  10 
May  10 
June  3 

Black  sand. . 
Black  sand . . 

143 

2.1 

17.36 

87.0 

Black  sand . . 

11; 

1.5 

13.91 

79.5 

Aaron 

May  10 
May  15 

Sandy  loam. 
Black  loam. 

130 

1.3 

14  29 

77.3 

Trade  Lake. 

* 

- ; 







Stockbridge  .. 

June  2 

Clay  loam 

Cold) 

Stockbridge  .. 

June  £ 

Clay  loam 

(new) 



Anson 

May  16 

Sand  and 

clay  loam . 

139 

.8 

17.1  > 

78.2 

Appolonia 

May  25 

Black  loam. 

122 

.6 

15.98 

82.0 

Columbia 

VTay  27 
May  28 
May  27 
May  22 

Sandy  loam. 
Sandy  loam. 
Sandy  loam. 
Light  clay . . 

Columbia. 

Columbia 

Columbia 

Gieenwood  . . . 

May  23 

Clay  loam. . . 

119 

"Li 

isieo 

82^8 

Greenwood  . . . 

May  2-s 

Clay  loam  . 

119 

1.0 

15.44 

80.1 

Greenwood  . . . 

May  12 
May  4 

Dark  loam. . 

Spencer 

Clay  loam. . . 

143 

.9 

16.59 

77.3 

Spencer 

May  4 
May  4 

Clay  loam. . . 
Clay  loam. . . 

143 

16.90 

79.5 

Spencer  

143 

1 4 

14  09 

73.0 

Fa  rr’s  Corners 

June  10 

Prairie  loam 

Lodi  . . 

May  16 

Clay 

Pr.  du  Chien . . 

May  23 

Prairie  sand. 

121 

.6 

13  92 

85.9 

Pr.  du  Chien 

May  23 

Prairie  sand. 

121 

1.0 

13.68 

81.3 

Soldiers’Grove 

May  5 

Sandy  loam. 

137 

1.9 

10.68 

77.3 

Soldiers’Grove 

June  12 

Black  loam 

108 

2.4 

11.26 

74  1 

Dnn 

May  10 
May  10 

Prairie  loam. 
Prairie  loam 

13 

2 1 

13.86 

13.61 

75.2 

Dane 

2.4 

77.1 

Oregon 

May  14 

Clav 

Stoughton  . . . 
Stoughton  . . . 

May  U 
May  12 

Black 

Black  

132 

13. 

1.6 

1.9 

12.’  20 
14.56 

73  9 
82.1 

Brownsville. . . 

May  23 

Clay  loam. . . 

120 

.6 

12.35 

72.7 

Brownsvi  le. . . 

May  23 

Clay  loam. . . 

120 

.5 

13.48 

72.5 

Richwo-d — 

May  9 

Clay  loam  . . 

135 

7 

14.84 

81.6 

* 117,  first  sample ; 323,  second  sample. 


7 


Sugar  Beet  Investigations,  1898. 


of  sugar  beets , 1898. 


Se 

Gr’w 

ing 

pe- 

riod. 

COND 

Wt. 

or 

be'ts. 

Sampl 

Sug’T" 

in 

juice. 

e. 

Pur- 
ity of 
juice. 

Es- 

tim. 

yield 

per 

acre. 

Manure, 
if  any . 

Kind  of 
seed. 

Character  of 
season. 

Remarks. 

Station 

No. 

Days. 

Lbs. 

Pr.ct. 

Pr.ct. 

Tons. 

150 

l.( 

15. 6£ 

77.4 

None  .... 

V 

Very  unfav. . . 

117-323 

I 

Very  unfav 

212 

156 

1.4 

14.00 

77.5 

5.0 

None 

XIII 

Only  half  stand 

328 

lt/J 

1.2 

14  21 

87.2 

None 

XIII 

Only  half  stand 

329 

158 

■ 

2.0 

16.28 

88.3 

16.5 

In  ’96 

V 

Dry 

55-179 

Favorable  ... 

128 

Favorable. . . . 

129 

V 

Favorable 

130 

Favorable.  . 

9QQ 

In  ’96  ... 

X 

Dry.. 

*1 

171 

2.2 

15.97 

83.5 

15.2 

In  ’96 

X 

Dry 

Ol 

171 

146 

1.6 

14  69 

'79.5 

15.3 

In  ’96 

IX 

Very  fav 

118-346 

164 

1.2 

15.82 

76.4 

7.9 

VI 

Unfavorable. . 

111-348 

148 

1.0 

10.83 

69.2 

XIII 

Fairly  fav 

324 

113 

.5 

21  57 

82.8 

7.4 

None 

V 

Unfavorable . . 

Wilted. 

113 

112 

.7 

21.06 

84.3 

10.9 

None 

V 

Unfavorable.. 

114 

163 

.9 

16.85 

82.1 

11.4 

None 

I 

Unfavorable. . 

119-321 

163 

1.5 

15.32 

73.5 

6 5 

Barnyard . 

V 

Very  unfav. . . 

97-349 

135 

.8 

14.65 

76  5 

XIII 

Fair 

162 

143 

1.5 

13.79 

72.4 

XIII 

Fair 

163 

120 

1.3 

17.66 

82  5 

XIII 

Fair 

161 

150 

1.1 

14  52 

83.7 

XIII 

Fair 

176 

157 

1.0 

15.12 

76.3 

13  7 

Stable. 

VI 

Very  wet 

Not  limed 

74-196 

157 

, 7 

18.08 

84.4 

Stable 

VI 

Very  wet 

Limed  . 

75-195 

155 

1.5 

19.77 

83.1 

13-.6 

None 

Fair 

310 

1?7 

1.5 

15.  8 

77.8 

I 

Unfavorable 

Not  limed 

99  -222 

177 

1.2 

16.13 

81  8 

I 

Unfavorable. . 

Limed 

100-221 

177 

1 0 

13.44 

66.4 

*24  0 

V 

101-220 

138 

1.1 

11  50 

65.0 

None 

I 

Raioy 

355 

159 

2.3 

17.66 

82.2 

VI 

Unfavorable 

183 

Stable 

v 

Very  unfav 

fii 

157 

1.3 

18.61 

82  5 

’ 8.0 

Stable. . . 

V 

Very  unfav. . . 

Oi 

62-264 

None. . 

I 

Very  fa,v 

RQ 

I 

Favorable 

OJ 

108 

175 

2.6 

11.97. 

73.8 

14.5 

Stable 

IX 

Unfavorable 

98-265 

x 

TJ  * 1 1 avorable 

191 

167 

1 .5 

14  2i 

82.6 

20.0 

None 

Rainy. . . 

l«il 

199 

177 

2.1 

11.15 

65.2 

10.5 

None 

V 

Good 

69-308 

177 

1.7 

12.97 

70  5 

None 

I 

Good 

70-309 

148 

1.0 

15.54 

76.2 

15.5 

None 

IX 

Unfavorable 

60-332 

1 149 

.8 

13  85 

75  3 

None 

X 

Unfavorable. 

73-311 

175 

1.6 

18.18 

83.9 

’ 19*8 

Stable 

IX 

Favorable 

64-210 

— 

8 


Bulletin  No.  71. 


Results  of  analyses 


‘ 

Date 

Character 

First  Sample. 

Post  office. 

a 

o 

Name. 

sown. 

of  soil. 

Gr’w- 

Wt. 

Sug’r 

Pur- 

+3 

6 

ing 

pe- 

riod. 

of 

in 

ity  of 

SJz; 

be’ts. 

juice. 

juice. 

Door  Co. 

Days. 

Lbs. 

Pr.ct. 

Pr.ct. 

148-226 

96-345 

Eickelberg,  Wm. .. 

May  15 
May  15 

Sandy  loam. 
Sandy  loam. 

149 

1.6 

13.88 

71.8 

75.8 

Tornado  

121 

1.8 

15.13 

166 

68-300 

Douglas  Co. 

Fox boro . . 

June  5 

Sandy  loam. 
Clay  loam. . 

Nelsjn,  0.  M 

So.  Superior.. 

May  3 

140 

.8 

16.86 

88.9 

Dunn  Co. 

54 

103-180 

205 

Wang  F,  C 

May  23 
May  10 
June  15 

Light  clay . . 
Light  loam. 
Sandy  loam. 
Loam 

119 

1.0 

16.82 

82  3 

Colburn.  J.  0 

Knapp  

138 

1.2 

14.90 

79.8 

Menomonie  „ . 

82-193 

Menomonie . . . 

May  6 

137 

' "i.'8 

14.93 

73.8 

Forest  Co. 

131 
* * 

Shaw,  S 

Crandon  

June  3 

Clay  loam.. . 

118 

.8 

14.16 

79.0 

1.3 

11.18 

69.8 

283 

Green  Lake  Co. 

Berlin 

May  10 

Black  prai’ie 

Iowa  Co. 

188 

Woolrich,  G.  W.. . . 

Mineral  Point. 

June  4 

Clay  loam. . 

( 

320 

132-354 

Jackson  Co. 
Gansel  C T. . 

Alma  Center. . 

June  18 

Black  lo’am. 

— 

Merrill,  N.  H 

Alma  Cenier. . 

June  9 

Clay  loam . . . 

119 

1.3 

17.57 

83.2 

204 

155 

149 

150 
164 
225 

Anrtprson  Dip 

Merrillan. . 

May  30 
June  14 

Black  loam. 

Anderson  S A 

Merrillan. . . . 

Sandy.  . 

Clay  loam. . . 

Rnwpn  IT1.  T, 

Merrillan. . . . 

May  15 

Dahl  Andrew 

Merrillan 

May  28 

Clay  loam. . l 

Anderson,  S.  Nels.. 
Nelson  J N 

North  Branch . 

May  25 

Sand  & clay 
Sandy  clay . . | 

North  Branch . 

May  27 

^ ; 

Jefferson  Co. 

- 

56 

\ Mansfield,  Fred.  C. 

Johns’n’s  Cr’k 

Apr.  20 

Prairie  loam 

153 

2 7 

6.14 

52.5 

170-231 

194 

216 

217 

218 
219 
242 

306 

307 
322 

157 

158 

159 

160 

Mansfield  Fred.  C. 
Man- field,  Fred.  C. 
Mansfield,  Fred.  C. 
Mansfield,  Fred.  C. 
Mansfield,  Fred.  C 
Mansfield,  Fred.  C. 
Mansfield,  Fred  U. 
Mansfield,  Fred.  C. 
Mansfield,  Fred.  C 
Mansfield,  Fred.  C 
Schoechert,  Julius. 
Sr-hoechert,  Julius. 
Schoechert,  Julius. 
Schoechert,  Julius. 

Johns’n's  Cr’k 
Johns’n’s  Cr’k 
Johns’n’s  Cr’k 

May  10 
May  8 
May  11 
May  20 
May  1 
May  15 
May  10 
May  10 
May  5 
May  U 
May  6 
May  6 
May  6 
May  6-1 

Prairie  loam 
Prairie*  loam 

160 

2.0 

15.08 

82.6 

Black 

Johns’n’s  Cr’k 
Johns’n’s  Cr’k 
Johns’n’s  Cr’k 

Black 

Black  

Black  loam  . 

Johns’n’s  Cr’k 
Johns’n’s  Cr’k 
Johns’n’s  Cr’k 
Johns’n’s  Cr’k 
Watertown.. 

Sandy  loam. 
Very  black . . 

Sandy  loam. 
Sandy  loam. 
Black  loam  . 

Watertown. . 

Black  loam  . 

Watertown 

Watertown 

Black  loam 

Black  loam 

Juneau  Co. 

78  0 

71-211 

Miller,  P.  M. 

Wonewoc 

May  30 

Clay  loam. . . 

115 

1.5 

14  18 

Kenosha  Co. 

325 

Beyner,  H.  G 

Salem 

May  16 

Light  sandy. 

Kewaun  ee  Co. 

76.2 

142-234 

Blahnick,  John 

Algoma. . 

May  14 

Black 

147 

1.3 

11  73 

143-235 

333 

140 

Blahnick,  John 
Riilinkp  R 

Algoma 

May  14 
May  22 
May  15 

Clay 

147 

.8 

14  84 

79.0 

A Ip-nma. 

Sandy  loam. 
Clay  ... 

Scbraeder,  Wm  . 
Wiese,  Henry  . ..  . 
TT  n known 

Algoma 

Algoma. . . 

148 

1.6 

13  06 

76.9 

185 

357 

358 
■ 191 

May  10 

Clay 

A Ipnmfl, 

Got, stein  H 

F.nren.  ... 

May  25 

Brown  clay.. 

Rp.lp.in  John 

Rnsiere. 

Sugar  Beet  Investigations , 1898, 


9 


of  sugar  beets , 1898—  Continued. 


Second  Sample. 

Es- 

tim 

yield 

per 

acre. 

Grav- 

ing 

pe- 

riod. 

Wt. 

or 

be’ts 

S^’r 

in 

juice. 

Pur- 
ity of 
juice. 

Manure, 
if  any. 

Kind  of 
seed. 

Character  of 
season. 

Remarks. 

Station 

No. 

Days 

165 

Lbs. 

2.1 

Pr.ct. 
13  22 

Pr.ct. 

Tons. 

No 

IX 

Favorable. . . . 

148-226 

177 

2.5 

15.94 

80  2 

6 4 

Yes 

VI 

Fair 

96-345 

132 

1.5 

15.53 

* 80.6 

11.5 

II 

Favorable 

166 

68-300 

181 

18.10 

86. 7 

19.2 

Stable — 

V 

Fair 

I 

Unfavorable 

54 

103-180 

205 

82-193 

166 

1.5 

16.53 

81.9 

10.9 

Yes 

v 

Unfavorable . . 

127 

1.5 

12.38 

68.2 

15.0 

x 

Fair 

172 

1.0 

16.25 

80.1 

16.5 

IX 

Very  dry 

V 

Rather  wet.  . 

131 

77 

Yes 

I 

176 

2.1 

15  54 

80.5 

16  0 

IX 

Fair 

283 

143 

1.8 

14  54 

72  1 

Y 

188 

141 

1.1 

17.20 

76.11 

XIII 

Fair 

320 

132-354 

204 

155 

149 

150 
164 
225 

134 

141 

1.1 

.8 

15  99 
13.5? 

88.1 

77.8 

6.0 

In  ’96  . . . 

V 

XIII 

Very  unfa’ble 
Favorable. . . . 

123 

tj- 

18.63 

86.2 

XIII 

Unfavorable . . 

153 

1.0 

16  56 

81.2 

XIII 

Fair 

133 

1.1 

18  8; 

78.3 

XIII 

XIII 

Favorable. . . 

146 

.8 

17.60 

84.6 

Favorabie 

141 

1.2 

16  56 

83.6 

XIII 

Favorable 

I 

XIII 

Favorable  . . . 

56 

170-231 

194 

216 

217 

218 
219 
242 
306 

176 

1 9 

14.96 

75.0 

j ...  . 

I 

Favorable. . . . 

Zeidler  sample. 

176 

1.7 

13  77 

75.9 

1 ::::: 

I 

Favorable 

172 

1.2 

15.18 

78.7 

I 

Favorable. . . . 

163 

1.1 

14  44 

79.8 

I 

Favorable 

184 

2.2 

15  09 

77.9 

XIII 

Favorable. . . . 

Mosher  sample 
Bauker  sample 
Ambrose  samp. 
Gr’nw’d  samp. 
Klaush  sample. 
Bartel  sample. 
Not  limed. 

170 

1.4 

11.09 

64  8 

I 

Favorable 

175 

1.7 

11.64 

76  9 

I 

Favorable.  .. 

180 

2.5 

12.07 

75.4 

I 

Favorab'e. 

173 

1.9 

13.72 

70.4 

I 

Favorable 

307 

322 

157 

158 

159 

160 

173 

1.6 

14.(6 

76.6 

I 

Favorable 

165 

1.7 

14.40 

78  3 

k'.o 

None  .... 

I 

Fair 

165 

1.3 

14.34 

76.8 

None  . . . 

I 

Fair 

Limed. 

165 

1.6 

15.23 

80.4 

None 

X 

Fair 

Not  limed. 

165 

1.8 

14.44 

79.6 

None 

X 

Fair 

Limed. 

153 

1.7 

15  88 

82  0 

16.0 

None 

IX 

Unfavorable.. 

71-241 

171 

2 4 

15  88 

73.9 

1 

14.6 

Pasture. . . . 

II 

Fair 

\ 

325 

172 

1.9 

1 3 . 66 

76  7 

IX 

Fair 

142- 234 

143- 235 
333 
140 
185 
375 
358 
191 

172 

1.8 

13.39 

75.6 

IX 

Fair 

171 

.7 

20.22 

76.2 

10.5 

Barnyard . 

I 

Wilted. 

v 

Fa.vora.ble. 

153 

1.8 

18.59 

82.3 

Cow. 

X 

Fair 

.8 

16  11 

70.3 

” 153 

3 6 

11.80 

66  7 

Cattle 

X 

4 9 

15.27 

81  1 

X 

r 

10 


Bulletin  No.  7 1, 


Results  of  analyses 


[ 

First  Sample. 

a 

Name. 

Post  office. 

Date 

Character 

P , 

sown. 

of  soil. 

. w " 

Wt. 

Sug’r 

Pur- 

ing 

Pe- 

riod. 

of/ 

in 

ity  of 

b’ets . 

juice 

juice. 

La  Crosse  Co. 

West  Salem  . . 

May  10 

Days. 

Lbs. 

Pr  ct. 

Pr.  ct 

112  2:3 

McEidowney,  .fas. . 
McEldowney,  Jas. 

Black  loam. 

140 

2.00 

13.35 

77.5 

182-214 

West  Salem  .. 

May  15 

Clay  loam . . 

148 

2.1 

10.84 

69.8 

66-266 

May  13 

Clay  loam.. 

132 

.5 

13.03 

75.1 

La  Fayette  Co. 

145-181 

Baiubridge.  M 

Bianchardville 

May  21 

Sandy  loam. 

1.21 

1.4 

17  32 

77.2 

116 

174 

175 

Lincoln  Co. 

Merrill 

May  20 
May  20 

Sandy 

1.29 

.6 

18.24 

86.4 

Merrill 

Sandy 

Boyce,  L.  C..r — 
Brand,  M.  W 

Merrill 

May  20 

Sandy 

72-197 

Merrill 

May  10 

Sandy 

133 

7 

16.94 

84.0! 

Merrill 

1*5 

94-172 

Stejniger,  Geo..  .. 

May  23 

Clay  loam . . . 

1.4 

1 .29 

82.9 

_____ 

Manitowoc  Co. 

==_ 

122 

196 

90-326 

78-327 

Brennan,  James. . . 
Brennan,  James... 
Gilbertson,  H. 
Schned,  F 

Clark’s  Mills... 

May  25 

Black  loam. 

Clark’s  Mills... 

May  14 

Sandy  

Rube 

May  26 

Red  clay  . . . 
Black  loam. 

117 

121 

9 

14.73 

15.26 

72.2 

79.4 

Rube 

May  24 

L3 

178 

259 

Marathon  Co. 
Cater,  J.  A 

Knowlton 

May  17 
May  1? 

Loam . ‘ 

Cater,  J.  A. ..... . 

Ivnowlton. 

Loam . ..... 

151 

Dietman,  Chas  . . . 

Spencer  

May  20 

Black  clay . . 

145 

1.4 

14.61 

76.7 

208 

Oelreich,  Gust  . . - . 

Spencer 

May  20 

Black  clay. . 

1.3 

11.13 

55.7 

Marinette  Co. 

230 

53-147 

91-351 

92 

King,  James  H.  . . . 
Lais  ire  Goo  . ... 

Peshtigo 

May  20 
May  6 
May  31 
May  3i 

Upland  clay 
Ciay  loam.. 
Bl.  s'ndyl’m 
Lt.  s’ndy  I’m 

Peshtigo 

137 
1 15 

1.2 

17.09 
15  7 ft 
15.63 

88.7 

79.9 

79.3 

Lepinsky,  Ernst  .. 
Lepinsky,  Ernst  .. 

Peshtigo ...... 

Peshtigo 

123 

12 

106-156 

Marquette  Co. 
Ambler,  C.  E 

Oxford 

May  26 

Black  sandy 
loam 

123 

1.3 

15.99 

82.8 

229 

Cramer,  W.  E 

Packwaukee. . 

May  20 

Sandy  

Milwaukee  Co. 

June  6 

141-353 

Fisber,  C.  T 

Wauwatosa. . . 

Black  loam  . 

124 

2.8 

11.92 

77.4 

Monroe  Co. 

125-347 

Tramblie,  P 

Valley  Junct’n 

May  26 

Black  sandy 

loam  . . 

132 

.4 

14  20 

78.0 

126 

Tramblie,  P 

Valley  Junct’n 

May  26 

Black  sandy 
loam 

132 

.5 

13.06 

74.1 

Oconto  Co. 

107-302 

352 

Schwartz,  F. 

Chase 

May  27 
May  15 
Junel2 

Sandy  loam. 
Sandy  

152 

.8 

20.74 

86.2 

McLean,  Gertie  — 
Wickenberg,  F.  J. 

Lena  

203 

Lena. 

Sandy  loam. 

Oneida  Co. 

115-209 

360 

Boehm,  F 

Rhinelander  . . 

May  15 
May  25 

Sandy  

134 

1,5 

16.44 

82.9 

Lassig,  Julius 

Rhinelander  . 

Yellow  loam 

Outagamie  Co. 

85.2 

133-311 

Hyde,  Welcome. . 

Appleton  . ... 

May  21 

Light  marl . . 

137 

1 0 

14.87 

134-312 

Hyde,  Welcome. . . 

Appleton  . ... 

May  21 

Sand  & clay. 

137 

1.9 

13  40 

82.7 

135-313 

B yde,  W eleome . . . 

Appleton 

May  21 

Sandy  loam. 

137 

1.5 

10.19 

70.3 

136-314 

Hyde,  Welcome  . . 

Appleton  . ... 

May  21 

Dark  alluv’i. 

137 

1.3 

11.12 

75.0 

137-315 

Hyde,  Welcome. . . 

Appleton 

May  21 

Burroak  bot- 

82.2 

tom  

137 

1.3 

14.55 

138-316 

Hyde,  Welcome. . . 

Appleton 

May  21 

Heavy  clay.. 

137 

1.5 

13.32 

83.2 

139-317 

Hyde,  Welcome... 

Appleton 

May  21 

Yellow  clay. 

137 

2.2 

10.91 

75.1 

318 

Hyde,  Welcome... 

Appleton 

May  21 

Burroak  bot- 

tom   

Sugar  Beet  Investigations , 1898 


11 


of  sugar  beets , Continued . 


Second 

Sample. 

Es- 

tim. 

yield 

per 

acre. 

Kind  of 
seed. 

Character  of 
season. 

Grav- 

ing 

Pe- 

riod. 

Wt. 

of 

be’  ts. 

Sug’r 

in 

juice. 

Pur- 
ity or 
juice. 

Manure, 
if  any. 

Remarks. 

a 

0 

1 o 
Xfl'A 

Days. 

175 

170 

Lbs. 

2.3 

2.0 

Pr.ct. 
11.39 
13  88 
13.37 

Pr.ct. 

Tons. 

Plaster  . . 
Plaster  . . . 

IX 

IX 

I 

Favorable  ... 
F avorable  .... 

IIO  01 Q 

1 14— 410 

1 CO  0 1 A 

74.0 

1 04—4 1 4 

.5 

^olie 

Very  unfav. . . 

00— *00 

147 

1.9 

12  51 

73.8 

9.0 

None 

VI 

Unfavorable. . 

1st  samp.wilted 

145-181 

X 

Very  unfav  . . . 

116 

147 

145 

’ * * r- 

19.80 

20.72 

83.6 

86.6 

I 

Very  unfav . . . 

174 

*1 

V 

Very  unfav . . 
Very  unfav.  . . 
Very  unfav. .. 

175 

72-197 

94-172 

* * 

10.1 

Barnyard. 

V 

152 

1.1 

16.98 

76.4 

VI 

1st  sample,  V. . 



12? 

163 

1.5 

1.1 

1.8 

15  23 
11.69 

81.3 
67  0 

v 

Favorable  . . . 

122 

x 

Favorable  .... 

198 

4.3 

12.8 

None  . >. . 

IX 

IX 

Average 

90-326 

78-327 

158 

13  53 

71.6 

Average 

156 

156 

2 1 
1.5 

16  69 

84  4 
82.1 

12.0 

12.0 

Nnnft 

X 

x 

Favorable 

178 

359 

151 

Favorable 

Stable  .... 

x 

Favorable  . . . 

Short 

IX 

Unfavorable. . 

Wilted 

208 

162 

162 

136 

1 2 

13.78 
18.31 
14  76 

71.7 

87.8 
80.1 

20.0 
12.2 
12  0 

Barnyard 

IX 

[ 

v 1 

Too  wet 

230 

53-147 

9i-351 

92 

1*4 

1.2 

None  . ... 
None  .... 
None 

Cold  and  wet  . 
Good 

v 

Good  



11 





142 

122 

1.2 

16.57 

14.96 

81  3 
73.9 

15.9 

None 

I 

II 

Favorable 

106-156 

229 

Worse 

%XJ 

155 

2 5 

12  9; 

78.4 

I 

Very  favor 

141-353 

142 

.6 

20.45 

78.4 

11.0 

Horse 

V 

Not  favorable. 

2d  samp,  wilt’d 

125-347 

Horse 

x 

Not  favorable. 

126 

161 

123 

1 0 
.8 

13  21 
17  56 

73.8 

79.7 

13.3 

30  loads  . . 
None  . . 

VI 

x 

Unfavorable 

107-302 

352 

A vera.ge 

134 

1 5 

12.62 

74.6 

4.8 

None  . 

1 

Favorable 

203 

155 

.8 

20  66 

79.2 

4 1 

None 

IX 

Fair 

115-209 

145 

1 1 

17.70 

76.4 

8.0 

Horse 

VI 

360 

160 

1.0 

12  87 

74.0 

V 

Sod  ground 

133-311 

160 

1 7 

12.08 

72  6 

None  . 

V 

134-312 

160 

2.2 

11.53 

70.8 

None  . .. 

V 

135-313 

160 

1.7 

12.10 

68  7 

None 

V 

136-314 

160 

1 9 

12  34 

21.4 

None  ...  . 

V 

137-315 

160 

1.8 

11.31 

69^4 

None 

V 

138-316 

160 

.9 

12.27 

70.9 

None  . ... 

V 

139-317 

160 

4.3 

10.17 

71.1 

None 

V 

318 

12 


Bulletin  No.  71, 


Results  of  analyses 


First  Sample. 


a 

Name. 

Post  office. 

Date 

Character 

Gr’w- 

1 wt. 
of 

be’ts. 

Sug’r 

in 

juice. 

33  _ 
3 O 
cctz* 

i sown. 

ot  soil. 

ing 

pe- 

riod. 

Pur- 
ify of 
juice. 

Outagamie — Coni,. 

101-202 

Culbertson,  H.  M. . 

Medina 

May  24 

Light  clay 

Days. 

Lbs. 

Pr.ct 

Pr.ct. 

loam  . . 

123 

8 

13.79 

79.2 

249 

Culbertson,  H.  M . . 

Medina 

May  23 

Light  clay 
loam 

Ozaukee  Co. 

123-186 

Mequon 

May  10 
May  16 

Clay 

Clay  

146 

2.6 

15.15 

79.5 

82.5 

124-187 

Selle,  A 

140 

1 4 

15  62 

Pepin  Co. 

189 

Pittman,  Fred 

Arkansaw  . . . 

May  12 
May  12 

Clay 

211 

Pittman,  Fred . ... 

Arkansaw  . . . 

Clay 

Pierce  Co. 

184 

Mihleis,  Henry.  .. 
Mihleis,  Henry 

Ellsworth  . . . 

May  16 
May  20 

Loam  

215 

Ellsworta  

Rich  loam. 

Polk  Co. 

89 

Erickson,  E.  J.  . 

No  Valley.... 

May  12 

Sandy  loam 

134 

1 ? 

12  68 

73.6 

177 

Erickson,  E.  J 

No.  Valley 

,une  5 

Blaoa  sandy 

137 

1.6 

12.87 

76  2 

Price  Co. 

'V 

144-168 

Riedel,  H 

Prentice 

May  14 

Sandy  c’av. 
Sandy  clay. 

132 

.8 

17.31 

79.7 

169 

Riedel,  H 

Prentice  . . . 

June  6 

16? 

Riedel,  H 

Prentice 

Sandy  clay. 

Raeine  Co. 

95-330 

Apple,  Adam  

North  Cape. . . 

May  1 

Sandy  loam. 

142 

1!7 

16.54 

81.6 

Richland  Co. 

105-356 

Cook,  John 

Millcreek 

May  28 

Sandy  loam 

122 

1.2 

13.24 

74.1 

Rock  Co. 

173 

Neisou,  H.  G. . . . . . . 

Beloit.. 

May  11 

May  25 

Sandy  loam 

Clay 

284 

Ransom,  E.  H 

EmeraldGrove 

St.  Croix  Co. 

109-153 

Wheeler,  T.  D 

New  Richm’nd 

May  4 

Clay 

145 

1.5 

15.17 

79.2 

110-15- 

Wheeler,  T.  D 

New  Richm’nd 

May  4 

C ay 

14 

2.5 

10  82  i 

68.3 

80-22:-. 

H assel,  P.  A 

Wilson 

May  10 

( Hay  loam  . 

135 

1 0 

17.0 

76  1 

81-224 

Hassel,  P.  A 

Wilson 

May  18 
May  19 

Clay  loam  . 
Sandy  loam 

12 

9 

18  111 

81.7 

6, 

Lawrence,  Geo.  A. 

Wilson 

125 

1.3 

16.241 

84.0 

102-182 

Peterson,  Louis 

Wilson  . ... 

May  20 

(Jlay  loam  . 

12 

1 0 

1L6 

79.9 

Sauk  Co. 

57 

Dunlap,  R.  M 

Dunlap,  R.  M 

Darrow,  N 

Baraboo  ... 
Baraboo  

May  22 
May  22 

Sa.ndy,  ..... 

120 

.5 

15.40 

83  5 
84.1 

58" 

52-315 

Sandy...  . 

1.0 

1 0 

16.06 

Reedsburg.  . 

June  23 

Sandy. 

8-' 

.4 

15  41 

82  9 

Shawano  Co. 

79 

Pinske,  F.  A 

Wittenberg. . . 

May  26 

Red  sand. . . 

117 

1.4 

13.7? 

77.8 

Sheboygan  Co. 

65-23-? 

Vater,  Robt.,  Sr. 

Plymouth  ... 

May  11 

Clay  loam. 

133 

.6 

16.31 

85.1 

233-301 

Vater,  Robt.,  Sr.. 

Plymouth 

May  li 

Clay  loam. 

133 

18.35 

81  1 

Taylor  Co. 

Sandy  loam 

19C 

Campbell,  E.  E. . . 

Westboro 

May  15 

Trempealeau  Co. 
Mattison,  M 

16  04 

80.0 

63-201 

Blair  

June  4 

Clay  loam 

108 

7 

Vilas  Co. 

146 

Stein,  Frank 

Eagle  River.  . 

May  18| 

Sandy  loam 

146 

1 5 

19  00 

84.4 

Sugar  Beet  Investigations , 1898 


13 


of  sugar  beets , — Continued. 


Second  Sample. 

Es- 

■Gr’w- 

ing 

pe- 

riod. 

Wt. 

of 

be’ts. 

Sug’r 

in 

juice. 

Pur- 
ity of 
juice. 

tim. 

yield 

per 

acre. 

Manure, 
if  any. 

Kinds 
of  seed. 

Character  of 
season. 

Remarks. 

fl 

3f  o 

CO 

Days. 

153 

Lbs. 

.8 

Pr.ct. 
16  92 

Pr.ct. 

79.5 

Tons. 
12  7 

y 

Medium 

101-202 

161 

.9 

17  14 

80.1 

None  .... 

X 

Medium  

249 

168 

I6v 

2.5 
1 4 

12.72 
13  7. 

71.9 
79  3 

11.4 

None  . . 

V 

X 

Favorable  . . . 
Favorable  . . . 

123- 186 

124- 187 

138 

l.i 

20  08 

80.9 

x 

Dry 

Wilted  

189 

138 

1 3 

16  40 

82  2 

X 

Dry 

211 

151 

.8 

18  81 

79  0 

*3.0 

Stable  . . . 

IX 

Average 

184 

154 

1.4 

13  09 

67.9 

IX 

Average 

215 

V 

Dry 

89 

V 

Dry 

177 

154 

.8 

17.34 

85.6 

6.2 

None 

V 

Unfavorable . . 

Prev.  crop,  pot. 
Prev.  crop,  lett. 

144-168 

131 

1.1 

14  54 

72  1 

None 

V 

Unfavorable. . 

169 

152 

5 

18.59 

83.7 

None 

I 

Unfavorable. . 

167 

17? 

2., 

17  50 

8,3.7 

20.0 

None 

V 

Fair 

95-330 

1.8 

13.88 

75.2 

IX 

105-356 



161 

1 5 

13.58 

74. f 

25  0 

Hen  and 
ashes  . . 

Favorable  .... 

173 

159 

2 1 

14.90 

83.4 

5.6 

None 

V 

Wet 

284 

163 

163 

1.4 

1.5 

19  87 
14  27 

81.S 
74  3 

5.5 

None 

None 

V 
' V 

Unfavorable. 
Unlavorable. . 

Not  irrigated  . . 
Irrigated 

109- 153 

110- 152 

170 

162 

.8 

.8 

17.38 

14.67 

84.4 

80.7 

10.0 

12.0 

I 

1 

Unfavorab  e. . 

1 nfavorable . . 

Not  limed  

Limed  

80- 223 

81- 224 

v 

Too  dry  . 

67 

168 

1.0 

16  85 

82.1 

11.0 

None 

V 

Fair 

102-182 

None 

I 

Unfavorable. . 

Not  limed 

57 

None  ... 

II 

Unfavorable . . 

Limed 

58 

137 

.3 

19.71 

84.1 

6.0 

None 

V 

Unfavorable. . 

Sown  br’adcast 

52-315 

None  . 

V 

Very  wet .... 

79 







175 

.9 

17.67 

81.5 

12.0 

V 

Very  unfav. . 

65-232 

175 

1.3 

17.84 

86  6 

X 

Very  unfav. . . 

233  301 

139 

1.0 

19.93 

80  4 

10  0 

None  . ... 

X 

.Fair 

190 

145 

.9 

13.23 

72.9 

9 5 

None  

IX 

Unfavorab'e. 

63-201 

Nore  . . . 

Y 

146 

14 


Bulletin  No.  71, 


Results  of  analyse 


First  Sample. 

a 

Name. 

- Post  office. 

Date 

Character 

Gr'w- 

ing 

pe- 

riod. 

Wt. 

Sug’r 

1 

Pur- 

sown. 

of  soil. 

of 

be’ts. 

in 

juice. 

ity  of 
juice. 

Walworth  Cd. 

Days. 

Lbs. 

Pr.ct. 

Pr.ct. 

344 

Millard 

May 

May 

31 

Sandy  loam. 
Sandy  loam. 

84-334 

Morrison,  S.  L. 

Millard 

28 

' iis 

.7 

17.82 

’ 78.0 

121-335 

Millard  . . 

May 

28 

Sandy  loam. 
Sandy  loam. 

128 

LI 

17.80 

83.8 

236 

Dymond,  R 

Whitewater. . . 

May 

30 

Washington  Co- 

76-350 

Van  Rhienen,  Fred 

So.  Germ’nt'n. 

May 

16 

Black  sandy 

129 

1.0 

15.44 

80.1 

83 

Van  Rhienen,  Fred 

So.  Germ’nt’n. 

May 

16 

Black  sandy 

129 

1.4 

16.76 

81.1 

Waukesha  Co. 

281 

Raascb,  Chas 

Fussville  

May 

May 

May 

28 

Light  clay.. 
White  clay. . 
White  clay . . 

85-310 

Watson,  J.  R 

Sussex 

14 

132 

1.4 

15.77 

82.2 

86 

Watson,  J.  R. 

Sussex 

14 

132 

1.1 

15.66 

81.2 

i : 

Waupaca  Co. 

— 

| 

237 

Bodah,  J.  W 

New  London. . 

May 

May 

May 

18 

Sandy  loam. 
Sandy.  . . . 

239 

Pribnow,  Aug 

New  London . . 

18 

238 

Pribnow,  F.  A 

New  London. . 

18 

Sandy 

Waushara  Co. 

192 

Muller,  Stephan... 
Noak,  Julius  

W.  Bloomfield 

May 

May 

May 

May 

May 

18 

Low,  black. 

154 

W.  Bloomfield 

15 

^andv 

303 

Paass,  A 

W.  Bloomfield 

22 

Black  sand. . 

87-206 

Pomrenke,  J.  G.  . 
Pomrenke,  J.  G . . . 

W.  Bloomfield 

17 

Sandy 

' *126 

12 

i(L69 

’ 82  9 

88-207 

W.  Bloomfield 

18 

Sandy 

125 

.8 

17.02 

85.6 

Winnebago  Co. 

127 

Streeter,  Chas  C.. 

Oshkosh  

May 

121 

Black  loam  . 

145) 

2.2 

14.77 

79.8 

Wood  Co. 

93-165 

Hanson,  M. . . . 

Bakerville. 

May 

18 

Clay 

128 

.9 

16.99 

83.3 

Samples  not  iden- 

227 

tified. 

228 

303 

Sugar  Beet  Investigations , 1898 


15 


of  sugar  beets , 1898. 


Second 

Sample. 

Es- 

tim. 

yield 

per 

acre. 

Manure, 
if  any . 

Gr’w- 

ing 

pe- 

riod. 

Wt. 

of 

be’ts. 

Sug’r 

in 

juice. 

Pur- 
ity of 
juice. 

Days. 

Lbs. 

Pr.ct. 

Pr.ct. 

Tons. 

154 

1.7 

15.23 

75.9 

8.7 

None 

171 

1.1 

17  84 

81.3 

16.8 

None 

171 

.9 

19.95 

82.2 

None  . 

155 

2.3 

10.77 

67.3 

18.0 

Barnyard . 

176 

1.4 

15  87 

85.5 

16  5 

1 

None 

None  . ... 

157 

1.2 

15.05 

78.6 

7.5 

Barnyard . 

170 

1 .8 

16.42 

79.7 

22.7 

None 

16.6 

None 

163 

2.3 

12.27 

71.5 

9.9 

159 

1.8 

11.83 

69  6 

*35 

Stable.  ... 

159 

1.4 

14.12 

J77A 

Stable 

159 

1 8 

14.86 

83.5 

153 

1.5 

13.22 

81  2 

18  0 

Hog.  ..... 

157 

.8 

18.09 

86  5 

12.  C 

None 

150 

1.2 

16.52 

87.4 

19  5 

Barnyard  . 

149 

.8 

16  50 

82.7 

Barnyard . 

ISO 

2.7 

16.90 

79.9 

10  7 

None  . ... 

155 

. 7 

17.67 

83.5 

10  8 

Pastured . . 

1.7 

9 84 

67  8 

1 5 

19  681  83  5 

1.6 

14.26 

| 75.8 

Kinds 
of  seed 


Character  of 
season . 


Favorable. 

Favorable. 

Favorable. 

Favorable. 


Fair. 

Fair. 


X Average 

V Fair 

X | Fair 


Too  dry . . 
Favorable 
Favorable 


Favorable 
Very  fair  . 
Very  dry 
Very  fair  . 
Very  fair  . 


Unfavorable. 
Favorable  . . . 


Remarks. 


Not  limed. 
Limed 


Wilted 

Tag  m’ked  U.  S. 


16-350 

83 


' 282 
85-319 


237 
239 

238 


192 

154 

303 

87- 206 

88- 207 


127 


93-165 


227 

228 
303 


16 


Bulletin  No.  71, 


Kinds  of  Seed. — The  sugar  beet  seed  distributed  during  1898  was 
partly  donated  to  the  Station  by  the  U.  S.  Dept,  of  Agriculture  or  by 
private  seed  growers,  and  partly  bought  in  the  open  market.  The  fol- 
lowing statement  gives  the  names  and  germination  of  the  best  seed 
distributed  for  trial  purposes  or  planted  in  our  experiment  station 
beet  field  (see  under  B).  The  germination  tests  were  made  by  Mr. 
F.  Cranefield,  assistant  in  horticulture. 

Germination  tests  of  beet  seed,  1898. 


Name  of  variety. 

No.  of 
germina- 
tions 
from  100 
balls. 

No.  of 
balls 
that 

failed  to 
sprout 
at  all 
(in  100). 

Wt.  of 
1,000 
balls  of 
each 
variety. 

Per 

cent. 

pure. 

Nature  of  impurities. 

No.  I,  Yilmorin’s  Improved* 

128 

20 

Grams. 

17.0 

99.2 

Portions  of  seed- 

No.  Ila,  Vilmorin  (French, 
very  rich.*) 

116 

27 

16.1 

98.1 

stalks,  small  leaves 
and  dust. 

Seed-stalks,  leaves, 

No.  lib,  Vilmorin  (French, 
very  rich).* 

84 

31 

19.5 

99.1 

gravel. 

Seed  stalks,  leaves. 

No.  Ill,  Vilmorin  Improved 
Russian  seed.* 

87 

30 

17.6 

99.1 

Leaves,  dust,  barley .’ 

No.  IV,  Vilmorin  Improved, 
Schlitte  & Co.* 

115 

27 

16.0 

96.1 

Leaves,  dust,  weed 

No.  V,  Improved  Elite 
Kleinwanzleben* 

159 

22 

23.2 

98.5 

seeds,  very  much 
earth. 

Leaves,  some  earth. 

No.  VI,  Kleinwanzleben  R. I., 
Dippe  Bros.,  Rolker  seed. 

88 

42 

21.5 

98.7 

Weed  seeds,  earth, 

No  VII,  Kleinwanzleben, 
grown  by  Vilmorin, 
France  * 

117 

21 

18.0 

92.3 

leaves,  dust,  seed- 
stalks. 

Leaves,  dust,  wheat. 

No.  VIII,  Kleinwanzleben, 
Schlitte  & Co.* 

82 

34 

16.3 

93.3 

Seed-stalks,  leaves, 

No.  IX,  Kleinwanzleben 
(Neb.),  see  Bull.  64,  p.12,  II 

69 

41 

26.3 

94.8 

dust,  earth,  lime. 

Sticks,  seed-stalks, 

No.  X,  Zeringen  seed,  grown 
by  Strandes . * 

187 

12 

18.6 

99.7 

leaves,  earth. 

Dust,  practically 

No.  XI,  Schreiber’s  Elite... 

151 

11 

25.6 

99.1 

pure. 

Seed-stalks,  dust. 

No.  XII,  Pitzschke’s  Elite  * 

127 

9 

23.2 

97.7 

Leaves,  dust,  straw. 

No.  XIII,  Vilmorin’s  Im- 
proved.*   

194 

21 

18.5 

96.6 

Leaves,  dust,  wheat. 

No.  XIV,  Vilmorin’s  Im- 
proved.*   

73 

21 

18  0 

98.9 

Leaves,  sticks,  wheat 

* Furnished  by  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 


Discussion  of  analytical  results. — The  analyses  given  in  the  tables  on  pp. 
6-15  show  a great  difference  in  the  samples  of  beets  forwarded  for  examina- 
tion, as  to  sugar  content  and  purity.  It  is  evident  that  in  many  cases 
the  beets  did  not  receive  anything  like  the  attention  they  must  be  given 
in  order  to  keep  up  in  quality;  the  fact  that  the  future  of  the  beet  sugar 
industry  in  this  country  is  rendered  more  uncertain  on  account  of  our  re- 
cent accessions  of  sugar-producing  countries,  no  doubt  caused  some 


Sugar  Beet  Investigations,  1898 


17 


farmers  to  lose  interest  in  their  beet  work,  but  in  case  of  others  a change 
in  working  methods  would  only  be  brought  about  through  experience  in 
growing  the  crop  for  factory  purposes,  with  the  incentive  of  higher  com- 
pensation for  rich,  well-cared-for  beets.  On  the  whole,  the  results  are, 
however,  very  gratifying.  The  following  table  presents  the  average  data 
of  last  year’s  analyses  for  each  county.  In  many  cases  no  information 

Results  of  analyses  of  sugar  beets , 1898 — Averages  by  counties. 


First  Samples. 


Samples  Taken  at  Harvest. 


Counties. 

No. 

of 

Av.  wt. 

Sugar 

Purity 

No. 

of 

Av.  wt. 

Sugar 

Purity 

Yield 

of 

in 

of 

of 

in 

of 

per 

pies. 

beets. 

juice. 

juice. 

sam- 

ples. 

beets . 

juice. 

juice. 

acre. 

Lbs. 

Per 

cent. 

Per 

cent. 

Lbs. 

Per 

cent. 

Per 

cent. 

Tons. 

2 

8 

17.16 

84.3 

l 

1.0 

1.3 

15.63 
14.  H 

77.4 
8.'. 4 

Barron 

1 

.8 

13.94 

70.0 

2 

5.0C)’ 

Brown  

>y 

2.1 

14.52 

78  9 

3 

1.9 

15.65 

83.8 
72  8 

15.70 

Burnett 

i 

1.3 

14.29 

77.3 

2 

1.1 

13.33 

7.9(«) 

9.2(») 

9.00 

2 

.6 

21  32 

83.6 
77.8 
78.5 
73  6 

2 

16.55 

80.1 

2 

1.2 

1 .2 

16.09 
15  90 
14.58 
18.61 

Clark  

5 

1.0 

15.92 

78.5 

10 

13.70 

2 

1.7 

Crawford 

4 

1.5 

12.39 

" 79  7 

1 

1.3 

82  5 
73  0 

's’o(i)' 

Dane 

4 

2.0 

13.56 

77.1 

4 

2.0 

12.58 

15.86 

15. 0(3) 

Dodge 

2 

.6 

13.56 

75.6 

3 

1.1 

78.5 

17.70 

Door 

1 

1.7 

14.51 

73.8 

1 

2.3 

14.58 

79  4 

6.40 

Douglas  

1 

.8 

16.86 

88.9 

2 

1.1 

16  82 

83.7 

15. 4(2) 

Dunn  

3 

1.3 

15  55 

78.6 

3 

1.8 

15  05 

76.7 

14.1(3) 

Forest  

2 

1.1 

12.67 

74.4 

Green  Lake  

1 

] 

2 1 

15  54 

80  5 

16  0(1) 

Iowa 

1.8 

1.2 

14.54 
16  87 
13  89 

72.1 
82.0 
76  1 

Jackson  

1 

1.3 

17.57 

" 83.2 

8 

6.0(1) 
26  0(1) 
16.0(1) 

Jefferson 

2 

2.4 

10.61 

67.6 

14 

1 

1 .7 

Juneau  

1 

1.5 

14  18 

78.0 

1.7 

15.88 

82.0 

Kenosha  

1 

2 4 

15.88 

15.59 

73.9 

75.6 

14  6(1) 
10.5(1) 
13.5(1) 

Kewaunee 

" 3 

1.2 

13.21 

77.4 

2.2 

r a Crosse 

3 

1.5 

12  41 

74.1 

3 

1.6 

12.88 

74.3 

Lafayette  

1 

3 

- 1.4 

17.32 

77.2 

1 

1.9 

.8 

12  54 

73.8 

81.3 

9.0(1) 

10.1(1) 

Lincoln 

.9 

17.49 

84  4 

4 

19  11 

Manitowoc 

2 

1 1 

15.00 

75.8 

4 

1.4 

14  20 

73.7 

8.60 

Marathon 

2 

1.4 

12.87 

66.2 

2 

1.8 

16.80 

83.3 

12.0(a) 

14.7(3) 

15.9(1) 

Marinette. 

3 

1 0 

16.16 

82  6 

3 

1.3 

15.62 

79.9 

Marquette 

1 

1.8 

15  99 

82  8 

2 

1 

.8 

15  77 

77  6 

Milwaukee 

1 

2.8 

11  92 

77.4 

2.5 

12.9: 

78.4 

Monroe » . . . 

2 

.5 

13  64 

76.1 

1 

.6 

20.45 

78.4 

110(1) 

9.K2) 

Oconto 

1 

8 

20  74 

86.2 

3 

1.1 

14  46 

76.0 

Oneida 

1 

1.5 

16.44 

82.9 

2 

1.0 

19.18 

77.8 

6.10 

Outagamie 

8 

1.4 

12.77 

79.1 

10 

1.7 

12.87 

72.7 
75  6 

17.1(3) 

11.4(1) 

Ozaukee  

2 

2.0 

15.39 

81.0 

2 

2.0 

13.24 

Pepin  . . . . 

2 

1 .3 

18.24. 

81.6 
73  5 

Pierce 

2 

1 1 

15.95 

Polk 

2 

1.7 

12  78 

74.9 

Price 

1 

.8 

17.31 

79.7 

3 

.8 

16.82 

80.5 

6 2(1) 
20.0(1) 

Racine 

1 

1 7 

16.54 

81.6 

1 

2.1 

17.50 

83  7 

Richland 

1 

1.2 

13.24 

74-1 

! i 

1.3 

13.88 

75.2 

Rock 

2 

1.8 

14.24 

16.61 

79.0 

81.2 

15*6(2)* 

9.6(4) 

St.  Croix 

6 

1.4 

. 15  84 

78.2 

5 

1.1 

Sauk  

3 

1.0 

15.62 

83.5 

1 

.3 

19.71 

84.1 

6.0(1) 

Shawano 

1 

1 .4 

13.77 

77.8 

Sheboygan  

2 

.7 

17.35 

83  6 

2 

1.1 

12  76 

84  1 

12.6(1) 

Taylor . . 

Trempealeau  

1 

i 0 

19.93 

80  4 
72.9 

10.0(1) 

9.5(0 

”"l 

.7 

16.04 

80  0 

1 

.9 

13.23 

Vilas 

1 

1.5 

19  00 

84  4 

Walworth 

2 

.9 

17.81 

80.9 

4 

1.5 

15  95 

76.7 

14.5(2) 

16.5(1) 

Washington 

2 

1.4 

16  10 

80.6 

1 

1 .4 

15.87 

85  5 

Waukesha 

2 

1.8 

15.72 

81.7 

2 

1 5 

15.74 

79.2 

15.6(9) 

Waupaca  . . 

3 

l.g 

12.7l 

iy.)  <y 

9 9(1) 
16.5(s) 

Waushara  

2 

1.5 

16*86 

84.3 

5 

1.2 

15.84 

84  3 

Winnebago 

1 

2.2 

14  77 

79.8 

1 

2.7 

16.90 

79 . 9 

10.7(1) 

Wood 

1 

.9 

16  99 

83.3 

1 

.7 

17.67 

83.5 

I0.8(i) 

Not  identified  . . . 

3 

1.6 

14  59 

r 5 7 

Averages  

102 

1.35 

14.84 

78.8 

151 

1.44 

15.36 

78.0 

12.6(73) 

18 


Bulletin  No.  71. 


could  be  obtained  concerning  the  yield  of  beets  harvested  from  the  plats, 
and  the  data  given  in  the  table  as  to  yield  of  beets  refer  to  the  number  of 
reports  indicated  in  parenthesis  under  each  county.  The  yield  of  beets 
was  in  the  majority  of  cases  calculated  from  the  number  of  bushels  or 
loads  harvested  from  half-acre  plats,  the  weight  of  a bushel  or  load  being 
given,  so  that  the  figures  doubtless  closely  approximate  the  actual  yields 
obtained  under  average  growing  conditions  in  our  state  when  small  plats 
of  beets  are  grown  by  farmers  having  had  a very  limited  experience  in  the 
culture  of  sugar  beets. 

It  will  be  seen  on  examination  of  the  results  given  in  the  preceding  table 
that  the  beets  in  many  cases  grew  during  the  interval  between  the  first 
and  the  second  sampling,  and  as  a result  the  sugar  content  and  the  purity 
were  often  lower  at  harvest  time  than  a month  before.  As  an  average  for 
46  and  53  counties,  respectively,  there  was  an  increase  of  .09  lb.  in  the  weight 
of  the  beets  as  analyzed,  an  increase  in  the  sugar  content  of  the  juice  of  .52 
per  cent.,  and  a decrease  in  the  purity  of  the  juice  of  .8  per  cent.  The 
following  table  presents  a summary  of  all  analyses  made  during  the  season 
of  1898,  arranged  according  to  counties. 


Summary  of  analyses  of  sugar  beets , 1898 — Averages  by  counties. 


No. 

of 

Set  ID- 

Aver- 

age 

Sugar 

Purity 

No. 

of 

sam- 

Aver- 

age 

Sugar 

Puity 

County. 

weight 

in 

of 

County. 

weight 

in 

of 

pies. 

of 

beets. 

juice 

juice. 

ples. 

of 

beets. 

juice. 

juice. 

Lbs. 

Pr.  ct. 

Pr.  ct. 

Lbs. 

Pr.  ct 

Pr.  ct. 

Ashland 

2 

.9 

16.40 

80  9 

Monroe  

3 

.5 

15  91 

76.8 
78  6 

Ra.rron . . . 

1.1 

14.05 

78.2 

Oconto 

4 

1 0 

16  03 

Brown 

Burnett 

10 

3 

2.1 

14  86 

80.4 

Oneida 

3 

1.1 

18.27 

79.5 

75.6 

1.2 

13.65 

74  3 

Outagamie . . 

18 

1 6 

12.83 

Calumet.  . .. 

2 

.6 

21  32 

83.6 

Ozaukee 

4 

2.0 

14.31 

78.3 

Chippewa 

Clark 

4 

1.0 

16.32 

79  0 

P6pin 

2 

1.3 

18  24 

81  6 

15 

1. 1 

15  91 

78.5  ! 

Fierce  

2 

1 1 

15  95 

73  5 

rinliimhia.  . 

2 

1.7 

14  58 

76  6 

Polk.  

2 

1.7 

12.78 

74.9 

80.3 

Crawford. . . . 

5 

1 4 

13  63 

80.2 

Price 

4 

.8 

16.95 

"Dane 

8 

2.0 

13.07 

75  1 

Racine 

2 . 

1.9 

17.02 

82.7 
74  7 

Dodge 

6 

9 

14.71 

77.0 

Richland 

2 

1.3 

13.56 

Door 

4 

2.0 

14.54 

76.6 

Rock 

2 

1.8 

14.24 

79.® 

79.® 

83.7 

Douglas 

3 

1.0 

16  83 

85  4 

St.  Croix  .... 

11 

1.2 

16.19 

Dunn 

6 

1 3 

15.30 

Sauk 

4 

.8 

16.65 

F<  'rest 

2 

1 1 

12.67 

744 

Shawano  . . . 

1 

1.4 

13.77 

77.8 

Green  Lake  . . 

1 

2 1 

15  54 

80.5 

Sheboygan  . . 

4 

.9 

15.05 

83  8 

Iowa 

1 

1.3 

14  54 

72.1 

Taylor 

1 

1 0 

19.93 

80  4 

Jac1  son  ... 

9 

1.0 

16  95 

82.1 

Trempealeau 

2 

.8 

14  64 

76.5 

Jefferson. 

16 

1.8 

13  48 

75  0 

Vilas 

1 

1.5 

19.00 

84  4 

Juneau 

2 

1.6 

15.  OH 

80  0 

Walworth  . . . 

6 

1.3 

16.57 

78.1 

Kenosha  

1 

2.4 

15.88 

74  9 

Washington. 

3 

1 3 

16  02 

82  2 

Kewaunee.  .. 

10 

1 9 

14.87 

76.1 

Waukesha. . . 

4 

1.4 

15  73 

80.4 

La  C osse  . . 

6 

1 6 

12.66 

74.2 

Waupaca 

3 

1.8 

12  71 

72.7 

La  Fayette. 

2 

1 7 

14  9 > 

75.5 

Waushara... 

7 

1.3 

16  13 

84.3 

Lincoln 

7 

9 

18.42 

82.0 

Winnebago 

2 

2.5 

15  84 

79.9 

Manitowoc  . . 

6 

1.3 

14.  i? 

74  4 

Wood. . . . 

2 

8 

17  33 

83  4 

Marathon 

4 

1.6 

14  84 

74  7 

ISot  identified 

3 

1.6 

. 14.59 

75.7 

Marine  te  

Marquette 

6 

3 

1 .2 

9 

15  89 
In.  84 

81.3 

Avei  age  of  253 

Milw  ulcee.. 

2 

2.7 

12.4. 

77  9 

samples . . . 

253 

1.40 

15.15 

78.8 

19 


Sugar  Beet  Investigations , 1898. 

General  summary  of  results. — The  past  season  was  the  fifth  year 
during  which  sugar  beet  experiments  have  been  conducted  at  this 
Station,  the  work  having  been  begun  in  1890  and  continued  until 
1892,  and  resumed  in  1897  and  1898.  The  following  compilation  of 
analyses  made  during  these  different  years  as  to  the  quality  and 
yield  of  beets  grown  by  Wisconsin  farmers  will  be  of  interest  in  this 
connection.  The  analyses  were  all  made  in  the  chemical  laboratory 
of  this  Experiment  Station  by  the  writer.  No  analyses  of  beets 
grown  at  the  University  Farm  has  been  included  in  this  compilation. 


General  summary  of  results  of  sugar  beet  analyses , 1890-1898. 


No.  of 
samples. 

Sugar  in 
juice. 

Purity  of 
juice. 

Yield  of 
bee^s  per 
acre 

References. 

1890  

1891  

1?>92  

1397 

1897  (sub  stations) . . 

1898  

Arithmetical  mean 
of  2,537  samples. . 

93 

373 

62 

1,663 

93 

253 

Per  cent. 

12  46 
12.56 

14.34 
12.67 

14.35 
15.15 

Per  cent. 

77.0 

76  3 

80.0 

74.1 

80.4 

78.3 

Tons. 

15.4 

19.3 

12.8 

14  9 

12.6 

Bulletin  26. 
Bulletin  30. 
Report  VIII. 
Bulletin  64. 
Bulletin  64. 

13.59 

77.7 

15.0 

It  is  not  believed  that  the  lower  average  yield  of  beets  per  acre 
reported  for  1898  was  caused  by  an  actual  decrease  in  acreage  as 
compared  with  previous  years,  but  rather  that  It  more  closely  than  here- 
tofore represents  the  true  yield  obtained,  on  account  of  the  more  detailed 
directions  given  for  ascertaining  the  weight  of  crop  harvested. 

Adaptability  of  the  different  parts  of  the  state  to  sugar  beet  cul- 
ture.— The  results  of  the  large  number  of  analyses  of  sugar  beets  from 
different  parts  of  the  state  which  were  made  during  the  season  of  1897  and 
presented  in  bulletin  64  of  this  Station,  gave  evidence  that  there  is  a dis- 
tinct difference  as  regards  the  adaptability  of  different  portions  of  our  state 
to  the  culture  of  sugar  beets.  The  richest  beets  were,  broadly  speaking, 
obtained  from  the  eastern  and  northwestern  portions  of  the  state,  and  the 
poorest  from  the  central-western  and  southwestern  portions  of  the  state.  As 
pointed  out  in  the  report  of  last  year’s  work,  the  geological  features  of  our 
state  seem  to  bear  a different  relation  to  the  quality  of  the  beets  grown  in  the 
various  regions,  in  so  far  as  the  rich-beet  belt  lies  in  the  glacial-drift  area, 
where  the  limestone  rock  is  covered  by  glacial  drift,  or  in  the  Kewenawan 
(copper-bearing)  region  in  the  northwest.  The  counties  where  beets  of 
low  sugar  content  were  grown  lie  in  the  driftless  area,  or  in  the  sandstone 
region  directly  north  of  this  area.  The  soil  in  the  latter  belt  seems,  in  gen- 
eral, deficient  in  lime  while  the  former  is  amply  supplied  with  this  fertiliz- 
ing component.  The  counties  which  have  furnished  the  richest  beets 


20 


Bulletin  No.  71. 


during  each  year  are  found  in  either  of  the  divisions  of  the  rich-beet  belt. 
If  the  average  results  per  county  be  compared  with  the  general  average 
for  each  year  and  an  arbitrary  standard  be  chosen  for  rich  beets  (1890, 
above  13  per  cent.;  1891  and  ’97,  above  14  percent.;  1892  and  ’98,  above  15.15 
per  cent.)  we  find,  by  comparing  the  results  of  the  five  seasons’  work  in 
this  line,  that  the  counties  given  below  have  furnished  rich  beets  the  fol- 
lowing number  of  times: 

Washington  — four  times. 

Calumet,  Lincoln,  Oconto,  Pepin,  Walworth — three  times. 

Chippewa,  Clark,  Door,  Dunn,  Kenosha,  Racine,  Sauk,  Taylor,  Wauke- 
sha, Winnebago,  Wood  — twice. 

Douglas,  Green,  Green  Lake,  Jackson,  Jefferson,  Kewaunee,  Manitowoc, 
Marinette,  Marquette,  Milwaukee,  Monroe,  Oneida,  Ozaukee,  Pierce,  Por- 
tage, Price,  St.  Croix,  Shawano,  Trempealeau,  Vilas  — once. 

In  five  years’  work  Washington  county  has  furnished  beets  of  excep- 
tionally high  quality  during  four  seasons;  Calumet,  Lincoln,  Oconto, 
Pepin  and  Walworth  counties  have  furnished  such  beets  during  three  sea- 
sons, and  the  other  counties  mentioned  have  furnished  rich  beets  twice 
and  once,  respectively.  A study  of  the  geographical  position  of  these 
counties  will  bear  out  the  statement  that  the  eastern  and  northwestern 
portion  of  our  state  have,  par  excellence,  soil  adapted  to  sugar  beet  cul- 
ture, or  else  have  a population  who  are  able  to  grow  beets  of  high  quality. 
Washington  county  has  been  found  to  stand  at  the  front  in  this  respect 
It  is  in  this  county  where  the  Menomonee  Falls  Sugar  Factory  is  located, 
and  no  better  cultural  conditions  than  here  can,  as  it  seems,  be  found  in 
our  state.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  enterprise  which  fell  through  two 
years  ago  on  account  of  financial  difficulties,  may  soon  be  given  another 
trial. 

It  will  be  noticed  on  examination  of  the  results  of  the  analyses  of  beets 
grown  during  the  past  season  that  some  very  high  analyses  are  recorded 
for  the  part  of  the  state  which  heretofore  have  generally  given  low  re- 
sults, notably  the  counties  of  Monroe,  Jackson,  Clark,  Wood  and  Taylor. 
The  analyses  made  this  season  are  not  sufficiently  numerous  to  show  that 
the  soil  in  this  region  is  in  any  large  measure  adapted  to  the  culture  of  su- 
gar beets.  It  seems  plain,  however,  that  there  are  but  few  counties  in 
the  state  where  rich  beets  cannot  be  grown  in  some  places  when  the  beets 
are  given  a fair  chance  and  the  necessary  attention  is  given  to  the  crop. 
But  unless  the  soil  is  generally  adapted  to  beets  in  a given  locality,  the 
number  of  farmers  who  could  supply  rich  beets  to  a factory  would  be  too 
small  to  warrant  the  establishment  of  a factory  there. 

Influence  of  experience  in  sugar  beet  culture.  -Fifty-seven  farmers 
who  forwarded  beets  for  analysis  during  the  fall  of  1898,  stated  that  they 
had  had  previous  experience  in  growing  sugar  beets,  and  twenty  that  they 
had  not  grown  beets  before.  Of  the  fifty-seven  farmers,  thirty-one  grew 
beets  on  trial  for  the  second  time  during  the  past  season,  and  a compila- 


Sugar  Beet  Investigations , 1898. 


21 


tion  of  the  results  of  the  aualyses  of  these  and  previous  years’  samples 
gave  the  following  results: 


Average 

weight. 

Sugar  in 
juice. 

Purity  of 
juice. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

Lbs. 

First  trial,  1897 

1 7 

14.56 

79.0 

Second  trial,  1898 

1.4 

15  98 

79.0 

An  average  increase  of  1.4  per  cent. ‘was  thus  found  in  the  sugar  content 
of  the  juice  in  the  second  trial;  the  improvement  is  perhaps  largely  due  to 
the  experience  gained  in  caring  for  the  beets  during  the  first  season.  The 
analyses  came  higher  in  1896  than  in  1897  in  twenty-two  cases,  and  lower 
in  nine  cases.  The  beets  furnished  by  these  thirty-one  farmers  during 
1897  analyzed  considerably  higher,  however,  than  the  average  of  all  analyses 
made  during  this  year,  and  there  was  therefore  less  room  for  improvement 
than  in  the  case  of  the  majority  of  farmers  furnishing  beets  for  analysis. 

Effect  of  liming. — It  was  suggested  in  discussing  the  results  of  the 
analyses  made  during  the  season  of  1897,  that  the  counties  of  the  middle- 
and  south-western  portion  of  our  state  might  produce  rich  beets  by  appli- 
cations of  lime  fertilizers.  During  the  past  season  an  effort  was  made  to 
have  a number  of  farmers  grow  beets  on  a part  of  their  land  that  had  been 
limed  and  on  some  that  had  not  been  limed,  and  to  send  samples  of  both 
lots  for  analysis;  only  eleven  comparative  samples  were  however,  received, 
two  of  which  came  from  Jefferson  county,  in  the  southern  part  of  the 
state  where  there  is  a sufficiency  of  lime  in  the  soil.  The  average  results 
of  the  eleven  sets  of  analyses  came  as  given  below: 


Effect  of  liming  on  Wisconsin-grown  beets. 


Av.  weight 
of  beets. 

Sugar  in 
juice. 

Purity  of 
juice. 

Ground  not  limed 

Lbs. 

1.1 

1 0 

Per  cent. 

16  08 
16.15 

Per  cent. 

80.7 

81.5 

Ground  limed 

Excepting,  the  two  Jefferson-county  samples  there  was  an  increase  in 
sugar  content  of  the  limed  beets  in  six  cases  and  a decrease  in  two  cases, 
no  difference  being  obtained  in  one  set  of  samples.  What  has  been  stated 
in  the  preceding  paragraph  concerning  the  average  results  obtained,  ap- 
plies with  still  greater  force  to  these  results. 

Cost  of  raising  beets. — Of  the  number  of  farmers  who  received  ten 
pounds  of  high-grade  sugar  beet  seed  for  planting  half  an  acre  of  beets, 
forty  three  furnished  more  or  less  complete  information  concerning  the 
work  done  in  raising  and  harvesting  the  crop  and  of  the  yields  obtained 
from  the  plats.  These  data  have  been  compiled  in  the  following  table. 
As  heretofore,  the  cost  of  labor  has  been  figured  at  ten  cents  per  hour  for 
one  man,  fifteen  cents  for  man  and  horse,  and  twenty-five  cents  for  man 
and  team. 


u 

<D 

1 

3 

Z 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

21 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

28 

29 

30 

31 

32 

33 

34 

35 

36 

37 

38 

39 

40 

41 

42 

43 


Bulletin  No.  71. 


Labor  done  and  yield t 


Name. 


Chas.  Radinz 

A.  Langenberg 

F.  N.  Brainerd 

J W.  Thomas 

J.  C.  Mabie  

Joseph  Flu  eke.  ... 
S.  G.  Cowles 

G.  K.  Johnson 

W.  H.  Elkinton 

Wm.  Kube 

H.  Guehlstorf 

O.  M.  Nelson 

J.  J.  Myrick 

N.  H.  Merrill 

Paul  H.  Miller..  .. 

H.  G.  Beimer 

W.  I.  Smith 

M.  Bainbridge  

M.  W.  Brand 

H.  Gilbertson 

Fritz  Schnell 

E.  Lepinsky 

Geo.  Lai  sure 

C.  E.  Ambler 

Fred  Schwartz 

F.  Boehm  

H.  M.  Culbertson . . . 

A.  Selle  

H.  Riedel 

E.  H.  Ransom 

P.  A.  Hassel 

Louis  Paterson 

R.  M.  Dunlap  . ... 

N.  D arrow 

F.  A Pinske 

Robt.  Vater,  Sr 

M.  Mattison  . ..  ... 

S.  L.  Morrison  

F.  Van  Rhienen.  ... 
J.  R.  Watson  . . .. 

J G.  Pomrenke.... 

C C.  Streeter 

M.  Hanson 


1 

Post  office. 

Dat 

Plant- 

ing. 

E OF 

Har- 

vest- 

ing. 

Green  Bay  . . . 

May  10 

Oct.  28| 

Green  Bay . . . 

May  17 

Oct.  23-1 

24 

Appolonia 

May  25 

Nov.  4-5 

Anson  

May  16 

Oct.  2 

Greenwood,... 

May  23 

Oct.  25 

Pr.  du  Chien . . 

May  23 

Oct.  27 

Dane 

May  10 

Nov.  1 

Stoughton . . . 

May  12 

Nov.1-9 

Brownsville  . . 

May  20 

Oct.  15 

Richwood  . . . 

May  9 

Oct.  31 

Tornado 

May  25 

Nov.  18 

So.  Superior.. 

May  3 

Nov.  7 

Menominee . . . 

May  6 

Oct.  19- 

28 1 

Alma  Center. 

June  9 

Oct.  21 

Wonewoc.  ... 

May  30 1 

Oct.  28 

Salem 

May  16 

Nov  1-5 

V7est  Salem. . . 

May  13 

■ ov.  7 

Blanchard  ville 

May  21 

Oct.  15 

Merrill 

May  10 

Oct.  15 

Rube 

June  2 

Nov.  2 

Rube  .' . 

May  24 

Oct.  29 

Peshtigo 

May  31 

Oct.  24 

Peshtigo 

May  6 

Oct.  15 

Oxford 

May  26 

Oct.  15 

Chase 

May  27 

Nov.  2-4 

Rhinelander  . . 

May  19 

Sept.  24 

Medina  

May  23 

Oct.  25 

Mequon 

May  8 

Oct.  25 

Prentice 

May  14- 

16 

Oct.  15 

Emerald  Gr’ve 

May  25 

Oct.  30 

Wilson  ..  .... 

May  10 

Oct.  27 

Wilson  

May  20 

Oct.  28 

Baraboo  

May  20- 

23 

Nov.l  5 

Reedsburg. . . 

June  23 

Nov.  7 

Wittenberg. . . 

Ma  y 27 

Plymouth 

May  11 

Nov.  1 

Blair 

J une  4 

Oct  22 

Millard 

June  28 j 

Nov.  15 

So.  Germ’nt’n 

June  10 

Nov.  8 

Sussex 

June  14 

Oct.  31 

W.  Bloomfield 

May  17- 

18 

Oct.  15 

Oshkosh 

May  12 

Bakerville  . . . 

May  18 

Oct.'  20 

Charactk 


Soil. 


Black  sand 

Bla-k 

Black  loam 
Sand  & cl’y  I’m 
Sand  and  clay.. 

Prairie  sand 

Prairie  loam . . . 

Biack 

Clay  loam 

Gay  loam 

Sandy  loam 
Clay 

Loam 

Clay  loam 

Clay 

Sandy 

Black  loam 

B!ac<  loam 

Sandy  

Heavy  clav 
Black  loam  . . . 

Sandy  loam 

Clay  loam . . 

Sandy  loam 

Sandy  loam  . . . 

Sandy  

Loam 

Clay 

Sandy  clay 

Black  loam... 
Clay  loam  . . . 
e lay  loam 

Sandy 

Sindy 

Sandy  loam  . . 

Clay  loam  

Black  loam 

Prairie  ...  . 

Black  sandy... 
White  clay 

Sandy  

Muck 

Black  loam  . 


23 


Sugar  Beet  Investigations , 1898. 


on  half-acre  plats , 1898. 


Time  Expended  in 

Growing  Crop. 

Previous 

Size 

No.  of 

Labor  ex- 

Yield 

exper- 

5 

Previous  crop. 

of 

times 

penses 

per 

ience  in 

*8 

plat. 

,culti- 

Man 

Man 

per  acre. 

acre. 

beet 

3 

vated. 

Man. 

and 

and 

culture. 

horse. 

team. 

Sq.  ft. 

Hours. 

Hours. 

Hours. 

Tons. 

Potatoes  

21, 780 

3 

108 

10 

6 

$27  60 

15.2 

Yes 

1 

Corn  

22,050 

3 

86J4 

9 

614 

23  36 

16.5 

Yes 

2 

Corn 

13,340 

4 

62 

14 

7 

30  15 

6 5 

None.. . . 

3 

Oats  

22, 870 

2 

73 

8 

3 

18  50 

11.4 

Yes  

4 

Peas 

21 ; 780 

6 

234 

24 

8 

58  00 

13.7 

Yes 

5 

Clover  

21,780 

116J4 

3 

i y3 

24  96 

8 0 

Yes... 

6 

Corn  & potatoes 

8,170 

4 

' 54 

3 

H4 

33  49 

14  5 

Yes 

7 

Corn 

13,07u 

8 

156 

15 

5 

( 0 33 

10.5 

None.. .. 

8 

Oats  and  peas . . 

21.780 

166 

5 

35  70 

15.5 

Yes.  ... 

9 

Clover  

22,190 

5 

50 

70 

4J4 

32  65 

19.8 

Yes 

10 

41,390 

2 

45 

19J4 

15 

1 1 67 

6.4 

Yes 

11 

Garden  truck . . . 

21,580 

4 

320 

9 y2 

4 

68  86 

19.2 

Yes 

12 

Potatoes 

22,500 

3. 

142 

95 

4 

58  90 

16.5 

Yes 

13 

Oats 

30.  360 

46 

20 

13 

15  57 

6.0 

Yes. . . 

14 

Pasture  

21,780 

6 

52% 

10 

634 

15  76 

16.0 

Yes 

15 

Corn  - 

21,780 

3 

52 

m 

10 

16  64 

14  6 

Yes...  . 

16 

Beets 

9,800 

2 

29 

9 y2 

2 

21  47 

13.5 

Yes  .... 

17 

Potatoes  . . . 

36, 450 

200 

20  “ 

714 

29  75 

9 0 

Yes 

18 

Sugar  beets.  .. 

8,910 

4 

34 

5% 

23  92 

10.1 

None 

19 

Beans 

60,995 

3 

62 

31 

16 

10  60 

4.3 

Yes...  . 

20 

Pasture  

60,995 

3 

62 

31 

16 

10  60 

12.8 

Yes. ... 

21 

Corn 

21,780 

122 

13 

5 

30  80 

12  0 

None.. . . 

22 

Corn 

21,780 

1 

12.2 

None. . . . 

23 

Millet 

21,920 

4 

83^ 

5 

434 

20  46 

15  9 

None.. . . 

24 

Corn 

36,  1 80 

5 

154 

60 

5 

35  10 

13  3 

None 

25 

Potatoes 

14,400 

2 

28 

3 

9 

16  50 

4.1 

Yes.  ... 

26 

Corn  

21,780 

2 

115 

62 

334 

43  36 

12.7 

Yes 

27 

Barley  

22, 880 

4 

70 

10 

10 

20  95 

11.4 

Yes.  ... 

28 

Potatoes 

20,500 

3 

6 2 

Yes 

29 

Potatoes  

76,2-30 

4 

5 0 

Yes 

30 

Potatoes  

43, 560 

2 

•’iaa* 

”"io“ 

9" 

"i6  35" 

10.0 

Yes 

31 

Potatoes 

21, 840 

4 

102 

10 

5 

25  83 

11.0 

None.... 

32 

Sugar  cane. 

21,945 

130 

5 

8 

31  27 

IS  one .... 

33 

New  land 

21,78° 

6.0 

Yes.  . 

34 

Potatoes 

19, 080 

2 

None  . 

35 

Corn 

21,780 

2 

90 

12 

534 

21  36 

12.0 

Yes 

36 

Clover  

21,780 

5 

9.5 

Yes 

37 

Corn 

24, 060 

7 

119 

19 

5 

28  80 

16.8 

None.... 

38 

Potatoes 

21,000 

16.5 

Yes. 

39 

Corn 

21,780 

4 

66 

16 

7 M 

21  76 

22.7 

Yes.  .. 

40 

Potatoes 

21,78) 

2 

120 

4 

15 

32  70 

19  5 

Yes 

41 

Beets 

24. 500 

8 

134 

8 

23 

36  18 

10.7 

Yes 

42 

Potatoes  

21,780 

3 

96 

11 

25  00 

10.8 

Yes..  .. 

43 

*28  80 

12.2 

24 


Bulletin  No.  71. 


The  average  cost  per  acre  of  beets  is  seen  to  be  $23.80  (average  of  36  re- 
ports), and  the  average  yields  of  beets  12.2  tons  (average  of  41  reports).  The 
report  does  not  include  cost  of  seed,  rent  of  land,  or  wear  and  tear  of 
machinery,  but  all  other  items  from  plowing  and  preparing  the  ground 
to  placing  the  crop  in  the  cellar  or  silo.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the  ex- 
pense per  acre  varies  considerably  according  to  local  conditions,  character 
of  land,  work  of  keeping  the  land  free  from  weeds,  working  methods  of 
the  various  farmers  or  their  help,  etc.;  in  the  majority  of  cases  the  cost  is 
from  about  twenty  to  forty  dollars  per  acre.  Last  year  the  cost  of  growing 
and  harvesting  an  acre  of  beets  was  found  to  be  $28.73,  or  practically  the 
same  figure  as  the  average  for  this  year.  It  is  evident  that  when  grown  on 
a larger  scale  than  was  the  case  in  these  experiments,  the  expense  may  be 
considerably  reduced,  since  more  labor  can  then  be  done  by  machinery  and 
the  work  can,  in  general,  be  done  more  economically.  According  to  the 
experience  of  practical  beet  growers,  the  total  cost  of  growing  a ton  of 
beets  when  a good  yield,  say  about  12  tons  per  acre,  is  obtained,  will  not 
usually  exceed  $2.50  and  may,  under  favorable  conditions,  be  reduced  to 
$1.50  per  ton. 

B.  EXPERIMENTS  AT  THE  UNIVERSITY  FARM,  SEASON  1898. 

The  experiments  in  sugar  beet  culture  conducted  at  our  Experiment 
Station  farm  during  the  past  season  will  be  described  in  the  following 
under  two  heads:  1,  Variety  tests  with  different  kinds  of  sugar  beet  seed; 
2,  Fertilizer  experiments  with  sugar  beets  on  marshy  land. 

I.  Variety  tests  were  conducted  on  a one-acre  field  of  the  University 
farm;  twelve  different  kind  of  sugar  beet  seed  were  planted  on  May  24; 
for  names,  origin  and  germination  of  the  seed  planted,  see  table  II  (p.  16)  of 
this  bulletin . One  to  26  rows  ( 187  feet  long)  were  planted  of  each  kind  of 
seed,  according  to  the  amount  of  seed  on  hand;  in  most  cases  six  rows 
were  planted,  equivalent  to  about  one-twentieth  of  an  acre.  The  rows 
were  run  north  and  south,  two  feet  apart,  and  an  effort  was  made  at  the 
time  of  thinning  (June  20-23)  to  have  a strong  beet-plant  every  six  inches 
in  the  row. 

The  soil  on  the  field  is  a clay  loam;  it  has  a tendency  to  bake  and  be- 
come very  compact  after  rains,  as  was  shown  in  the  early  part  of  the  sum- 
mer after  the  seed  was  put  in.  The  young  beet  plants  were,  however,  in 
all  cases  sufficiently  strong  to  break  through  the  crust  and  an  excellent 
stand  was  obtained  except  in  the  case  of  plat  10  (Kleinwanzleben,  Neb.)* 
where  the  age  of  the  seed  had  impaired  its  viability.  The  top  soil 
changes  to  a red  clay  at  a depth  of  eight  inches,  and  this  again  gradually 
to  sand  about  three  feet  down.  There  is  a gentle  rise  (about  1:100)  in  the 
ground  from  north  to  south.  The  surface  soil  on  the  southern  half  is 
therefore  more  open  and  its  water-holding  capacity  somewhat  smaller 

* See  15th  Report  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station,  page  170,  II. 


Sugar  Beet  Investigations , 1898. 


25 


May. 

June. 

July. 

Aug. 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Total. 

Precipitation  in  inches 

4.71 

4.40 

2.83 

2.56 

2 43 

3.08 

20.01 

Departure  from  normal 

+1.00 

+ .13 

' + .23 

+ .47 

-.33 

+1.70 

+3.20 

Average  temperature,  deg.  C . . . 

57.5 

69.2 

73.1 

69  1 

64.4 

47.5 

Departure  from  normal 

0 

+ .3 

0 

—1.0 

+ .9 

—2.0 

than  that  of  the  northern  half;  the  sand  very  likely  also  comes  nearer 
the  surface  at  the  south  half  of  the  field,  and  the  state  of  fertility  of  this 
portion  would  therefore  a priori  be  lower  than  that  of  the  northern  half. 
The  field  has,  however,  always  received  the  same  treatment,  and  the  same 
crops  have  been  taken  off  both  halves  any  one  season . 

The  south  half  received  an  application  of  artificial  fertilizers  at  the  fol- 
lowing rate  per  acre:  360  pounds  K2S04,  360  pounds  dissolved  bone  and 
400  pounds  of  Na  N03.  The  sulfate  was  sown  broadcast  on  May  7,  the  su- 
perphosphate and  half  of  the  nitrate  on  May  24  (date  of  planting),  and  the 
other  half  of  the  nitrate  on  June  30,  after  the  beets  had  been  thinned. 


Fig.  1. — View  of  sugar-beet  field,  looking  north-west.  From  a photograph  taken 

August  11,  1898. 

The  field  was  plowed  and  subsoiled  on  May  5;  the  beets  were  hoed  or  * 
cultivated  on  June  9 and  16,  thinned  June  20  to  23,  again  hoed  or  culti- 
vated June  28,  July  1, 11,  29  and  August  10,  and  harvested  November  2 to  7. 

The  growing  season  was  characterized  by  an  abundance  of  rain  in  the 
early  summer  months  and  during  the  month  of  October,  with  about  nor- 
mal temperature  in  May  to  July,  and  a cold  October. 

Meteorological  data  for  Madison , Wis.,  season  1898. 


26 


Bulletin  No.  71. 


The  harvesting  of  the  beets  was  postponed  time  and  again  on  account  of 
rain  (see  p.  4)  and  was  finally  begun  Nov.  2,  and  continued  without  inter- 
ruption until  finished.  The  beets  were  sampled  and  analyzed  on  Septem- 
ter  20,  and  again  after  harvest;  the  results  of  the  analyses  are  given  in  the 
following  table: 

Beets  grown  on  main  field , 1898. 


Plat 

No. 

Name  of  variety. 

NORTHERN  HALF. 

Samples  taken  Sept.  20. 

Samples  taken  at 
harvest . 

Distance 

between 

beets. 

Pr  ct.  root 
of  whole 
plant. 

o 

• 

Sugar  in 

juice. 

Purity  of 

juice. 

YVt.  of 

topped 

beets. 

a 

h.  ® 
a o 
bra 

Purity  of 
juice. 

' 

In. 



Lbs. 

Pr  ct 

Pr  ct 

Lbs. 

Pr  ct 

Pr  ct 

1.. .. 

Vilmorin  Improved 

6 9 

69 

.68 

14.22 

80.2 

1.22 

13.12 

76.2 

2..  .. 

French,  very  rich— a 

8 9 

60 

.87 

15.03 

81.4 

1.15 

16. C3 

89.4 

3.... 

French,  very  rich — b 

6.9 

74 

.87 

16.44 

82.4 

1.28 

15.03 

84  9 

4..  .. 

Vilmorin  Russian 

7.4 

55 

.75 

16.12 

81.0 

1.10 

14.54 

78  0 

5..  . 

Vilmorin  Sclitte 

7.4 

70 

.78 

16.  *2 

84  4 

1 15 

15  32 

85.7 

6.... 

Kleinwanzleben  Improved 

6.9 

71 

,C0 

17  22 

87.1 

1.26 

16.81 

86.3 

7.  .. 

Kleinwauzleben  Elite,  R I 

8 7 

70 

.82 

16.17 

88.0 

1.06 

17.32 

88.3 

8... 

Kleinwanzleben,  Vilmorin  

6.9 

66 

.90 

13.87 

83.8 

1.68 

13.44 

79.1 

9.. . 

Kleinwanzleben,  Schlitte 

9.6 

68 

1.00 

17  12 

87.8 

1.18 

15.15 

83.2 

10... 

Kleinwanzleben,  Nebraska  ..  .. 

9.6 

74 

.67 

17.37 

8S.2 

1.28 

15.13 

85.5 

11.. .. 

Zeringen 

6 0 

70 

.67 

17.20 

89.8 

1.16 

14.16 

91.9 

12  ... 

Schreiber’s  Elite 

6.4 

66 

.73 

17.62 

86.7 

1.15 

14.85 

77.1 

13.. .. 

Pitzschke’s  Elite 

5.6 

61 

1.20 

13.25 

78.4 

1.06 

15.43 

78.7 

14.. .. 

Vilmorin  Improved 

6 0 

65 

.75; 

15.71 

82.0 

1.15 

14  89 

77.2 

15.... 

Vilmorin  Improved 

7.4 

72 

70 

15.56 

84  2 

1.01 

17.21 

82.6 

Averages  

7.3 

67 

.80 

15  94 

84.4 

1.19 

15  23 

82.9 

SOUTHERN  HALF. 

1.... 

Vilmorin  Improved 

6.0 

71 

.60 

18.81 

84  7 

1.03 

13.29 

73.5 

2 ... 

French,  very  rich — a . . . 

7.4 

71 

1.02 

16.44 

86.5 

1.18 

15.98 

84.6 

3..  .. 

French,  very  rich — b 

8.0 

76 

.67 

14.48 

78.6 

1.20 

14.10 

80  4 

4..  .. 

Vilmorin  Russian 

8.7 

75 

.78 

16.60 

86.7 

1.11 

15.30 

82.2 

5.... 

Vilmorin  Schlitte 

8.7 

74 

.60 

18.98 

90.6 

1.03 

13.29 

78.2 

6.. .. 

Kleinwanzleben  Improved 

8.0 

75 

.63 

18.07 

92.2 

1.13 

15.89 

86.3 

Kleinwanzleben  Elite,  R.  I . 

6 . 4 ( 

77 

.75 

19.14 

88  1 

1 2? 

16.69 

84.8 

s:::: 

Kleinwanzleben,  Vilmorin 

6 4 

73 

.73 

15.91 

87.7 

1.36 

14.69 

82.1 

9.. .. 

Kleinwanzleben,  Schlitte 

6.4 

75 

.53 

18.81 

94.9 

.91 

14.03 

83.1 

10.. .. 

Kleinwanz  eben,  Nebraska 

8.7 

.82 

16.67 

82.6 

1.30 

15.68 

81.2 

11.. .. 

Zeringen 

5.6 

72 

.60 

18.89 

94.7 

1.18 

15.32 

84.5 

12.... 

Schreiber's  Elite 

6.91 

69 

.80 

17.44 

81.1 

1.18 

13.66 

84  5 

13.. 

Pitzschke’s  Elite 

7.4 

65 1 

.87 

16.08 

81.5 

1.27 

14.69 

75.3 

14... 

Vilmorin  Improved. . . 

6.4 

65 

.87 

13.32 

74.9 

1.27 

13.33 

71.7 

15. . . . 

Vilmorin  Improved 

6 9 

64 

.80 

17.16 

83.5 

1 08 

13.90 

73.1 

Averages. 

7.2 

72 

.74 

17.12 

85.9 

1.17 

14.66 

79,7 

An  inspection  of  the  preceding  table  shows  that  there  was  a decided  de- 
terioration in  the  beets  between  the  first  and  second  sampling  as  regards 
their  percentage  sugar  content.  The  beets  were  very  high  in  sugar  con- 
tent and  purity  on  the  day  of  the  fi^st  sampling,  averaging  16.94  per  cent, 
sugar  in  the  juice,  with  84.4  per  cent,  purity,  on  the  north  half  of  the  plat, 
and  17.  12  percent,  sugar  in  the  juice  with  85.9  per  cent,  purity,  on  the 


Sugar  Beet  Investigations , 1898. 


27 


the  southern  half.  The  beets  on  the  southern  half  were  at  that  time,  as 
a rule,  smaller  and  richer  in  sugar  than  those  on  the  northern  half.  After 
the  heavy  rains  in  October  the  beets  again  grew,  and  a resultant  loss  in 
sugar  content  occurred  as  well  as  a decrease  in  the  purity  of  the  juice. 
This  change  was  more  pronounced  in  case  of  the  southern  than  the  north- 
ern half,  showing  that  the  beets  on  this  portion  of  the  field  did  not  have 
time  to  fully  mature  after  growth  had  been  resumed. 

Fig.  1 gives  a view  of  the  beet  field  looking  northwest,  reproduced  from 
a photograph  taken  Aug.  11,  1898. 

The  yields  of  beets  and  of  sugar  from  each  half  of  the  field  in  case  of  the 
different  varieties  are  shown  in  the  following  table: 


Yield  of  beets  from  main  field , 1898. 


Plat 

No. 

Name  of  Variety. 

Northern  Half. 

Southern  Half. 

Yield  of 
beets- 

<D 

a 

brj 

XII 

u 

ft 

Yield  of 
beets. 

Sugar  in  the 

beet. 

Sugar  per 

acre. 

From 

plat. 

Per 

acre 

From 

plat. 

Per 

acre. 

Lbs. 

Lbs 

Pr.ct. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Pr.ct. 

Lbs. 

1 

Vilmorin  Improved 

4,526 

42, 170 

12.5 

5,271 

4,128 

38, 460 

12.6 

4,846 

2 

French,  very  rich— a 

538 

41,780 

15  8 

6,601 

532 

41,300 

15  2 

6,277 

3 

French?  ve  y rich— b 

1,178 

45,740 

14.3 

6 , 5 40 

1,094- 

42,480 

13.4 

5,693 

4 

Vilmorin,  Russian 

1,036 

42, 560 

13.8 

5,873 

962 

37, 360 

14.5 

5,417 

5 

Vilmorin.  Schlitre 

1,160 

45,040 

14  5 

6, 531 

876 

34,010 

12.6 

4.285 

6 

Kleinwanzleben  Improved 

1.076 

41,780 

15.5 

6,476 

824 

32, 060 

15  1 

4,831 

7 

Kleinwanzleben  Elite,  R I . . .. 

96 

37,550 

16  5 

6, 195 

85H 

33,000 

15.8 

5,214 

8 

Kleinwanzleben,  Vilmorin  . . 

986 

38,380 

12  8 

4,900 

! 808 

31,370 

14.0 

4,391 

9 

Kleinwanzleben,  Schlitte 

906 

35,180 

14.4 

5, 065 

726 

28, 180 

13.3 

3,749 

10 

Kle  nwanzleben,  Nebraska. . . . 

752 

29,190 

14  4 

4, 205 

708 

27, 490 

14.9 

4,096 

11 

Zeringen 

1,194 

42, 850 

13.5 

5,785 

870 

33,790 

14.5 

4,900 

li 

Schreiber’s  Elite  

i 54 

35, 880 

14.1 

5,058 

102 

23,760 

13.0 

3,089 

13 

Pitzschke’s  Elite 

646 

50,160 

14.7 

7,372 

500 

38, 830 

14.0 

5,436 

14 

Vilmorin  Improved 

1,186 

46,060 

11.1 

6. 494 

1,130 

43, 870 

12.7 

5,572 

15 

Vilmorin  Improved 

3,500 

31,660 

16.3 

5,111 

3,436 

30,790 

13.2 

4,064 

Totals 

19,774 

17,546 

Averages 

40,399 

14.43 

5,832 

13.92 

4,791 

The  yields  of  beets  were  very  satisfactory  indeed,  and  especially  those  on 
the  northern  half  were  exceptionally  high,  the  extreme  yields  being  on  the 
northern  half  25.1  tons  (Pitzschke’s  Elite)  and  11.6  tons  (Kleinwanzleben, 
Neb.),  with  a total  yield  at  the  rate  of  19.8  tons  per  acre.  The  southern 
half  yielded  at  the  rate  of  17.5  tons  per  acre,  the  different  varieties  rang- 
ing from  11.9  tons  (Schreiber’s  Elite)  to  21.9  tons  (Vilmorin’s  Improved). 
In  all  cases  this  half  which  had  received  a liberal  application  of  commer- 
cial fertilizers  yielded  less  than  the  corresponding  varieties  on  the  north 
half,  and  the  sugar  contents  of  the  beets  were  in  the  majority  of  cases 
lower.  This  is  a most  unexpected  result  for  which  no  satisfactory  explan- 
ation can  be  given,  at  least  at  the  present  time.  It  suggests  that  the 
southern  half  of  the  field  was  in  much  poorer  heart  than  the  northern 
half,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  the  favorable  season  with  the  abundant  sup- 


Bulletin  No.  71. 


28 


ply  of  moisture  in  the  fore  part  should,  it  would  seem,  have  made  condi. 
tions  favorable  for  the  fertilizers  to  produce  full  effect.  It  would  by  no 
means  be  safe  to  conclude  from  the  results  of  this  year's  sugar  beet  experi- 
ments that  artificial  fertilizers  do  not  produce  any  results  on  Wisconsin 
clay  loams;  still  the  experiments  suggest  that  the  farmers  will  do  well 
to  exercise  care  in  applying  artificial  fertilizers  on  their  land,  and  make 
trials  on  a small  scale  before  they  go  into  it  heavily,  so  as  to  find  out  for 
themselves  in  how  far  their  land  responds  to  applications  of  artificial  fer- 
tilizers, and  what  kinds  give  best  results  for  their  particular  crops.  It  is 
hoped  that  our  Station  in  the  near  future  may  be  placed  in  position  to  ren- 
der assistance  in  this  line  and  be  able  to  give  definite  information  as  to  the 
fertilizer  requirements  of  Wisconsin  soils. 

Comparative  results  with  different  kinds  of  beets.—  The  relative 
yields  of  the  different  varieties  of  beets  grown  on  our  one -acre  field  as  to 
tonnage,  per  cent,  sugar  and  yield  of  sugar  will  be  seen  from  the  following 
statement. 

Comparative  results  obtained  with  different  varieties  of  sugar  beets. 


As  to  Yield  of  Beets. 

As  to  Per  Cent,  of  Sugar 

As  to  Yield  of  Sugar. 

No.  haTf. 

So.  half. 

No.  half. 

So.  half. 

No.  half. 

So.  half. 

First 

Pitzschke. 

French  very 

Kleinw.  Elite 

Kleinw.  Elite 

Pi  zschke. 

French, 

rich  X • 

very  richt 

Second  .. 

Vilmorin 

Pitzscke. 

Kleinw.  Im- 

Kleinw. Im- 

French,very 

Pi  zschke. 

Schlitte. 

proved. 

proved. 

rich  X • 

Third  ... 

French  very 

Vilmorin 

French,  very 

Kleinw.  Neb. 

Vilmorin 

Vilmorin 

rich:}:. 

Improved. 

rich  %. 

Schlitte . 

Russia . 

Fourth  . . 

Zeringen . 

Vilmorin 

Pitzschke. 

Vilmorin 

|Kleinw.  Im- 

Kleinw. 

Russia. 

Russia. 

proved. 

Elite. 

Fifth  ... 

Vilmorin 

Vilmorin 

Vilmorin 

Zeringen . 

Kleinw . Elite 

Zeringen. 

Russia. 

Schlitte 

Schlitte. 

Sixth 

Klein  w. 

Zeringen. 

}Kleinw. 

French, very 

Vilmorin 

Kleinw. 

Improved . 

Schlitte. 

rich  X . 

Russian. 

Improved. 

Seventh  . 

Vilmorin 

Kleinw.  Elite 

Kleinw.  Neb. 

Kleinw.  Vil- 

Zeringen. 

Vilmorin 

Improved*. 

morin. 

Improved* 

Eighth  . 

Kleinw. 

Kleinw.  Im- 

Vilmorin 

Pitzschke. 

Vilmorin  Im- 

Kleinw. 

Vilmorin. 

proved. 

Improved*. 

proved*. 

Vilmorin. 

Ninth 

Kleiuw.Elite. 

.Kleinw.  Vil- 

Schreiber. 

Kleinw. 

Kleinw. 

Vilmorin 

morin. 

Schlitte . 

Schlitte. 

Schlitte. 

Tenth.. .. 

Kleinw. 

Kleinw. 

Vilmorin 

Schreiber. 

Schreiber. 

Kleinw. 

Schlitte. 

Schlitte . 

Russia. 

Neb. 

Eleventh 

Kleinw.  Neb. 

Kleinw.  Neb. 

Zeringen. 

Vilmorin  Im- 

Kleinw. Vil 

Kleinw. 

proved*  . 

morin . 

Schlitte. 

Twelfth. . 

Schreiber. 

Schreiber. 

'Kleinw.  Vil- 

Vilmorin 

Kleinw.  Neb. 

Schreiber. 

morin  . 

Schlitte. 

* Average  for  three  plats.  % Average  for  two  plats. 


The  honor  of  first  rank  is  seen  to  lie  between  French  Very  Rich  and 
Pitzschke  Elite,  while  Schreiber’s  Elite  and  Kleinwanzleb^n  Neb.,  did 
poorest  as  regards  yields  of  beets  and  of  sugar  per  acre;  the  poor  showing 
for  the  latter  variety  was  due  to  the  age  of  the  seed  and  consequently  poor 
stand  of  beets  obtained  on  this  plat.  This  variety  yielded  highest,  or 
conside  rably  above  average,  in  variety  tests  during  1897. 


Sugar  Beet  Investigations , 1898. 


29 


The  analyses  of  beets  grown  by  outside  parties,  reported  on  pages  6-15 
have  been  summarized  as  shown  in  the  following  table: 


Summary  of  analyses  of  beets  grown  from  different  kinds  of  seed . 


(No. 

No.  of 
samples. 

Weight  of 
beets.  | 

Sugar  in 
juire. 

Purity  of 
juice. 

I 

Vilmorin  Improved(U.S.Dept.Agr.) 

41 

Lbs. 

1.81 

Per  cent. 
14.91 

Per  cent. 
78.3 

II 

French  Very  Rich  ^.S.Dept.  Agr.) 
Kleinwanzleben  (U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.). 

4 

1.48 

15.40 

75.1 

V 

83 

1.34 

15.30 

79  0 

VI 

Kleinwanzleben  Elite  (Rolker) 

520 

1.29 

16.33 

80.0 

IX 

Kleinwanzleben  (Neb.) 

37 

1.46 

14  36 

75.9 

X 

Zeringen  (Strandes) 

37 

1.51 

15.52 

78.9 

We  notice  that  the  average  sugar  content  of  the  beets  decreased  in 
this  order;  Kleinwanzleben  Elite,  Zeringen,  French  Very  Rich,  Klein- 
wanzleben  Improved,  Vilmorin  Improved  and  Kleinwanzleben  Neb.,  show- 
ing that  also  in  the  co-operative  experiments  the  Kleinwanzleben  Elite 
produced  beets  of  the  highest  sugar  content  and  purity. 

II.  Fertilizer  experiments  on  marshy  soil. — These  experiments  were 
a continuation  of  last  year’s  work  with  beets  on  marshy  soil,  the  field  being 
directly  adjoining  and  south  of  last  year’s  beet  field.  The  beets  on  this 
field  were  planted,  thinned  and  harvested  directly  preceding  the  dates 
given  for  these  operations  on  the  one-acre  field  already  stated  The  size  of 
the  field  was  17,472  square  feet,  and  it  was  divided  into  20  plats,  each  plat 
consisting  of  seven  rows,  84  feet  long  and  18  inches  apart.  At  harvesting 
time  the  beets  in  the  two  outside  rows  of  each  plat  were  not  considered,  and 
the  figures  given  in  the  table  are  based  on  the  yield  of  the  five  center  rows 
only.  The  kinds  and  quantities  of  fertilizers  applied  in  case  of  the  different 
plats  were  at  the  following  rate  per  acre:  130  pounds  of  potash,  65  pounds 
phosphoric  acid,  56  pounds  nitrogen  and  one  ton  of  lime,  or  in  the  fertilizers 
applied,  260  pounds  of  sulfate  or  muriate  of  potash,  680  pounds  of  silicate  of 
potash,  or  double  carbonate  of  magnesia  and  potash,  360  pounds  of  super- 
phosphate, and  360  pounds  of  nitrate.  Every  fifth  plat  was  left  unfertilized 
to  serve  as  control  plats.  The  stand  of  beets  toward  the  sourthern  end  of 
the  plat  was  very  poor,  and  the  data  as  to  yields  of  beets  and  sugar  obtained, 
especially  in  case  of  the  last  two  plats,  are  therefore  of  very  little  value. 

The  data  obtained  in  sampling  and  analyzing  the  beets  from  the  various 
plats  are  given  in  the  following  table  (see  p.  30.)  As  in  case  of  the  beets  from 
one-acre  field  described  under  I,  the  samples  taken  on  September  20th 
were  obtained  by  digging  the  beets  in  eight  feet  of  one  of  the  center  rows 
of  the  plat  where  there  was  a full  stand.  The  beet  roots  were  weighed, 
topped  and  again  weighed,  and  three  beets  of  average  size  taken  to  the 
laboratory  to  be  analyzed. 

The  decrease  in  the  sugar  content  of  the  beets  from  September  20  to 
harvest  is  very  marked,  amounting  in  some  instances  to  over  6 per  cent,  of 


30 


Bulletin  No.  71. 


Analyses  of  beets  grown  on  marsh  field , 1898. 


Samples  Taken  Sept.  20. 

1 

Samples  Taken  at 
Harvest. 

• 

j Plat  No. 

Fertilizers 

Applied. 

Dis- 

tance 

of 

beets. 

Pr.  ct. 
root  of 
whole 
plant. 

Wt.  of 
topped 
beets. 

1 Sugar 

• in 
juice. 

Ip  , 

Purity 
of  | 
juice.  | 

Wt.  of 
topped 
beets. 

Sugar 

in 

juice. 

Purity 

of 

juice. 

1 

None 

In. 

7.4 

73 

Lbs. 

.50 

Pr.  ct. 
19  69 

Pr.  ct. 
84.7 

Lbs. 

.90 

Pr.  ct. 
15.63 

Pr.  ct. 
78  0 

2 

Nitrate  

7.4 

73 

55 

20.84 

83.8  1 

.83 

16.35 

82.7 

3 

Nitrate,  sulfate  .... 

9 6 

75 

.53 

19  87 

83.1 

70 

16.29 

83.1 

4 

Nitrate,  sulphate, 
phosphate 

7.4 

74 

.42 

21.44 

86  5 

.70 

16.10 

86.9 

5 

None  

8.0 

78 

.55 

20.97 

90.2 

.60 

14.92 

81.6 

6 

Sulfate 

8.0 

79 

.47 

20.32 

85  9 

.57 

14  89 

84.4 

7 

Sulfate,  phosphate. 

8.0 

to 

.55 

21.24 

84.9 

18 

16.14 

84.1 

8 

Nitrate,  phosphate. 

7.4 

80 

.52 

20  6 4 

86.0 

72 

14.53 

80.2 

9 

None  

6 9 

84 

.53 

20.68 

88.5 

! 63 

16  65 

81.2 

10 

Phosphate  

10.7 

76 

.47 

21.23 

88  8 

.65 

15  19 

82.8 

11 

Phosphate,  muriate 

6.4 

75 

.40 

21.42 

89.6 

.73 

16.82 

82.5 

12 

Nitrate,  muriate  . . . 

8.0 

74 

• .50 

18  74 

82.1 

.08 

15.30 

80.8 

13 

None  • 

8.7 

79 

.70  | 

17.50 

80  7 

85 

14  74 

80.8 

14 

Muriate 

10.7 

76 

.48 

16.81 

80  6 

.78 

16.56 

84.2 

15 

Muriate,  nitrate, 
phosphate 

6 9 

73 

.60 

19  06 

82  0 

.85 

16.15 

81.8 

16 

Carbonate,  nitrate, 
phosphate 

10.7 

73 

.43 

19.58 

84  9 

77 

14  98 

83.6 

17 

None 

8.0 

75 

.57 

18.01 

84.2 

' 9T 

14  72 

78.2 

18 

Silicate,  nitrate, 
phosphate 

8.7 

80 

.57 

15.70 

17.0 

i o; 

15.03 

82.4 

19 

Lime  

8.7 

83 

.60 

15.85 

80  0 

1 00 

13  57 

75.9 

20 

None  ...  

12  0 

80 

.85 

15  67 

77.9 

1.28 

16.06 

78. b 

1 

Averages 

8.5 

N 

.54 

19.26 

84  1 

.81 

15.  f 6 

81.8 

sugar  in  the  juice,  with  a decrease  in  the  purity  of  the  juice  of  6 to  9 per 
cent,  in  extreme  cases.  The  average  decrease  in  sugar  content  of  the  juice 
was  3.70  per  cent,  and  in  purity,  2.3  per  cent.  The  increased  weight  of  the 
beets  at  harvest  as  shown  in  the  tables,  explains  ttie  change  in  the  quality 
of  the  beets.  Owing  to  the  drouth  during  a part  of  A.ugust  and  September 
the  beets  as  sampled  on  September  20  were  of  exceptionally  rich  quality, 
the  maximum  figures  reached  being  for  plat  1L  (phosphate,  muriate)  21.42 
per  cent,  sugar  in  the  juice,  and  for  plat  5 (control  plat),  90.2  per  cent,  purity. 
The  average  purity  of  the  juice  for  the  whole  plat  on  September  20  was 
84.1  per  cent.,  only  one  plat,  No.  18  (silicate,  nitrate,  phosphate),  coming 
below  80  per  cent.  Of  the  analyses  made  at  harvesting  time  the  only 
samples  having  a purity  below  80  per  cent,  were  the  control  plats  and  No. 
19  where  lime  only  was  applied.  The  beets  on  all  the  fertilized  plats  ex- 
cept No.  19  were  of  superior  quality  as  regards  purity,  and  sugar  content 
and  the  averages  for  all  the  different  plats  were  even  higher  than  the  cor- 
responding data  for  the  clay  loam  soil  (one-acre  field,  see  page  26),  except- 
ing the  average  purity  of  the  northern  half  of  this  field  which  came  1.1 
per  cent,  higher  than  the  average  for  the  marsh  beets.  The  figures  given 
in  the  preceding  table  ought,  however,  to  dispel  any  doubt  there  might  be 
as  to  whether  or  not  rich  beets  can  be  grown  on  marsh  land.  With  good 


Sugar  Beet  Investigations , 1898. 


31 


culture,  beets  of  a sugar  content  of  at  least  two  per  cent,  above  factory 
standard  can  be  obtained  on  soils  containing  toward  20  per  cent,  organic 
matter,  and  by  proper  fertilization  this  can  be  raised  to  over  4 per  cent. 

The  yields  obtained  from  the  various  plats  at  harvest,  and  the  effect  of 
the  different  applications  of  fertilizers  are  shown  in  the  following  table: 


Sugar  beets  on  marsh  field , 1898. 


Plat  No. 

Yield  of  Beets. 

Sugar 
in  beet. 

Sugar 
per  acre. 

Increase  or  Decrease  Over  Con- 
trol Plats. 

From 

plat. 

Per  acre 

Beets 
per  acre. 

Sugar 
in  beet. 

Purity. 

Sugar 
per  acre. 

Lbs 

Lbs. 

Per  ct. 

Lbs . 

Lbs. 

Per  ct. 

Per  ct. 

Lbs. 

1 B1 

467.5 

32  250 

14  8 

4,772 

2 N 

485.0  * 

33,460 

15.5 

5, 186 

5,040 

1.0 

2.9 

1,554 

3 NK 

373  0 

25,730 

15.5 

3,988 

—2,690 

1.0 

3.3 

356 

4 NKs  P . 

429  5 

29, 670 

15.9 

4,718 

1,250 

1.4 

7.1 

1,086 

5 B1 

356.5 

24  590 

14.2 

3, 492 

6 Ks 

446.0 

30,770 

14.1 

4, 338 

5,435 

— .9 

3.0 

531 

7 KsP. . .. 

443.5 

30,610 

15.3 

4,683 

5,275 

.3 

2.7 

876 

8 N P 

409.5 

28,260 

13.8 

3, 900 

2,925 

—1.2 

—1.2 

93 

9 B1 

378.0 

26, 080 

15.8 

4,121 

10  P 

395.0 

27, 250 

14.4 

3,922 

480 

1.5 

1.8 

—61 

11  PKm 

410  0 

28,290 

16  0 

4,526 

1,590 

1.1 

1.5 

543 

12  NKm  . . . 

414.0 

28,560 

14.5 

4,141 

1,790 

— .4 

1.2 

158 

13  B1  

398.0 

27, 460 

14.0 

3, 844 

14  Km  . 

419.5 

28,970 

15.6 

4.518 

2,890 

1.6 

4 7 

867 

15  KmNP  . . 

412.5 

28,460 

15.3 

4,356 

2,380 

1.3 

2.2 

705 

16  KeNP... 

354.0 

•4,430 

14  2 

3,469 

1,650 

.2 

4.1 

—182 

17  Bl 

:-<58.0 

24,700 

14  0 

3,458 

18  KscNF  .. 

448  5 

30, 950 

14.3 

4,426 

19  L* 

269  0 

is. 560 

12.9 

2, 394 

20  B1  * .... 

245  5 

16,940 

15.3 

2,592 

Averages 

27,300 

14.77 

4,042 



* Not  included  in  average.  — Decrease. 


The  yield  from  the  whole  plat,  although  lower  than  that  from  the  one- 
acre  field, was  satisfactory,  viz.:  at  the  rate  per  acre  of  13.65  tons  of  beets 
and  slightly  over  two  tons  of  sugar.  The  richest  beets,  containing  16.0 
per  cent,  sugar,  were  obtained  on  the  plat  fertilized  with  bone  phosphate 
and  muriate  of  potash,  the  plat  receiving  a complete  fertilizer  of  nitrate 
of  soda,  sulfate  of  potash  and  bone  phosphate  coming  but  slightly  lower 
(15.9  per  cent.). 

In  studying  the  effects  of  the  various  fertilizers  and  combinations  of 
such  applied,  we  have,  as  in  case  of  last  year,  compared  each  plat  with  the 
averages  of  the  two  nearest  control  plats,  e.  g.,  plat  2 (nitrate),  plat  3 
(nitrate,  sulfate),  and  plat  4 (nitrate,  sulfate  and  phosphate),  with  the 
averages  for  plats  1 and  5.  The  increase  or  decrease  in  yield,  sugar  con- 
tent or  purity  thus  found  will  be  seen  from  the  table.  The  uneven  stand 
obtained  in  the  southern  half  of  the  field  (plats  13-20)  renders  rather  un- 
certain any  conclusions  that  might  be  drawn  from  the  results  for  these 
plats.  The  yield  of  beets  was  apparently  increased  at  the  rate  of  over  2)4 
tons  by  the  application  of  nit-rate  of  soda  alone,  and  as  this  increase  was 


Bulletin  No.  71. 


3 2 

accompanied  by  a higher  sugar  content  than  was  found  in  the  beets  on  the 
control  plats,  the  yield  of  sugar  per  ac  re  was  increased  by  1,554  pounds. 
Next  to  the  application  of  nitrate  alone  the  complete  fertilizer  of  nitrate, 
sulfate  and  phosphate  gave  the  largest  increase  of  sugar  per  acre  above 
the  yield  of  the  corresponding  control  plats.  The  results  obtained  in  case 
of  the  different  plats  are,  however,  by  no  means  concordant,  and  a detailed 
discussion  of  them  would  therefore  be  of  but  slight  value.  The  table  pre- 
sents abundant  evidence  that  the  applications  of  artificial  fertilizers  pro- 
duced marked  effect  on  the  beets  grown  on  our  marshy  soil,  and  a little 
calculation  will  show  that  the  increase  in  tonnage  and  sugar  in  the  major- 
ity of  cases  was  obtained  at  an  extra  cost  below  that  of  the  fertilizer  ap- 
plied. 

CONCLUSION. 

The  investigational  work  in  sugar  beet  culture  conducted  by  or  under 
the  auspices  of  this  Experiment  Station  since  1890  has  shown  beyond  a 
doubt  that  the  cultural  side  of  the  question  presents  no  difficulties  which 
would  stand  in  the  way  of  the  successful  operation  of  sugar  factories  in 
our  state.  We  have  found  that  yields  of  beets  of  a high  quality  may  be 
obtained  in  our  state  during  good,  poor  or  indifferent  seasons,  when  proper 
attention  is  given  to  the  crop;  the  yields  obtained  here  as  elsewhere,  where 
irrigation  is  not  practiced,  will  of  course  vary  with  the  season,  but  with 
our  fairly  even  rainfall  there  is  no  chance  of  absolute  failure  of  the  crop, 
and  beets  may  always  be  depended  upon  to  give  at  least  a fair  yield. 
The  chances  for  a crop  of  sugar  beets  are  in  this  respect  exactly  similar 
to  those  for  corn  or  potatoes. 

The  general  subjects  of  home  production  of  sugar  in  this  state,  and  the 
adaptability  of  our  soil  and  climate  to  the  culture  of  the  sugar  beet,  have 
already  been  discussed  at  some  length  by  Director  Henry  in  bulletin  No. 
55  of  our  Experiment  Station:  Beet  Sugar  Production;  Possibilities  for 
a New  Industry  in  Wisconsin.  Nearly  the  whole  of  Wisconsin  lies  in  the 
American  sugar  beet  belt,  as  determined  by  climatic  conditions.  A very 
large  proportion  of  our  population  comes  from  countries  where  sugar  beets 
are  grown  and  manufactured  into  sugar,  and  have  either  personal  experi- 
ence in  growing  the  crop  or  are  accustomed  to  the  growing  of  other  root 
crops  which  call  for  similar  methods  of  culture. 

As  regards  the  possible  length  of  the  campaign  of  a sugar  factory  in  our 
state  it  has  been  found  that  the  harvesting  of  beets  can  ordinarily  begin 
during  the  latter  part  of  September,  and  may  be  continued  without  spe- 
cial precautions  until  the  middle  of  November,  or  about  fifty-five*  days. 
By  storing  the  beets  in  pits  or  silos,  as  is  done  in  Russia  and  in  some  factories 
in  this  country,  beets  may  be  held  for  the  factory  at  least  a month  or  a 
month  and  a half  longer,  and  the  working  season  for  a beet  factory  in  this 
state  may  therefore  be  counted  on  to  last  at  least  eighty  days.  In  the 
small  run  made  by  the  Menomonee  Falls  Sugar  Factory  in  April,  1897,  the 


Sugar  Beet  Investigations , 1898. 


33 


beets  had  been  kept  stored  in  pits  in  the  factory  yards  for  nearly  six 
months,  but  it  is  not  to  be  expected  that  sugar  can  be  economically  manu- 
factured from  beets  that  have  been  kept  for  so  long  a time.  It  may  be  stated, 
however,  that  our  winter  climate  does  not  present  any  difficulties  for  the 
operation  of  sugar  factories  for  a period  of  about  eighty  days,  and  this  is 
a longer  campaign  than  most  American  beet  sugar  factories  have  had  so 
far,  the  general  average  being  about  seventy  days. 

The  sugar  beet  industry  in  the  United  States  is  now  about  a generation 
old;  the  oldest  sugar  factory  in  existence  is  that  of  the  Alameda  Sugar 
Company,  at  Alvarado,  Cal.,  which  began  operations  in  1870.  Since  the 
latter  part  of  the  eighties  the  number  of  factories  manufacturing  sugar 
from  the  beet  root  has  increased  with  great  rapidity;  the  Western  Beet 
Sugar  Co.  started  their  factory  at  Watsonville,  Cal.,  in  1888;  the  Oxnard 
Beet  Sugar  Co.  started  their  Grand  Island,  Neb.,  factory  in  1890,  and  since 
then  factories  were  built  and  have  been  in  successful  operation  at  the 
places  given  below: 

Chino,  Cal.,  Norfolk,  Neb.,  Lehi,  Utah  (all  started  in  1891);  Eddy, 
N.  M.  (1896);  Los  Alamitos,  Cal  , and  Rome,  N.  Y.  (1897);  La  Grande,  Ore., 
Ogden,  Utah,  St.  Louis  Park,  Minn.,  Bay  City,  Mich.,  and  Binghampton, 
N.  Y.  (1898). 

During  the  past  season  fourteen  factories  therefore  manufactured  beet 
sugar  in  this  country,  producing  in  the  aggregate  about  one  hundred  and 
twenty  million  pounds  of  sugar.  A large  number  of  factories  are  in  pro- 
cess of  construction  in  various  states  at  the  present  time,  and  barring  ad- 
verse legislation,  will  be  ready  for  the  1899  crop.  California  alone  has 
now  in  operation,  or  in  the  process  of  construction  factories  that  will  con- 
sume annually  nine  hundred  thousand  tons  of  beets;  this  means  a mini- 
mum annual  income  to  the  California  farmer  of  nearly  four  million  dollars. 
The  nine  hundred  thousand  tons  of  beets  will  make  about  eighty-six 
thousand  tons  of  sugar.,  or  not  quite  one-thirtieth  of  the  total  consumption 
of  sugar  in  the  United  States.  As  nearly  one-seventh  of  the  sugar  con 
sumed  in  this  country  is  supplied  by  the  domestic  cane  product,  the  pres- 
ent California  factories  and  those  now  being  built  there  will  furnish  about 
one-twenty  fourth  of  the  sugar  needed  by  our  people,  provided  the  indus- 
try is  allowed  to  develop  without  inimical  legislation  or  competition  of 
foreign  low-priced  labor.  Beside  the  state  mentioned,  Oregon,  Utah,  Ne- 
braska, New  Mexico,  Minnesota,  Wisconsin,  Michigan,  New  York  and  a 
number  of  other  states  are  eminently  adapted  to  the  culture  of  the  sugar 
beet,  and  are  supplying  their  share  of  beet  sugar,  or  stand  ready  to  do  so. 

The  domestic  beet  sugar  product  has  increased  during  the  past  ten  years 
from  four  millions  to  one  hundred  and  twenty  million  pounds,  and,  unless 
there  are  disturbing  influences,  will  in  all  probability  increase  at  an 
equally  rapid  rate  in  the  future.  Wisconsin  is  by  soil  and  climate  well 
adapted  to  the  culture  of  the  sugar  beet,  and  when  capitalists  have  a rea- 
sonable assurance  as  to  the  policy  of  our  government  in  regard  to  sugar 


Bulletin  No.  71. 


34 


tariffs,  our  state  will  doubtless,  if  the  industry  is  left  to  develop  along  nat- 
ural lines,  enter  among  the  sugar-producing  states  of  the  union. 

The  work  done  by  our  Experiment  Station  in  studying  the  cultural  con- 
ditions in  our  state  for  the  beet  root,  and  the  adaptability  of  various  re- 
gions of  the  state  for  the  culture  of  sugar  beets  may  be  said  to  be  funda- 
mental and  has  paved  the  way  for  the  establishment  of  factories  in  our 
midst.  Whether  the  work  in  this  line  is  continued  in  the  future  or  not, 
much  light  has  been  thrown  on  the  question  of  sugar  beet  culture  in  Wis- 
consin, and  private  enterprise  may  now  step  in  with  considerable  assur- 
ance of  success  if  the  results  of  our  work  are  carefully  studied  and  the 
conclusions  to  which  these  lead  are  given  the  consideration  they  may 
rightly  claim. 


y ,?v£R$?rv  of  l’-1-'1 


Wis.  Bull.  No.  72. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN. 


Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


BULLETIN  NO.  72. 


SMALL  FRUITS  IN  1898. 


MADISON,  WISCONSIN , APRIL,  1899. 


<&gr-The  Bulletins  and  Annual  Reports  of  this  Station  are  sent  free  to  all 
residents  of  this  State  upon  request . 


Democrat  Printing  Company,  State  Printer,  Madison,  Wis. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN 


AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 


BOARD  OF  REGENTS. 

STATE  SUPERINTENDENT  OF  PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION  ex  officio. 

PRESIDENT  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY  - -ex  officio. 

JOHN  JOHNSTON,  3tate  at  Large,  ------  President 

B.  J.  STEVENS,  (2d  District),  - - - Chairman  Executive  Committee 

8tate  at  Large,  - - - - - WM.  F.  VILAS 

1st  District, - - OGDEN  H.  FETHERS 

3d  District,  - - J.  E.  MORGAN 

4th  District,  ---------  GEORGE  H.  NOYES 

6th  District,  --------  JOHN  R.  RIESS 

6th  District,  ---------  C.  A.  GALLOWAY 

?th  District, BYRON  A.  BUFFINGTON 

8th  District, ORLA.NDO  E.  CLARK 

9th  District  - - - - J.  A.  VAN  CLEVE 

10th  District,  ------  J.  H.  STOUT 

Secretary,  E.  F.  RILEY,  Madison 

GEORGE  H NOYES,  Vice  President.  STATE  TREASURER,  Ex-Officio  Treasurer. 


Agricultural  Committee. 

Regents  CLARK.  STOUT,  FETHERS,  RIESS.  MORGAN  and  PRESIDENT  ADAMS. 


OFFICERS  OF  THE  STATION. 

THE  PRESIDENT  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY. 

W.  A.  HENRY,  --------  Director 

S M.  BABCOCK,  ......  - Chief  Chemist 

F.  H.  KING,  - - ...  ....  Physicist 

E.  S.  GOFF,  Horticulturist 

W.  L.  CARLYLE,  animal  Husbandry 

F.  W.  WOLL,  - - - - - - - - - - Chemist 

H.  L.  RUSSELL,  ........  Bacteriologist 

E.  H.  FARRINGTON.  .......  Dairy  Husbandry 

J.  A.  JEFFERY,  - .....  Assistant  Physicist 

J.  W.  DECKER,  ..........  Dairying 

ALFRED  VIVIAN,  --------  Assistant  Chemist 

FRED  CRANEFIELD  ------  Assistant  in  Horticulture 

LESLIE  H.  ADAMS,  -------  Farm  Superintendent 

IDA  HERFURTH,  -------  Clerk  and  Stenographer 

EFFIE  M.  CLOSE,  ........  Librarian 


FARMERS’  INSTITUTES. 

GEORGE  McKERROW,  Superintendent 

HATTIE  V.  STOUT,  ......  Clerk  and  Stenographer 

General  Offices  and  Departments  of  Agricultural  Chemistry,  Animal  Hus- 
bandry, Bacteriology,  Farmers’  Institutes  and  Library,  in  Agricultural  Hall, 
near  University  Hall,  on  Upper  Campus. 

Dairy  Building  and  joint  Horticultural-Physics  Building,  west  end  of  Obser- 
vatory Hill,  adjacent  to  Horticultural  Grounds  and  Experiment  Farm. 
Telephone  to  Station  Office,  Dairy  Building  and  Farm  Office. 


SMALL  FRUITS  IN  1898. 


E.  S.  GOFF. 

One  office  of  the  horticultural  department  of  an  experiment  station  as 
generally  understood  is  to  keep  the  people  informed  as  to  the  merits 
and  demerits  of  the  newer  fruits.  While  tests  made  in  one  locality  are  not 
always  a safe  guide  for  other  localities,  accurate  data  with  reference  to 
varieties  of  fruit  in  which  fruit  growers  are  interested  are  always  instruc- 
tive and  suggestive. 

The  tests  of  fruit  at  our  Station  are  not  intended  to  be  exhaustive.  As 
a rule,  a variety  is  not  tested  unless  reasons  appear  for  believing  that  it 
may  have  especial  value  for  our  state.  The  tests  made  are  usually  on  a 
small  scale,  it  being  taken  for  granted  that  a test  at  best  cannot  be  more 
than  suggestive  for  other  localities,  and  a small  test  is  as  likely  to  be  sug- 
gestive as  a larger  one. 

The  varieties  reported  upon  in  this  bulletin  all  fruited  the  past  season, 
and  the  notes  were  mainly  made  from  the  riast  season’s  crop.  As  the  fruit 
of  the  different  kinds  ripened,  good  samples  of  most  of  them  were  selected 
for  drawing,  and  the  drawings  are  here  reproduced.  The  illustrations 
are  natural  size,  except  as  otherwise  noted. 

THE  STRAWBERRY. 

Our  test  of  strawberries  consisted  of  a single  row  of  each  variety  50  feet 
long.  The  soil  was  a light  clay  loam,  in  good  condition,  and  was  well 
manured  before  plowing.  The  plants  were  originally  set  2 feet  apart,  in  rows 
3%  feet  apart,  and  were  permitted  to  form  young  plants  the  first  season  after 
setting  without  other  restriction  than  the  free  use  of  the  cultivator  be- 
tween the  rows.  In  beds  fruited  more  than  one  season,  we  mow  the  ground 
over  after  fruiting  and  burn  the  cut  off  material  between  the  rows.  We 
then  narrow  the  matted  rows  to  8 inches  wide,  and  thin  the  remaining 
plants  freely,  after  which  the  runners  are  permitted  to  grow,  as  in  the  first 
season.  We  irrigate  our  strawberry  beds  as  they  seem  to  require  it,  but 
the  past  season  no  irrigation  was  needed  until  after  the  fruiting  period. 
The  rows  planted  in  the  spring  of  1896  received  a top  dressing  of  unleached 
ashes  after  fruiting  in  1897. 

Annie  Laurie  (Per.).  From  Jas.  Lippincott,  Jr.,  Mount  Holly,  N.  J. 
Planted  spring  of  1896.  Plant  dwarf,  moderately  vigorous  and  productive; 
fruit  medium  to  very  small,  roundish-conical,  sometimes  flattened,  light 


4 


Bulletin  No.  72. 


color,  rather  soft,  of  fair  or  good  quality;  season  medium  or  rather  early. 

The  small  size  of  the  fruit  and  the  meager  productiveness  of  the  plant 
render  this  variety  undesirable  as  compared  with  many  others. 

Arrow  (Imp.).  From  H.  R.  Cotta,  Freeport,  111.  Planted  spring  of 
1897.  Plant  vigorous,  with  rather  pale,  small  leaflets;  fruit  small,  short- 
conical,  bright-scarlet,  firm,  quality  inferior;  season  very  early;  moderately 
productive.  Not  promising. 

Belle  La  Crosse  (Per.).  Fig.  1.  From  Jas.  Lippincott,  Jr.,  Mount 
Holly,  N.  J.  Planted  spring  of  189C.  This  variety  did  much  better  in  the 
season  of  1897  than  during  the  past  season,  but  it  was  not  sufficiently  pro- 
ductive either  season  to  make  it  desirable.  Plant  vigorous,  with  many 


leaf  stalks  appearing  flat,  as  if  two  had  grown  together;  fruit  large  or  very 
large,  irregular-conical,  bright-scarlet,  but  often  with  a green  tip;  moder- 
ately firm,  of  medium  quality.  The  past  season  the  berries  were  almost 
worthless  owing  to  their  irregular  shape  and  uneven  ripening;  season  late. 
Not  worth  cultivating  here. 

Berlin  (Imp.).  From  J.  H.  Hale,  South  Glastonbury,  Conn.  Planted 
spring  1897.  Plant  dwarf,  foliage  deep-green,  not  very  healthy;  fruit 
small,  deep-scarlet,  firm  but  poor  in  quality;  season  early.  Not  produc- 
tive. 

Bisel  (Imp.).  Fig.  2.  From  Storrs,  Harrison  Co.,  Painesville,  O. 
Planted  spring  1896.  Plant  vigorous,  foliage  deep-green  with  rather  small 
leaflets,  inclined  to  blight;  fruit  medium  to  small,  short,  truncate-conical, 
often  a little  flattened,  bright-scarlet,  rather  firm,  of  medium  quality,  very 
productive.  Season  late.  The  small  size  and  ordinary  quality  of  the  fruit 
are  the  chief  drawbacks  of  this  variety. 


Small  Fruits  in  1898. 


5 


FIG.  2.— Bisel  strawberry,  natural  size. 

Bouncer  (Per.).  From  Thompson’s  Sons,  Rio  Vista,  Va.  Planted 
spring  1897.  Plant  not  vigorous  or  healthy;  leaves  wrinkled;  fruit  medium 
to  small,  roundish,  very  deep-scarlet,  moderately  firm,  of  good  quality; 
unproductive;  season  medium. 


Brandywine  (Per.).  Fig.  3.  From  W.  C.  Babcock,  Bridgeman,  Mich. 
Planted  spring  1896.  Plant  extremely  vigorous,  with  large,  deep-green, 
healthy  foliage;  fruit  large,  conical  vrith  numerous  seeds,  bright-scarlet, 
calyx  “ double”;  quality  medium  or  rather  poor;  plant  only  moderately 
productive. 

Brunette  (Imp.).  Fig  4.  From  Fred  E.  Young,  Rochester,  N.  Y. 
Planted  spring  1897.  Plant  not  vigorous;  leaves  somewhat  wrinkled;  fruit 
short-conical,  bright-scarlet,  moderately  firm,  of  fair  to  good  quality;  sea- 
son medium:  plant  not  productive. 


6 


Bulletin  No.  72. 


Fig.  5.— Champion  of  England  strawberry,  natural  size. 


FIG.  6. — Clyde  strawberry,  natural  size. 


Small  Fruits  in  1898. 


7 


Champion  of  England  (Per.),.  Fig  5.  From  E.  W.  Ried,  Bridge- 
port, O.  Planted  spring  1897.  Plant  not  vigorous;  foliage  rather  light- 
green,  leaflets  smooth,  glossy;  fruit  rather  long-conical,  tapering  a little  to 
the  neck,  deep  scarlet,  moderately  firm;  quality  and  season  medium.  Plant 
not  productive. 

Clyde  (Per.).  Fig.  6.  From  J.  H.  Hale,  South  Glastonbury,  Conn. 
Planted  spring  1897.  Plant  vigorous;  fruit  short-conical  with  a very 
large  calyx,  mostly  regular,  firm,  of  fair  to  good  quality;  season  medium. 
This  was  decidedly  the  most  productive  and  the  most  promising  of  the 
varieties  fruiting  for  the  first  time  the  past  summer,  but  several  varieties 
planted  a year  earlier  surpassed  it  in  yield. 


FIG.  7. — Editli  strawberry,  natural  size. 


Columbian  (Per.).  From  W.  C.  Babcock,  Bridgeman,  Mich.  Planted 
spring  1896.  Plant  moderately  vigorous;  leaflets  medium  or  small,  smooth; 
fruit  medium  to  small  with  numerous  and  prominent  seeds,  bright  scarlet 
rather  firm;  quality  fair  to  good;  season,  very  early;  plant  quite  product- 
ive. The  small  size  of  the  fruit  is  perhaps  the  chief  drawback  with  this 
sort. 

Edith  (Imp.).  Fig.  7.  From  Thompson’s  Sons,  Rio  Vista,  Va.  Planted 
spring  1897.  Plant  moderately  vigorous;  foliage  deep-green,  leaflet, 
wrinkled;  fruit  very  large  and  irregular,  much  flattened,  deep-scarlet  with 
seeds  purple  where  exposed  to  sun,  rather  soft,  very  poor  in  quality;  mod- 
erately productive;  season  rather  late.  The  very  large  and  irregular  fruit 
render  this  variety  interesting,  but  its  poor  quality  and  small  yield  render 
it  unpromising. 

Enormous  (Imp.).  Fig.  8.  From  Jas.  Lippincott,  Jr.,  Mount  Holly, 
N.  J.  Planted  spring  1897.  Plant  very  vigorous;  leaflets  mostly  small 


8 


Bulletin  No.  72. 


Small  Fruits  in  1808. 


S 


and  wrinkled  as  if  unhealthy;  flower  stalks  short;  fruit  rather  irregular, 
conical,  deep  scarlet,  moderately  firm;  quality  very  good;  season  late.  The 
first  fruits  to  ripen  were  very  large,  but  the  later  ones  were  below  medium; 
one  of  the  best. 

Epping  (Imp.).  Fig.  9.  From  H.  R.  Cotta,  Freeport,  111.  Planted 
spring  1897.  Plant  very  vigorous  with  deep-green,  wrinkled  leaves;  fruit 
short-  often  truncate-conical,  rather  light  in  color  with  seeds  purple  where 
exposed  to  sun;  moderately  firm,  rich  but  not  very  sweet;  season  rather 
early;  plants  moderately  productive. 

Fountain  (Per.).  From  E.  J.  Hull,  Oliphant,  Pa.  Planted  spring 
1896.  Plant  moderately  vigorous,  leaflets  rather  small,  deep-green;  fruit 
large,  short-conical,  often  flattened,  deep-scarlet,  with  numerous  and 


FIG.  11.— Howell’s  Seedling  strawberry,  natural  size. 


prominent  seeds,  very  firm,  of  fair  quality;  season  early;  plants  produc-. 
tive,  and  the  fruit  maintained  its  size  well;  promising  for  market. 

Holland  (Imp.).  Fig.  10.  From  W.  C.  Babcock,  Bridgeman,  Mich. 
Planted  spring  1896.  Plant  very  vigorous,  tall,  with  large,  deep-green  leaves 
that  almost  completely  hide  the  fruit,  which  is  roundish-conical,  regular, 
bright-scarlet,  rather  soft  and  has  a large  calyx;  quality  rather  poor;  size 
holds  out  well;  season  rather  late;  plants  quite  productive.  The  fruit  of 
this  variety  is  not  firm  enough  for  market,  and  not  sufficiently  high  in 
quality  for  home  use. 

Howell's  Seedling  (Per.).  Fig.  11.  From  Thompson’s  Sons,  Rio  Vista, 
Va.  Planted  spring  1897.  Plant  not  vigorous;  leaflets  large,  deep-green, 
wrinkled;  fruit  conical,  tapering  to  the  neck,  deep-scarlet,  with  red  seeds, 
rather  soft,  quality  fair  to  good;  yield  very  small;  season  rather  late. 

Hunn  (Imp.).  From  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Geneva,  N.  Y. 
Planted  spring  1897.  Foliage  very  deep-green,  glossy,  more  affected  with 


10, 


Bulletin  No.  ?#. 


FIG.  12.— Ideal  strawberry,  natural  size. 


Small  Fruits  in  1898. 


11 


blight  than  that  of  any  other  variety  grown;  the  fruit  did  not  mature 
well;  season  very  late. 

Ideal  (Imp.).  Pig.  12.  From  W.  C.  Babcock,  Bridgeman,  Mich.  Planted 
spring  1896.  Plant. moderately  vigorous;  fruit  medium  to  small,  flattened, 
truncate-conical,  deep-scarlet,  firm,  quality  fair  or  poor;  plants  moder- 
ately productive;  season  early. 

Iowa  Beauty  (Per.).  Fig  13.  From  W.  C.  Babcock.  Bridgeman,  Mich. 
Planted  spring  1896.  Plant  very  vigorous;  foliage  deep-green,  wrinkled; 
fruit  medium  to  large,  very  short-conical,  deep-scarlet,  seeds  purple  where; 
exposed  to  sun;  quality  excellent;  season  early.  The  fruit  colored  per- 
fectly and  the  plants  were  much  more  productive  the  past  season  than  the* 
preceding  one;  rather  promising  as  an  early  variety. 

Ivanhoe  (Per.).  Fig.  14.  From  Fred  E.  Young,  Rochester,  N.  Y. 
Planted  spring  1897.  Plant  dwarf  with  scanty,  deep-green  foliage;  leaf- 
lets small;  fruit  short*conical,  often  truncate,  very  deep-scarlet  and  very 
soft;  quality  good;  plants  not  productive;  season  early. 


FIG.  15.— Kyle  No.  1 strawberry,  natural  size. 

Kyle  No.  1 (Imp.).  Fig.  15.  From  W.  C.  Babcock,  Bridgeman,  Mich. 
Planted  spring  1896.  Plant  vigorous;  foliage  deep  green;  fruit  medium  to 
small,  roundish  or  slightly  flattened,  very  deep-scarlet,  moderately  firm, 
quality  fair  or  poor;  season  late;  yield  rather  large. 

Lady  Thompson  (Per.).  Fig.  16.  From  Jas.  Lippincott,  Jr.,  Mount 
Holly,  N.  J.  Planted  spring  1896.  Plant  moderately  vigorous;  foliage 
rather  light-green,  wrinkled,  not  healthy;  fruit  rather  small,  short  eonical, 
truncate,  regular,  rather  light  in  color  with  dark  seeds,  soft  and  rather  in- 
sipid; season  early;  quite  productive.  The  small,  insipid  and  soft  fruit 
condemn  this  variety. 

Lincoln  (Imp.).  From  W.  C.  Babcock,  Bridgeman,  Mich.  Planted 
spring  1896.  Plant  extremely  vigorous  with  deep-green  foliage;  fruit  of 
medium  size;  short-conical,  regular,  often  flattend,  bright-scarlet,  coloring 
perfectly  to  the  tip,  firm,  of  fair  or  good  quality;  season  early;  productive. 
The  fruit-stalks  were  short  and  inclined  to  lie  down.  One  of  the  most 
promising  varieties  reported. 


12 


Bulletin  No.  72. 


Maida  (Per.).  From  Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C., 
who  secured  it  from  Maj.  Wm.  M.  Carlins  of  Virginia.  Planted  spring 
1896.  Plant  moderately  vigorous,  tall;  foliage  deep-green;  flower-stalks 
remarkably  long,  rising  above  the  tall  foliage,  giving  the  plant  a distinct 


FIG.  16. — Lady  Thompson  strawberry,  natural  size. 

appearance;  fruit  medium  to  large,  oblong-conical,  tapering  a little  to  the 
small  calyx,  bright-scarlet,  not  ripening  well  to  the  tip,  moderately  firm, 
quality  fair  or  good;  season  late,  not  very  productive.  The  flowers  of  this 
variety,  growing  as  they  do  above  the  foliage,  would  doubtless  be  very  sus- 
ceptible to  injury  from  frost. 


FIG.  17.— Margaret  strawberry,  natural  size. 

Margaret  (Per.).  Fig.  17.  From  Matthew  Crawford,  Cuyahoga  Falls,  O. 
Planted  spring  1895.  Plant  moderately  vigorous;  leaflets  large,  glossy; 
flower-stalks  short;  fruit  large,  short-conical  or  slightly  flattened,  larger 
samples  usually  more  or  less  furrowed  longitudinally,  very  deep-scarlet, 


Small  Fruits  in  1898. 


13 


seeds  numerous,  prominent,  purple  on  sunny  side  of  fruit,  which  is  mod- 
erately firm  and  of  good  quality;  season  medium;  plant  only  moderately 
productive. 


FIG.  18. — Mary  strawberry,  natural  size. 


Mary  (Imp.).  Pig.  18.  From  Storrs,  Harrison  Co.,  Painesville,  O. 
Planted  spring  1896.  Plant  moderately  vigorous;  foliage  dark,  dull-green; 
flower-stalks  short;  fruit  large,  short  truncate-conical,  deep  scarlet,  colors 
well  to  the  tip,  moderately  firm,  quality  ordinary;  season  late;  fairly  pro- 
ductive. 


FIG.  19.— Marshall  strawberry,  natural  size. 

Marshall  (Per.).  Fig.  19.  From  Jas.  Lippincott,  Jr.,  .Mount  Holly, 
N.  J.  Planted  1896.  Plant  moderately  vigorous;  foliage  light-green,  does 
not  appear  healthy,  leaflets  wrinkled;  flower-stalks  short;  fruit  medium  to 


14 


Bulletin  No.  72. 


very  large,  the  larger  samples  often  irregular,  roundish-conical,  very  deep- 
scarlet  like  the  Warfield,  very  firm,  seeds  slightly  prominent,  quality  fair 
to  very  good;  fruit  keeps  very  well;  season  medium.  This  variety  disap- 
pointed us  in  the  meagreness  of  its  yield,  and  in  the  small  size  of  the  later 
berries. 


Mayflower  (Per.).  Prom  W.  C.  Babcook,  Bridgeman,  Mich.  Planted 
spring  1896.  Plant  extremely  vigorous;  foliage  deep-green;  flowers  very 
small;  flower-stalks  short;  fruit  very  small,  of  fair  or  good  quality;  yield 
very  small;  season  very  early;  not  worth  growing  as  compared  with  our 
better  early  sorts. 


Michigan  (Per.).  From  E.  J.  Hull,  Olyphant,  Pa.  Planted  spring  1896. 
Plant  very  vigorous  but  rather  dwarf;  leaflets  wrinkled;  fruit  medium  to 
very  large,  roundish-conical,  regular,  bright-scarlet,  moderately  firm,  of 
good  quality;  season  very  late;  productive.  The  light  color  of  the  fruit  in- 
jures this  sort  for  market. 


Small  Fruits  in  1808. 


J 5 


Oriole  (Per.).  Pig.  20.  Prom  W.  C.  Babcock,  Bridgeman,  Mich. 
'Planted  spring  1896.  Plant  moderately  vigorous;  foliage  dark-green,  leaf- 
lets much  wrinkled;  fruit  short-conical,  regular,  very  deep-scarlet,  firm, 
rather  acid,  quality  poor;  not  productive;  season  late. 

Premium.  Fig.  21.  Prom  Fred  E.  Young,  Rochester,  N.  Y.  Planted 
spring  1897.  Plant  vigorous;  foliige  deep-gre^n,  smooth,  glossy,  leaflets 
rather  small;  fruit  short,  truncate  conical,  deep  scarlet,  ripened  well  at  tip, 
moderately  firm,  fair  or  good  in  quality;  productive;  season  rather  early. 


Pride  of  Cumberland  (Per.).  Fig.  22.  Prom  Thompson’s  Sons,  Rio 
Vista,  Va.  Planted  spring  1897.  Plant  not  vigorous;  foliage  deep  green, 
-dull,  wrinkled;  fruit  short-conical,  regular,  deep-scarlet  with  purple  seeds, 
rather  soft,  quality  poor;  season  rather  early;  not  productive. 

Star  (Per.).  Prom  E.  W.  Reid,  Bridgeport,  O.  Planted  spring  1897. 
Plant  vigorous;  foliage  deep-green,  wrinkled;  fruit  conical,  tapering  to  the 
neck,  often  flattened  and  furrowed,  bright-scarlet,  rather  soft,  quality 
good;  moderately  productive;  season  rather  late. 

Splendid  (Per.).  From  Storrs,  Harrison  Co . , Painesville,  O.  Planted 
spring  1896.  Plant  extremely  vigorous,  with  remarkably  deep-green 
smooth,  and  apparently  healthy  foliage;  flower-stalks  short;  fruit  medium, 
roundish-conical,  light-scarlet,  seeds  numerous,  prominent,  flesh  rather 
firm,  quality  superior;  plant  very  productive;  season  rather  late.  This 
is  one  of  the  most  promising  varieties  recently  tested  on  our  grounds. 

Staples  (Per.).  Fig.  23.  From  Jas.  Lippincott,  Jr.,  Mt.  Holly,  N.  J. 
Planted  spring  1896.  Plant  very  dwarf  but  not  feeble,  a good  plant  maker; 
fruit  pretty  well  covered  by  the  leaves,  quite  small  in  size,  deep-red, 

; short,  irregular-conical,  calyx  large,  partly  double,  not  reflexed,  detach- 
ing very  easily  from  the  fruit,  seeds  very  numerous  and  prominent,  flesh 
firm,  flavor  poor,  acid;  ripens  fairly  well  to  the  tip;  not  productive;  season 
very  early.  The  first  two  pickings  of  this  sort  were  rather  abundant,  but 
it  failed  with  these.  On  the  whole  we  regarded  it  inferior  to  Michel’s 
JEarly. 


16 


Bulletin  No.  72. 


Tennyson  (Per.).  Fig.  21.  From  Matthew  Crawford,  Cuyahoga  Falls, 
O.  Planted  spring  1897.  Plant  not  vigorous,  dwarf;  foliage  deep-green 
but  apparently  not  very  healthy;  fruit  roundish-conical,  bright-scarlet, 
seeds  purple  on  sunny  side;  calyx  very  large,  the  lobes  usually  three- 
parted  on  the  larger  fruits,  flesh  rather  soft;  quality  excellent;  only  mod- 
erately productive;  season  medium. 


FIG.  23. — Staples  strawberry,  natural  size. 


Vories.  From  T.  H.  Vories,  Wathena,  Doniphan  Co.,  Kan.  Planted 
spring  1897.  Plant  extremely  vigorous,  with  deep-green  healthy  foliage; 
fruit  short,  usually  flattened,  often  irregular,  bright-scarlet,  moderately 
firm,  quality  fair;  moderately  productive;  season  rather  late. 

Weston  (Per.).  Fig.  25.  From  W.  C.  Babcock,  Bridgeman,  Mich. 
Planted  spring  1896.  Plant  extremely  vigorous,  deep-green,  healthy;  fruit 


medium  to  large,  very  light  in  color,  roundish,  regular-conical,  tip  a little 
late  in  coloring,  moderately  firm,  fair  in  quality;  season  late;  plant  very 
productive.  The  light  color  would  doubtless  injure  this  variety  for  mar- 
ket. 

William  Belt  (Per.)  ; Fig.  26.  From  Fred  E.  Young,  Rochester,  N.  Y. 
Planted  spring  1896.  Plant  vigorous,  with  large,  wrinkled  leaves;  fruit 


Small  Fruits  in  1898. 


17 


medium  to  very  large,  the  larger  specimens  often  extremely  irregular;  the 
medium  ones  short,  somewhat  irregular-conical,  bright-scarlet,  moder- 
ately firm,  quality  excellent;  season  late;  plants  extremely  productive. 

After  the  crop  of  1897  we  regarded  this  variety  as  more  promising  than 
any  other  under  trial  at  that  time.  The  past  season,  however,  its  pro- 
ductiveness was  disappointing,  it  being  surpassed  in  yield  by  several  other 
varieties. 


FIG.  26.— Wm.  Belt  strawberry,  natural  size. 


The  three  most  promising  strawberries  in  the  foregoing  list,  are 
perhaps,  all  things  considered,  William  Belt,  Clyde  and  Splendid. 


18 


Bulletin  No.  72. 


RASPBERRY. 

The  following-named  varieties  of  the  raspberry  and  blackberry  are  here 
reported  for  the  first  time,  though  a part  of  them  have  been  grown  in  a 
small  way  for  several  seasons.  One  fifty-feet  row  of  each  has  been  grown, 
and  the  plants  have  received  winter  protection  in  every  case.  The  soil  is 
the  same  as  described  for  the  strawberry. 

Allsmeyer.  A seedling  red  raspberry  sent  by  Mr.  E.  C.  Allsmeyer  of 
DeForest,  Wis.,  in  the  spring  of  1897.  The  plants  made  a vigorous  growth 


FIG.  27. — Columbian  raspberry,  natural  size. 


and  bore  well  the  past  season  considering  that  it  wTas  the  first  crop.  The 
fruit  was  medium  to  small,  hemispherical,  dull  red,  of  good  quality.  This 
is  undoubtedly  above  the  average  of  wild  varieties  in  vigor  and  product- 
iveness, but  does  not  compare  well  in  size  with  Cuthbert  or  Loudon;  sea- 
son medium. 

Champlain.  From  Ellwanger  & Barry,  Rochester,  N.  Y.  Planted 
spring'1893.  This  is  a yellow-fruited  variety,  reminding  one  of  the  old  Yel- 
low Antwerp.  It  has  not  been  productive  with  us,  and  the  fruit  is  too 
soft  to  have  value  unless  for  home  use.  In  quality  it  is  very  good,  but 
not  better  than  the  old  Caroline;  season  medium. 

Columbian.  Fig.  27.  (Rubus  negleotus.)  From  Coe  & Converse,  Fort 
Atkinson,  Wis.  Planted  spring  1893.  Plant  more  vigorous  than  that  of 
any  other  variety  grown  and  unsurpassed  by  any  other  in  productiveness 


Small  Fruits  in  1898. 


19 


except  the  Loudon.  The  fruit  is  large,  hemispherical  or  obscurely  pointed, 
dull  purplish-red,  slightly  acid,  rich  and  pleasant,  much  resembling 
Schaffer  in  color  and  flavor,  but  is  more  firm  and  less  rich  than  that  vari- 
ety; commenced  ripening  about  July  9 and  continued  in  season  until  most 
other  varieties  had  passed.  The  canes  creep]  rather  extensively  on  the 


ground  late  in  the  season,  but  do  not  root  freely  unless  the  tips  are  covered. 
The  large  growth  of  the  canes  is  an  objection  where  winter  protection  is 
practiced.  The  principal  value  of  this  variety  is  doubtless  for  canning.  It 
is  inferior  to  the  Schaffer  for  table  use. 

Eureka.  From  Fred.  E.  Young,  Rochester,  N.  Y.  Planted  spring  1896. 
This  is  a first-early  black-cap,  ripening  with  Spry’s  Early  and  Conrath’s 
Early.  The  first  ripe  berries  of  all  these  were  picked  July  2.  In  product- 
iveness it  was  not  equal  to  Conrath’s  Early.  The  fruit  was  fine  and  of 
good  quality. 

Gault.  From  Storrs,  Harrison  Co.,  Painesville,  O.  Planted  spring 
1896.  This,  as  grown  by  us,  was  an  early  black  cap  that  developed  no 
specially  valuable  qualities.  The  plants  may  not  be  genuine,  as  the  true 


20 


Bulletin  No.  72. 


Gault  is  said  to  mature  very  late,  and  to  yield  an  autumn  crop,  which 
ours  failed  to  show. 

Harris.  Fig.  28.  From  A.  L.  Wood,  Rochester,  N.  Y.  Planted  spring 
1897.  Judging  from  its  first  crop,  this  variety  is  promising.  The  plant  is 
evidently  dwarf  and  productive;  the  fruit  is  large  and  of  good  quality,  but 
its  dark-red  color  will  probably  injure  it  for  market;  season  late. 


Loudon.  Fig.  29.  From  Storrs,  Harrison  Co.,  Painesville,  O.  Planted 
spring  1896.  Our  first  planting  of  the  Loudon  was  not  satisfactory,  owing 
to  proximity  to  trees  that  evidently  affected  the  growth  and  yield  of  the 
plants  during  several  dry  seasons  following  the  planting,  hence  this  is  the 
first  report  we  have  made  of  it. 

By  common  consent  the  Loudon  was  rated  finest  of  the  red  varieties. 
The  Cuthbert  was  its  nearest  rival,  but  the  Loudon  surpassed  this  well- 
known  sort  in  the  yield  and  quality  of  the  fruit.  It  commenced  to  ripen  a 
little  earlier  than  Cuthbert  and  continued  in  season  a little  later. 
The  fruit  was  excellent  in  size,  color  and  quality,  though  in  the  latter  re- 
spect it  was 'perhaps  not  quite  equal  to  Cuthbert. 

Miller's  Bed.  Fig.  30.  From  Fred.  E.  Young,  Rochester,  N.  Y.  Planted 
spring  1896.  This  variety  proved  only  moderately  productive,  and  the 


Small  Fruits  in  1898. 


21 


quality  was  poorest  of  all  the  red  sorts  tested.  In  season  it  was  about  the 
same  as  Loudon. 

Royal  Church  (Red).  From  Green’s  Nursery  Co.,  Rochester,  N.  Y . 
Planted  spring  1893.  The  plants  of  this  variety  have  lacked  vigor  and 
productiveness  on  our  grounds.  The  fruit  is  large,  hemispherical,  bright- 
red  and  good  in  quality.  Ripens  with  Cuthbert,  but  does  not  continue  so 
long  in  bearing. 


Superlative  (Red).  From  Ellwanger  & Barry,  Rochester,  N.  Y.  Planted 
spring  1893.  This  variety  has  produced  some  very  handsome  fruit  of 
choice'quality,  but  the  plants  have  been  neither  vigorous  nor  productive. 
It  is  of  the  European  species  — Rubus  Idceus. 

Sweet's  Golden.  From  C.  A.  Sherwood,  Whitehall,  Wis.  Planted 
spring  1893.  This  is  a yellow-fruited  variety  of  the  black- cap  species — 
Rubus  occidentalis.  Several  ^similar  varieties  have  appeared  at  differ- 
ent times,  but  none  of  them  have  become  popular.  The  fruit  is  mild  and 


22 


Bulletin  No.  72. 


agreeable  in  flavor,  but  has  a dull  and  unattractive  color  when  fully  ripe. 
The  fruit  of  this  variety  has  not  averaged  larger  than  that  of  the  ordinary 
wild  black-cap. 


BLACKBERRY. 

We  have  tested  several  varieties  of  the  blackberry  during  recent  years 
in  the  hope  of  securing  a sort  that  should  be  superior  to  the  Ancient  Briton 
in  quality  and  that  should  ripen  earlier  and  be  as  productive  as  that  vari- 
ety. Thus  far,  we  have  not  found  it.  The  El  Dorado  comes  nearest  to  our 
ideal,  but  it  has  not  proved  equal  to  the  Ancient  Briton  in  productiveness. 


Small  Fruits  in  1898. 


23 


Bonanza.  From  John  Tuckerman,  Bridgewater,  Wis.  Planted  spring 
1897.  Bush  rather  dwarf  and  spreading,  productive;  fruit  medium  or 
rather  small,  nearly  round,  very  uniform  in  size;  quality  fair,  with  a 
v slightly  bitter  flavor;  season  medium.  Found  wild  by.  Mr.  Tuckerman 
near  his  home  in  Bridgewater,  N.  Y.  While  the  fruit  is  small  in  size,  the 
productiveness  of  the  plant  may  render  this  variety  valuable. 

El  Dorado.  Fig.  31.  From  Storrs,  Harrison  Co.,  Painesville,  O. 
Planted  spring  1896.  Plant  vigorous,  with  stronger  canes  and  healthier 
foliage  than  the  Ancient  Briton;  fruit  medium  to  large,  very  uniform, 
slightly  elongated,  jet  black  and  of  best  quality;  season  very  early.  This 
variety  began  to  ripen  fully  ten  days  before  Ancient  Briton,  and  it  contin- 
ued in  fruit  a long  time  though  not  so  long  as  the  later  varieties.  Its 
earliness,  superior  quality  and  long  fruiting  render  it  an  ideal  sort  for  the 
family  garden.  Whether  or  not  it  will  prove  sufficiently  firm  for  long  car- 
riage remains  to  be  seen.  By  planting  this  variety  with  the  Ancient 
Briton  the  blackberry  season  may  be  prolonged  at  least  ten  days. 

Minnewaski.  From  Green’s  Nursery  Co.,  Rochester,  N.  Y.  Planted 
spring  1894.  With  us,  this  variety  has  proved  only  moderatively  produc- 
tive. The  fruit  is  large,  and  of  fair  quality  and  the  plant  is  a strong 
grower. 

Truman's  Thornless.  From  Geo.  P.  Peffer,  Pewaukee,  Wis.  Planted 
spring  1894.  The  canes  of  this  variety  have  fewer  thorns  than  those  of 
most  others,  but  they  are  not  entirely  thornless;  plant  rather  dwarf,  only 
moderately  productive:  fruit  of  good  size  and  quality;  season  rather  early. 

Dorchester.  From  Ellwanger  & Barry,  Rochester,  N.  Y.  Planted 
spring  1894.  This  old  variety  was  pronounced  best  in  quality  of  a number 
of  varieties  tested  by  the  writer  several  years  ago  at  the  Geneva  Experi- 
ment Station  (New  York),  and  it  was  planted  here  with  the  view  of  using 
it  as  a standard  by  which  to  judge  other  varieties.  But  its  high  quality 
was  not  maintained  here.  Compared  with  El  Dorado,  it  was  decidely  in- 
ferior, and  the  plants  have  proved  only  moderately  productive. 

Maxwell's  Early.  From.  Wm.  Parry,  Parry,  N.  J.  Planted  spring 
1894.  This  variety  commenced  to  ripen  several  days  before  Ancient 
Briton.  Plant  only  moderatively  productive.  Fruit  irregular  in  form  and 
size  with  a peculiar,  somewhat  unpleasant  flavor. 

Rathlmn.  From  A.  F.  Rathbun,  Smith’s  Mills,  N.  Y.  Planted  spring 
1894.  This  is^supposed  to  be  a hybrid  between  the  blackberry  and  dew- 
berry. The  plant  is  dwarf  and  roots  at  the  tips  like  the  dewberry.  Fruit 
large  to  very  large,  of  fair  quality;  plant  only  fairly  productive;  season 
medium.  The  chief  value  of  this  variety  will  probably  be  for  the  family 
garden. 

Sanford.  From  C.  W.  Graham,  Afton,  N.  Y.  Planted  spring  1894. 
This  variety  was  moderately  productive  and  the  fruit  was  of  good  quality, 
ripening  in  medium  season. 


24 


Bulletin  No.  72. 


The  Loganberry . Figs.  32,  33.  From  Storrs,  Harrison  Co.,  Paines- 
ville,  O.  Planted  spring  1896.  This  plant  is  a hybrid  between  the  west- 
ern dewberry  Rubus  vitrfolius , and  a red  raspberry,  probably  of  the 
European  class  liubus  Idceus.  The  plant  resembles  the  dewberry, 
but  is  less  procumbent  and  its  canes  are  more  vigorous.  The  fruit  has 
the  color,  and  a trace  of  the  flavor  of  the  red  raspberry,  but  in  form  it  re- 
sembles the  dewberry.  In  quality  it  is  inferior  to  either  of  its  parents, 
though  when  fully  ripe  it  is  quite  palatable  and  reminds  one  of  the  red 
raspberry.  It  remains  rather  firm  for  a time  after  assuming  its  red  color, 
and  would  doubtless  carry  as  well  as  the  blackberry  if  picked  at  this 
stage,  but  it  should  not  be  eaten  until  it  assumes  a purplish  tint.  The 
plant  is  only  moderately  productive,  and  the  fruits  ripen  so  slowly  that  they 
would  be  expensive  to  pick.  The  season  is  about  the  same  as  that  of  the 
red  raspberry.  The  plant  propagates  from  the  tip,  like  the  dewberry, 
and  the  receptacle  comes  off  with  the  fruit. 

After  examining  this  plant  with  care  throughout  the  fruiting  season, 
my  impressions  were  that  it  will  not  prove  a permanent  addition  to  our 
list  of  market  fruits,  but  is  of  interest  chiefly  as  a hybrid,  and  as  a novelty. 
Some  have  taken  a different  view  regarding  it.  It  is  not  sufficiently  pro- 
ductive to  be  profitable  to  grow,  and  the  fruit  is  too  poor  in  quality  to  be- 
come popular. 

The  Golden  Mayberry , and  the  so  called  Strawberry -raspberry 
{Rubies  sorbifolius),  were  both  tested,  but  they  were  found  so  far  wanting 
in  value  that  the  plants  have  been  grubbed  out.  The  first  was  so  tender 
that  the  canes  were  killed  to  the  ground  every  winter  in  spite  of  protec- 
tion, and  the  second  was  so  unproductive  as  to  be  valueless,  even  if  the 
fruit  possessed  any  desirable  qualities. 

The  so-called  Japan  Wineberry,  Rubus  phcenicolasius,  was  tested  and 
discarded  several  years  ago.  The  fruit  was  of  no  value,  and  the  canes 
winterkilled  badly,  even  when  well  covered  with  earth. 

THE  CURRANT. 

Our  currants  were  planted  four  feet  apart  in  rows  seven  feet  apart.  Tho 
land  is  in  a good  condition  of  fertility,  but  since  the  planting  of  the  cur- 
rants has  not  been  manured,  except  in  the  case  of  the  North  Star. 

Vigor  of  Growth. — In  size  of  bush  the  different  varieties  ranged  as  fol- 
lows, Raby  Castle  was  largest,  followed  in  order  by  Red  Dutch,  President 
Wilder,  Victoria,  White  Grape,  Cherry,  White  Imperial  and  Fay’s  Prolific,, 
the  last  being  smallest. 

In  strengh  of  cane,  Raby  Castle  also  ranked  first,  followed  in  order  by 
Victoria,  White  Grape,  Red  Dutch,  President  Wilder,  White  Imperial,. 
Fay’s  Prolific  and  Cherry. 

In  susceptibility  to  injury  from  aphis,  Fay’s  Prolific,  Raby  Castle  and 
Victoria  were  free;  President  Wilder,  Red  Dutch,  Cherry,  White  Imperial,. 


Small  Fruits  in  1898. 


25 


FIG.  38. — Loganberry,  natural  size. 


Bui  item  No.  72. 


20 


and  White  Grape  were  injured  in  the  order  named,  the  last  being  the  most 
injured. 

The  other  data  as  to  the  currants  can  best  be  presented  in  tabular  form. 
The  fruit  was  picked  when  at  the  proper  stage  of  ripeness  for  jelly  and 
weighed.  As  the  chief  value  of  the  currant  is  for  jelly,  a computation  was 
made  for  most  of  the  varieties  of  the  percentage  of  waste  in  the  fruit  as 
gathered  from  the  bush,  of  the  amount  of  juice  per  hundred  grammes  of 
the  fruit,  and  of  the  specific  gravity  of  the  juice.  The  data  appear  in  the 
following  table: 


Table  showing  comparative  yield , size  of  berry , per  cent,  of  waste, 
and  amount  and  specific  gravity  of  the  juice  of  different  varieties 
of  currants. 


Variety. 

Number  of 
bushes. 

Yield  of 
fruit 
(pounds). 

Weight  of 
100  cur- 
rants 

(grammes) 

| 

Per  cent, 
of  waste. 

Juice  per 
100 

grammes 
of  fruit 
cubic  cen- 
timeters). 

Specific 
gravity 
of  juice. 

Cherry 

11 

17 

85-2 

1.8 

49.2 

1.032 

Fay’s  Prolific 

11 

3(4 

90.8 

1.8 

54.0 

1 035 

North  Starj: 

44.3 

2.1 

51.9 

1 035 

Pomonaf 

3.2 

55.4 

1.042 

President  Wilder. 

11 

25 

66.3 

3.2 

50  6 

1.041 

Raby  Castle 

8 

51(4* 

46.6 

2.8 

51.8 

1.045 

Red  Crossf 

2 4 

52 . 5 

1.041 

Red  Dutch 

11 

23M 

39  4 

2.8 

51.06 

1.010 

Rubyf 

2.9 

48.6 

Victoria 

11 

33 

43.7 

2.8 

51.5 

1.043 

White  Dutch 

5 

13(4*  . 

White  Grape 

11 

38 

50.6 

3. 

51.5 

1.036 

White  Imperial  .. 

7 

20  iV 

2.9 

38.6 

1.040 

* Calculated  to  11  bushes.  f Planted  spring  of  1897.  $ Planted  spring  of  1892. 


Productiveness  of  the  Different  Varieties. — From  the  above  table, 
it  appears  that  the  Raby  Castle  was  much  more  productive  than  any 
other  variety  of  which  the  yield  was  noted.  The  order  of  productiveness 
was  — Raby  Castle,  White  Grape  iFig.  31),  Victoria  (Fig.  35),  President 
Wilder  (Fig.  36),  Red  Dutch  (Fig.  37),  White  Imperial  (Fig.  38),  Cherry 
(Fig.  39),  White  Dutch,  Fay’s  Prolific. 

The  Raby  Castle  has  been  pronounced  a synonym  of  Victoria.  In  our 
trial  it  was  not  only  more  productive  than  the  latter  variety,  but  the  fruit 
was  perceptibly  larger.  In  other  respects  the  resemblance  between  t he 
two  was  very  close. 


Small  Fruits  in  1898. 


2 7 


The  plants  of  Pomona,  Red  Cross  (Fig.  40)  and  Ruby  (Fig.  41)  were  not 
set  until  the  spring  of  1897,  and  hence  bore  but  a few  fruits.  Their  pro- 
ductiveness was  therefore  not  noted.  Those  of  the  North  Star  (Fig.  42) 
were  set  in  the  spring  of  1892,  and  in  a different  part  of  the  grounds  from 
the  others,  hence  the  yield  of  this  is  omitted,  as  it  is  not  comparable  with 
the  others.  The  North  Star  has  proved  very  vigorous  and  productive  with 


FIG.  34  (left).— White  Grape  currant,  natural  size. 

FIG.  35. — Victoria  currant,  natural  size. 

FIG.  36  (right).— President  Wilder  currant,  natural  size. 


us,  but  the  berries  have  always  been  small.  As  appears  from  the  table,  it 
was  smallest  in  berry  of  all  except  the  Red  Dutch  and  Victoria. 

Size  of  Fruit. — Of  the  varieties  in  which  this  was  determined,  Fay’s 
Prolific  showed  the  largest  berries,  followed  in  order  by  Cherry,  President 
Wilder,  White  Grape,  Raby  Castle,  North  Star,  Victoria  and  Red  Dutch. 

Percentage  of  Waste. — This  was  computed  by  weighing  a quart  of  the 
fruit  as  it  was  picked,  then  picking  the  berries  from  the  bunches  and 
weighing  the  clean  fruit  a second  time.  The  difference  in  the  weight  was 
then  divided  by  the  original  weight.  It  appears  that  It  varied  from  1.8  per 
cent,  in  Cherry  and  Fay’s  Prolific  to  3.2  per  cent,  in  Pomona  and  President 
Wilder. 


28 


Bulletin  No.  72. 


Amount  of  Juice.— This  was  determined  by  mashing  a quantity  of  the 
fruit  of  each  variety  {usually  one  quart),  placing  the  pulp  in  a muslin  sack 
and  then  pressing  out  the  juice  in  a small  jelly  press.  The  mass  of  pulp 
was  broken  up  and  turned  in  the  sack  once  or  twice  during  the  process, 
and  the  pulp  was  left  under  the  press  until  the  juice  ceased  to  drip.  As 
appears  from  the  table,  the  amount  of  juice  yielded  by  100  grammes  of  the 
fruit  varied  from  38.6  cubic  centimetres  in  the  White  Imperial  to  55.4  cu- 
bic centimetres  in  the  Pomona. 


FIG.  37  (left).— Red  Dutch  currant,  natural  size. 
FIG.  38.— White  Imperial  currant,  natural  size. 
FIG.  39  (right).— Cherry  currant,  natural  size. 


Specific  Gravity  of  the  Juice. — This  was  determined  by  the  hydro- 
meter. As  the  valtte  of  a given  variety  of  currant  for  jelly  depends  muck 
upon  the  percentage  of  solids  in  its  juice,  the  specific  gravity  of  the  juice- 
may  be  expected  to  indicate  nearly  the  comparative  value  of  a given 
variety  for  jelly  making.  It  appears  that  the  juice  of  the  Cherry  was 
lowest  in  specific  gravity  and  that  of  the  Raby  Castle  was  highest.  Since 
the  Raby  Castle  was  also  most  productive,  it  appears  that  this  variety 
should  be  especially  valuable  for  jelly  making. 

Black  Currants. — Of  these  we  have  tested  only  the  Black  Victoria,  the 
Crandall  and  the  Russian  Black.  The  first  belongs  to  the  European  class 
Ribes  nigrum , and  resembles  Lee’s  Black  Prolific,  though  it  seemed  less 
productive  than  that  variety.  The  attempt  was  made  to  compare  the 


Small  Fruits  in  1898. 


29 


juiciness  of  the  Bltick  Victoria  with,  that  of  the  red  vaiieties,  hut  it  W3,s 
found  impossible  to  compress  the  juice  from  the  berries  without  first  cook- 
ing them.  The  Crandall  is  a very  prolific  and  large-fruited  variety  of  the 
well  known  yellow  flowering  currant,  Ribes  aureum.  The  fruit  is  quite 
different  in  character  from  that  of  the  European  black  currant,  having  a 


FIG.  40  (left).— Red  Cross'  currant,  natural  size. 

FIG.  41.— Ruby  currant,  natural  size. 

FIG.  42  (right).— North  Star  currant,  natural  size. 

more  glossy  and  thinner  skin,  and  a more  bluish  color,  and  the  flavor  while 
perhaps  being  not  less  acid  is  less  harsh.  The  currants  ripen  singly  on  the 
cluster,  and  hence  must  commonly  be  picked  one  by  one. 

We  have  grown  many  seedlings  of  the  Crandall  currant,  and  the  fruit 
from  these  shows  considerable  variation  in  size,  season,  productiveness 
and  flavor.  There  seems,  however,  to  be  little  popular  demand  for  the 
black  currant  in  this  country,  and  unless  our  present  forms  of  these  fruits 


30 


Bulletin  No.  72. 


can  be  changed  more  in  character  by  culture  than  most  other  fruits  have 
been  changed,  it  is  doubtful  if  they  will  ever  become  generally  popular. 

The  Russian  black  currant  seems  to  be  no  improvement  over  the  com- 
mon European  varieties  except  that  its  foliage  lacks  the  pungent  odor 
peculiar  to  those  sorts. 

An  Experiment  in  S praying  the  Currant. — The  early  dropping  of  the 
foliage  of  the  currant  is  very  well  known.  At  Madison  the  leaves  often 
begin  to  drop  in  July,  and  sometimes  a large  part  of  them  have  fallen  by  the 
middle  of  August.  This  early  dropping  is  mainly  due  to  a disease  caused 
by  the  attack  of  a fungus — Septoria  ribis.  Experiments  have  shown 
that  early  spraying  with  the  Bordeaux  mixture  tends  to  prevent  the  un- 


FIG.  43.— Results  of  one  spraying  with  Bordeaux  mixture. 


^timely  dropping  of  the  leaves,  but  spraying  while  the  fruit  is  still  on  the 
bushes  is  objectionable  ^because  the  fruit  is  thereby  smeared  with  the 
spraying  compound. 

The  past  season  the  experiment  was  made  of  postponing  the  spraying 
until  the  fruit  was  harvested,  with  very  satisfactory  results.  A single 
thorough  spraying  of  our  currant  bushes  with  Bordeaux  mixture  (formula, 
f6  lbs.  copper  sulfate,  4 lbs.  fresh  lime,  45  gals,  water)  was  made  the  first 
week  in  July,  leaving  a few  bushes  unsprayed,  as  checks.  The  accom- 
panying illustration  (Fig.  43)  is  from  a photograph  taken  early  in  October. 
The  left  bush  received  the  spraying  in  July,  while  the  right  one  did  not. 

The  currant  appears  to  endure  early  defoliation  remarkably  well,  for  it 
often  continues  to  be  productive  for  many  years  in  spite  of  it.  There  is 
every  reason  to  expect,  however,  that  treatment  which  enables  the  bushes 
-to  retain  their  foliage  four  to  six  weeks  longer  than  usual  will  be  rewarded 
fby  an  increase  in  quantity  or  quality  of  fruit. 


Small  Fruits  in  1898. 


m 


, GOOSEBERRIES. 

The  gooseberries  here  reported  were  all  planted  in  the  spring  of  1896. 
The  number  of  bushes,  the  planting  and  the  cultivation  given  were  identi- 
cal with  that  of  the  currants. 

Vigor  of  Growth  — In  vigor,  as  indicated  by  the  size  of  the  bushes,  Red 
. Jacket,  Houghton  and  Downing  led,  these  three  being  practically  on  a 


tpar.  Transparent  was  next,  followed  by  Industry,  and  then  by  Cham- 
pion, Chantauqua,  Columbus  and  Triumph;  the  last  four  being  about 
equal. 

Damage  from  Septoria.—  On  June  30,  the  foliage  of  Columbus  was 
already  suffering  badly  from  spot  disease  ( Septoria ),  and  the  leaves  were 
already  falling.  That  of  Downing  was  also  suffering  considerably  at  this 
time,  while  that  of  Industry  and  Triumph  showed  traces  of  the  disease. 
At  this  time,  Champion,  Red  Jacket,  Houghton  and  Transparent  ap- 
peared free  from  it.  Later  all  were  more  or  less  attacked,  but  Houghton 
remained  frae  longest. 


32 


Bulletin  No.  72. 


Mildew  on  the  Fruit.—  The  bushes  were  not  sprayed  to  prevent  mildew 
on  the  fruit,  as  it  was  desired  |o  note  how  many  of  the  varieties  would  be 
able  to  withstand  this  disease  ( Spcerotheca  mors-uvce).  On  June  30, 
only  the  fruit  of  Columbus  was  much  affected;  while  that  of  Industry  and 
Triumph  showed  traces  of  the  disease.  As  the  fruit  was  gathered  for 
market  about  this  time  the  damage  from  mildew  was  slight.  Fruit  left 
longer  on  the  bushes  was  more  affected  and  only  that  of  Houghton  re- 
mained entirely  uninjured.  It  would  appear  that  where  the  fruit  is  gath- 
ered immature,  little  damage  may  be  feared  from  mildew  up  to  the  time 


FIG.  45. — Champion  gooseberry,  natural  size. 


of  harvest.  After  harvest  both  the  mildew  and  Septoria  may  be  held  in 
check  by  spraying  with  Bordeaux  mixture. 

In  yield,  Downing  far  outstripped  all  other  varieties,  producing  105 
quarts  from  11  bushes,  or  on  the  average  about  934  quarts  per  bush.  Red 
Jacket  was  second,  yielding  5 quarts  per  bush;  Houghton  was  third, 
yielding  4 1-5  quarts  per  bush;  Champion  yielded  a trifle  less  than  4 
quarts  per  bush.  Transparent,  Chautauqua,  Industry,  Triumph  and  Col- 
umbus followed  in  the  order  named,  the  last  yielding  only  234  quarts  from 
10  bushes. 


ADDITIONAL  NOTES  ON  VARIETIES. 


Downing.  Fig.  44.  Plant  very  vigorous,  thorns  few  and  rather  small, 
fruit  greenish-translucent,  with  whitish  veins. 

Champion.  Fig.  45.  Fruits  mostly  2 in  a place,  greenish- translucent 
with  whitish  veins,  surface  downy. 


Small  Fruits  in  1898, 


33 


34 


Bulletin  No.  72. 


Chautauqua.  Fig.  46.  Plant  boars  strong  thorns;  fruits  usually  one 
in  a place,  roundish-oblong,  greenish-translucent,  sprinkled  with  purple 
in  sun,  quality  excellent. 

Columbus.  Fruit  oblong  or  roundish,  yellowish-green,  of  best  quality, 
Houghton.  Fig.  47.  Fruit  small,  dark-red  with  some  bloom,  skin  thin, 
flavor  sweet  and  good. 


FIG.  48.— Industry,  gooseberry,  natural  size. 


Industry.  Fig.  48.  Fruits  deep,  dull-purple  with  numerous  small  and 
weak  prickles  on  surface,  commonly  one  in  a place,  veins  obscure  except 
on  shaded  side. 

Red  Jacket.  Fig.  49.  Spines  on  plant  strong  and  numerous.  Fruits 
translucent  with  whitish  veins,  reddish  purple  in  the  sun;  commonly  two 
in  a place. 

Transparent.  Fig.  50  Plant  very  spiny.  Fruits  greenish,  decidedly 
translucent,  showing  the  seeds  when  held  up  towards  the  light;  2 to  3 in 
a cluster,  quality  excellent. 

Triumph.  Fig.  51.  Plant  rather  spiny.  Fruit  translucent  with  white- 
ish  green  veins,  and  purple  dots  toward  sun. 


Small  bruits  in  1898 . 


35 


Four  varieties  of  so-called  “spineless”  gooseberries  were  imported  from 
France  in  the  spring  of  1896,  but  the  plants  have  been  so  much  affected 
with  mildew  that  they  have  made  very  little  growth  and  have  borne  no 
fruit.  They  have  been  but  partially  spineless. 


FIG.  49.— Red  Jacket  gooseberry,  natural  six#. 


36 


Bui  lei  in  No.  n. 


Small  Fy'uits  in  1898. 


3? 


SUMMARY. 

Of  the  strawberries  reported  in  this  bulletin,  Win.  Belt,  Clyde  and 
!Splendid  appear,  on  the  whole,  most  promising. 

Of  the  raspberries,  Loudon  (red)  was  found  most  satisfactory.  Colum- 
bian is  especially  recommended  for  canning. 

Of  blackberries,  El  Dorado  is  very  promising. 

Of  currants,  Raby  Castle  seems  to  possess  especial  value  for  jelly. 

Of  gooseberries,  no  variety  appeared  to  surpass  Downing  for  general 
utility. 

The  Loganberry  does  not  seem  likely  to  become  a market  fruit. 


Note — The  drawings  for  this  bulletin  were  made  with  the  expectation 
that  they  would  be  reduced  one  half.  But  it  was  thought  better  later  to 
reproduce  them  natural  size.  This  fact  explains  the  heaviness  of  the 
•lines. 


Wis.  Bull.  No.  73, 


UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN. 


Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


BULLETIN  NO.  73. 


ANALYSES  OF  LICENSED  COMMERCIAL  FERTIL- 
IZERS, 1899. 


MADISON,  WISCONSIN , APRIL,  1899. 


The ' Bulletins  and  ■ Annual  Reports  of  this  Station  are  sent  free  to  all 
residents  of  this  State  upon  request. 


Democrat  Printing  Company,  State  Printer,  Madison,  Wis. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN 


AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 


BOARD  OF  REGENTS. 

STATE  SUPERINTENDENT  of  PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION,  ex-officio. 
PRESIDENT  of  tlie  UNIVERSITY,  ex-officio. 

State-at-large,  JOHN  JOHNSTON,  Milwaukee. 

State-at-large,  WILLIAM  F.  VILAS,  Madison. 

First  District,  OGDEN  H.  FETHERS,  Janesville. 

Second  District,  B.  J.  STEVENS,  Madison. 

Third  District,  JOHN  E.  MORGAN,  Spring  Green. 

Fourth  District,  GEORGE  H.  NOYES,  Milwaukee. 

Fifth  District,  JOHN  R.  RIESS,  Sheboygan. 

Sixth  District,  C.  A.  GALLOWAY,  Fond  du  Lac. 

Seventh  District,  BYRON  A.  BUFFINGTON,  Eau  Claire. 

Eighth  District,  ORLANDO  E.  CLARK,  Appleton. 

Ninth  District,  J.  A.  VAN  CLEVE,  Marinette. 

Tenth  District,  J.  H.  STOUT,  Menomonie. 

Officers  of  the  Board  of  Regents. 

JOHN  JOHNSTON,  President.  I STATE  TREASURER,  Ex-Officio  Treasurer. 

GEORGE  H NOYES,  Vice-President.  | E.  F.  RILEY,  Madison,  Secretary. 


Agricultural  Committee. 

Regents  CLARK,  STOUT,  FETHERS,  RIESS.  MORGAN  and  PRESIDENT  ADAMS. 


OFFICERS  OF  THE  STATION. 

THE  PRESIDENT  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY. 


W.  A.  HENRY,  - 
S.  M BABCOCK,  - 
F.  H.  KING, 

E.  S.  GOFF,  - 
W.  L.  CARLYLE, 

F.  W.  WOLL, 

H.  L.  RUSSELL, 

E.  H.  FARRINGTON. 
J.  A.  JEFFERY,  - 
J.  W.  DECKER, 
ALFRED  VIVIAN, 
FRED  CRANEFIELD 
LESLIE  H.  ADAMS, 
IDA  HERFURTH, 
EFFIE  M.  CLOSE, 


Director 
Chief  Chemist 
Physicist 
Horticulturist 

- Animal  Husbandry 

Chemist 
Bacteriologist 
Dairy  Husbandry 
Assistant  Physicist 
Dairying 

- Assistant  Chemist 
- Assistant  in  Horticulture 

Farm  Superintendent 
- Clerk  and  Stenographer 
Librarian 


FARMERS’  INSTITUTES. 

GEORGE  McKERROW,  --------  Superintendent 

HATTIE  V.  STOUT,  ......  Clerk  and  Stenographer 

General  Offices  and  Departments  of  Agricultural  Chemistry,  Animal  Hus- 
bandry, Bacteriology,  Farmers’  Institutes  and  Library,  in  Agricultural  Hall, 
near  University  Hall,  on  Upper  Campus. 

Dairy  Building  and  joint  Horticultural-Physics  Building,  west  end  of  Obser- 
vatory Hill,  adjacent  to  Horticultural  Grounds  and  Exjjeriment  Farm. 
Telephone  to  Station  Office,  Dairy  Building  and  Farm  Office. 


ANALYSES  OF  LICENSED  COMMERCIAL  FERTIL- 
IZERS, 1899. 


F.  W.  WOLL  and  ALFRED  VIVIAN. 

The  present  bulletin  is  published  in  accordance  with  laws  of  Wisconsin,  * 
1895,  Chap.  87,  Sec.  3,  and  gives  the  results  of  the  analyses  of  fertilizers 
licensed  to  be  sold  in  this  state  during  the  current  calendar  year.  The 
subject  of  commercial  fertilizers  was  discussed  in  some  detail  by  the 
writer  (W.)  in  bulletin  No.  49,  of  our  Station:  The  Maintenance  of  Soil 
Fertility ; Commercial  Fertilizers , which  bulletin  was  largely  reprinted 
in  our  Thirteenth  Annual  Report.  Persons  desiring  information  in  this 
line  who  have  not  received  and  preserved  the  report  referred  to,  may  ob- 
tain copies  of  bulletin  No.  49  upon  request,  as  long  as  the  supply  on  hand 
lasts. 

The  explanations  as  to  fertilizer  analyses  and  technical  terms,  given  in 
the  bulletin,  will  doubtless  be  of  service  to  those  unfamiliar  with  this  sub- 
ject. It  has  been  thought  well  to  repeat  in  this  place  a few  explanatory 
remarks  concerning  the  fertilizing  elements  contained  in  materials  used 
for  the  purpose  of  maintaining  or  restoring  the  fertility  of  our  land. 

The  main  fertilizing  ingredients  which  it  may  be  essential  to  supply  in 
crop  growing,  are  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  and  potash. 

Nitrogen  may  be  present  in  fertilizers  in  three  different  forms,  as  ni- 
trates, ammonia , or  organic  compounds.  The  first  two  forms  of  nitro- 
gen are  of  most  immediate  value  to  crops,  since  they  are  easily  soluble 
and  may  be  readily  assimilated  by  plants.  Organic  nitrogen  is  the  form  of 
nitrogen  found  in  fertilizers  of  vegetable  and  animal  origin.  Some  of  these, 
like  leather  or  woolen  scrap s,  hoofs,  horn  shavings,  etc  , possess  very  little 
value  as  fertilizers,  being  insoluble  and  but  slowly  decomposed  in  the  soil. 
The  fertilizer  laws  of  many  states  do  not  recognize  nitrogen  contained  in 
materials  of  this  kind  as  of  any  value.  Available  nitrogen  means  nitrogen 
supplied  in  nitrates,  ammonia  salts  and  organic  compounds  of  easily  de- 
composable character,  like  dried  blood,  tankage,  cotton  seed  meal,  etc. 

The  nitrogenous  fertilizers  met  with  in  this  state  are  nitrate  of  soda, 
tankage,  and  dried  blood.  The  first  mentioned  fertilizer  is  mostly  used  by 
market  gardeners  and  florists  and  is  of  great  value  in  stimulating  plant 
growth.  Nitrogen  is  the  most  costly  ingredient  of  artificial  fertilizers. 
Certain  kinds  of  plants,  like  the  clovers,  alfalfa,  vetches  and  other  species 


4 


Bulletin  No.  73. 


of  the  legume  family,  are  able  through  the  agency  of  microscopic  organisms 
to  transform  the  free  nitrogen  of  the  air  to  organic  nitrogenous  compounds, 
’which  may  be  used  for  the  nutrition  of  farm  animals  and  thus  indirectly, 
or  indeed  directly,  for  enlarging  the  supply  of  nitrogenous  plant  food  in 
the  soil.  The  farmer  adopting  a system  of  crop  rotation  in  which  some 
clover  or  other  legumes  are  included  may  therefore  avoid  a cash  outlay  for 
nitrogenous  fertilizers,  and  need  only  see  to  it  that  the  potash  and  phos- 
phoric acid  contents  of  his  land  are  not  unduly  reduced  through  con- 
tinuous cropping. 

Phosphoric  acid  (P205)  may  be  found  in  commercial  fertilizers  in  one 
or  more  of  four  different  forms,  viz.:  in  mono di-,  tri-,  nn&tetra-calcium 
phosphate ; it  is  determined  as  total , or  as  soluble , reverted  and  total 
phosphoric  acid.  The  mono-calcium  phosphate  is  soluble  in  water,  the 
di-calcium  phosphate  is  insoluble  in  water  but  soluble  in  a strong,  hot 
solution  of  ammonium  citrate,  while  the  tri  calcium  phosphate  is  insoluble 
in  either  of  these  liquids.  The  phosphoric  acid  contained  in  animal  bones, 
or  bone  meal,  is  in  the  form  of  tri-calcium  phosphate.  When  applied  to 
the  soil  in  a fine-ground  condition,  it  is  gradually  dissolved  by  the  juices 
of  the  plant  roots  and  thus  rendered  available  to  plants.  Coarse  ground 
bone,  on  the  other  hand,  is  but  slowly  decomposed  in  the  soil.  Superphos- 
phate contains  both  water  soluble  and  ammonium-citrate-soluble  phos- 
phoric acid.  Broadly  speaking,  the  water-soluble  and  the  ammonium- 
citrate-soluble  phosphoric  acid  are  of  about  equal  value  to  plants.  The 
phosphoric  acid  in  tetr  a- calcium  phosphate  (basic  slag,  odorless  phos- 
phate) is  largely  soluble  in  ammonium-citrate  solution  ( reverted  phos- 
phoric  acid).  A vailable  phosphoric  acid  means  the  sum  of  the  water- 
soluble  and  the  reverted  phosphoric  acid,  and  represents  the  phosphoric 
acid  of  immediate  value  to  plants.  The  results  of  the  analyses  are  calcu- 
lated on  a basis  of  the  content  of  phosphoric  anhydrid  (P205). 

Potash  is  freely  soluble  in  water  in  the  compounds  used  as  potassic  fer- 
tilizers. There  are  several  kinds  of  potash  fertilizers,  as  potassium  sul- 
fate, muriate,  silicate,  and  potassium-magnesium  carbonate  and  sul- 
fate, etc.  Since  muriates  (chlorids)  have  an  injurious  effect  on  the  quality 
of  certain  crops,  notably  tobacco  and  potatoes,  the  use  of  potash  salts  free 
from  muriate  is  in  some  cases  desirable  or  even  essential.  The  results  of 
the  analyses  are  figured  on  basis  of  the  content  of  potassium  oxid  (K20). 

The  methods  of  analysis  followed  in  the  chemical  work  of  our  Station 
are  those  adopted  by  the  Association  of  Official  Agricultural  Chemists;  the 
methods  are  revised  from  year  to  year  at  the  annual  conventions  of  this  As- 
sociation. 


VALUATION  OF  FERTILIZERS. 

The  cost  of  commercial  fertilizers  in  the  market  is  governed  by  the  laws 
of  supply  and  demand,  as  is  that  of  all  other  commodities.  Raw  materials 
and  chemicals  containing  one  or  two  fertilizing  ingredients  furnish  data 


Licensed  Commercial  Fertilizers. 


5 


for  the  calculation  of  the  average  cost  of  these  ingredients  in  commercial 
fertilizers.  Since  the  prices  of  the  different  fertilizing  materials  vary 
somewhat  from  time  to  time  according  to  the  condition  of  the  market,  the 
calculations  must  be  revised  at  intervals.  The  average  retail  prices  of  raw 
materials  and  chemicals  in  the  large  eastern  fertilizer  markets  for  the  six 
months  preceding  March  each  year  are  calculated  by  a number  of  eastern 
experiment  stations,  and  the  cost  of  the  different  fertilizing  ingredients 
which  commercial  fertilizers  on  the  market  contain,  is  obtained  on  basis 
of  these  figures;  these  values  will  nearly  correspond  with  the  prices  of 
fertilizing  materials  in  our  main  fertilizer  markets,  and  may  be  used  for 
the  purpose  of  comparing  approximately  the  value  of  the  various  fertilizers 
offered  for  sale  in  this  state. 

The  trade  values  of  fertilizing  ingredients  in  raw  materials  and  chemi- 
cals adopted  for  the  current  year  are  given  in  the  following  schedule: 


Nitrogen—  Cents  per  lb. 

in  ammonia  salts 15 

in  nitrates 12*4 

Organic  Nitrogen— 

in  dry  and  fine-ground  fish,  meat,  blood,  and  in  high-grade  mixed  fertilizers..  14 

in  cottonseed  meal,  linseed  meal  and  castor  pomace 12 

in  fine  bone  and  tankage 14 

in  coarse  bone  and  tankage 10 

Phosphoric  Acid— 

soluble  in  water 4)4 

soluble  in  ammonium-citrate  solution 4 

in  dry  fine-ground  fish,  bone  and  tankage  4 

in  coarse  bone  and  tankage 2 

in  cottonseed  meal,  linseed  meal,  castor  pomace  and  wood  ashes 4 

insoluble  (in  ammonium-citrate  solution),  in  mixed  fertilizers 2 

Potash— 

as  high  grade  sulfate,  and  in  forms  free  from  muriate 5 

as  muriate 4*4 


In  order  to  obtain  the  valuation  prices  of  the  fertilizers  licensed  to  be 
sold  in  our  state,  the  percentages  of  valuable  fertilizing  components  are  in 
each  case  multiplied  by  the  prices  given  in  the  preceding  schedule; 
to  this  actual  cost  of  the  fertilizing  ingredients  contained  in  each  fertil- 
izer should  be  added  the  expense  of  placing  the  fertilizers  on  the  market; 

this  expense  will  vary  considerably  according  to  local  and  other  condi- 
tions; the  Pennsylvania  Department  of  Agriculture  estimates  the  expense 
as  follows: 

Mixing $1.00  per  ton. 

Bagging 1.00  per  ton. 

Agent’s  commission 20  per  cent,  of  retail  cash  value 

of  ingredients. 

$2.00  per  ton. 


Freight 


6 


Bulletin  No.  73. 


The  approximate  value  of  the  various  licensed  fertilizers  may  be  ascer- 
tained by  the  method  of  calculation  explained  in  the  preceding,  and  the 
purchaser  may  thus  learn  whether  or  not  the  price  asked  for  a certain 
fertilizer  is  about  what  it  is  worth. 

It  must  be  remembered,  however,  that  the  valuation  placed  on  the  vari- 
ous fertilizers  by  this  method  is  a commercial , and  not  an  agricultural 
one.  It  shows  the  average  retail  cash  price  of  the  different  fertilizing  in- 
gredients plus  the  cost  of  placing  the  fertilizer  on  the  market;  the  agricul- 
tural value  of  a fertilizer  depends  on  a number  of  conditions  beyond  the 
control  of  the  seller,  such  as  the  need  of  the  soil  or  the  crop  of  the  particu- 
lar fertilizing  ingredient  or  ingredients  in  question:  the  judgment  used  in 
applying  the  same,  as  to  methods,  time  and  quantities;  conditions  of 
weather,  etc  ; the  agricultural  value  of  a fertilizer,  in  other  words,  will 
vary  according  to  the  season  and  according  to  the  intelligent  application 
of  the  fertilizer;  one  farmer  may  derive  full  benefit  from  the  use  of  a fertil- 
izer, while  to  another  it  may  be  money  thrown  away.  It  is  therefore  evi- 
dent that  only  a commercial  valuation  of  fertilizers  is  ever  possible;  this 
will  enable  persons  to  compare  the  different  fertilizers  offered  for  sale,  and 
will  assist  them  in  deciding  which  are  the  most  economical  ones  for  their 
special  purpose. 

ANALYSES  OF  LICENSED  FERTILIZERS  IN  WISCONSIN  DURING  1899. 


The  following  manufacturers  have  taken  out  a license  for  the  sale  of  the 
brands  of  fertilizers  given,  in  this  state  during  the  current  year,  accord- 
ing to  the  laws  of  Wisconsin  of  1893,  chap.  87. 


Sta- 

tion 

No. 

Name  of  Manufacturer. 

Name  of  Brand. 

29 

Darling  & Co  , Chicago,  111 

Darling’s  Pure  Ground  Bone. 

30 

Darling  & Co.,  Chicago,  111 

Darling’s  Vegetable  and  Lawn 
Grower. 

31 

Hofland  & Tilleson,  Menomonie,  Wis 

“Best  of  All”  Fertilizer. 

32 

Currie  Bros.,  Milwaukee,  Wis 

Currie’s  Complete  Fertilizer  for 
Lawns,  Hay  and  Pasture. 

33 

Armour  Fertilizer  Works,  Chicago,  111 

Ammoniated  Bone  with  Potash. 

The  Station  analyses  of  the  brands  given  are  shown  in  the  following 
table.  According  to  section  1 or  our  Fertilizer  Law,  each  manufacturer 
“ shall  affix  to  every  package  of  fertilizer  sold  . . . a statement  of  the 

following  fertilizing  constituents,  namely:  the  percentage  of  nitrogen  in 
an  available  form,  the  percentage  of  potash  soluble  in  water,  and  the  per' 
centage  of  available  phosphoric  acid,  soluble  and  reverted,  as  well  as  total 
phosphoric  acid.”  The  guaranteed  composition  of  the  licensed  fertilizers 
is  given  in  the  table  in  connection  with  the  results  of  our  analyses  of  the 
samples  furnished  by  the  manufacturers  in  compliance  with  the  state 
fertilizer  law\ 


Analysis  of  licensed  commercial  fertilizers  in  Wisconsin,  1899, 


Licensed  Commercial  Fertilizers. 


§8  S 


ts 

o 3 


pS 


Z 8 


00  05 

pa  oa 


Nitrogen. 

Guar- 

anteed. 

Pr.  ct. 

2.4 

3.3 

3.3 

4.9 

2.4 

Found. 

Pr.  ct. 

3.02 

3.48 

3.35 

5.13 

2.10 

Mois- 

ture. 

Pr.  ct. 

3.24 

9.30 

4.90 

2.00 

7.84 

-S 


ctf  CQ 
Q 5 


u a 
O 


8 53  8 8 


8 


Bulletin  No.  73. 


The  mechanical  analysis  of  the  sample  of  bone  meal  included  among  the 
licensed  brands  of  fertilizers  gave  the  following  results: 


Mechanical  analysis  of  bone  m°,al. 


Sta- 

tion 

No. 

Brand. 

Fine 

ground 

Fine 

me- 

dium 

Me- 

dium. 

hoarse 

29 

Darling’s  Pure  Ground  Bone 

Per  ct 

' 80.6 

Per  ct. 

13  6 

Per  ct. 

5.4 

Per  ct. 

.4 

Fertilizer  inspection.  It  is  impossible  to  tell  from  the  appearance  or 
odor  of  a commercial  fertilizer  whether  it  contains  a large  amount  of  val- 
uable fertilizing  ingredients  or  only  a very  small  amount.  There  is  there- 
fore a strong  temptation  for  irresponsible  parties  to  make  and  sell  inferior 
or  even  valueless  goods  as  standard  fertilizing  articles;  so  much  so,  that 
it  has  been  found  necessary  in  all  states  where  the  fertilizer  business  has 
grown  to  be  of  any  importance,  that  the  state  should  in  some  way  supervise 
their  sale.  Laws  regulating  the  sale  of  commercial  fertilizers  are  at  the 
present  time  in  force  in  a large  majority  of  the  states  in  the  Union.  The 
Wisconsin  fertilizer  law  which  was  passed  by  the  legislature  in  1895  is 
given  in  full  in  the  following.  According  to  the  provisions  of  the  law, 
all  commercial  fertilizers  sold  in  this  state  at  a cost  exceeding  $10.00  per 
ton  are  to  be  licensed.  They  must  be  sold  on  a guarantee  of  certain 
amounts  of  valuable  fertilizing  ingredients  contained  therein,  and  the 
director  of  the  experiment  station,  on  whom  is  laid  the  duty  of  seeing  to  it 
that  the  law  is  enforced,  is  authorized,  in  person  or  by  deputy,  to  take 
samples  of  all  commercial  fertilizers  sold  in  this  state  which  come  within 
the  scope  of  the  law.  In  case  of  licensed  fertilizers  it  may  thus  be  ascer- 
tained whether  these  come  up  to  the  guaranteed  composition,  and  when 
it  is  found  that  parties  are  selling  fertilizers  without  complying  with  the 
provisions  of  the  law,  the  offenders  may  be  brought  before  the  proper  legal 
authorities  and  convicted  according  to  section  5 of  the  law.  This  section 
imposes  a fine  of  $100.00  for  the  first  offense  and  $200.00  for  each  subse- 
quent offense. 

It  is  hoped  that  all  dealers  in  commercial  fertilizers  in  the  state  will 
comply  with  the  law  in  all  particulars,  and  that  they  as  well  as  purchasers 
of  such  fertilizers,  will  assist  in  the  enforcement  of  the  law  by  giving 
notice  of  violations  of  the  same.  A strict  compliance  with  the  law  is  for 
the  best  interests  of  all  honest  dealers  and  consumers  alike.  Only  firms 
that  live  up  to  the  requirements  of  the  law  and  have  taken  out  licenses  for 
their  brands  of  fertilizers  should  be  patronized;  the  law  does  not  offer 
purchasers  any  protection  against  dealers  in  other  states  who  sell  inferior  or 
fraudulent  goods. 


Licensed  Commercial  Fertilizers. 


9 


THE  WISCONSIN  FERTILIZER  LAW. 

An  Act  to  regulate  the  sale  of  commercial  fertilizers. 


[Laws  of  Wisconsin  1895,  Chapter  87.] 

The  people  of  the  State  of  Wisconsin,  represented  in  senate  ^and 
assembly , do  enact  as  follows : 

Section  1.  Every  manufacturer,  company  or  person  who  shall  sell, 
offer  or  expose  for  sab  in  this  state  any  commercial  fertilizer,  or  any  ma- 
terial used  for  fertilizing  purposes,  the  price  of  which  exceeds  ten  dollars 
per  ton,  shall  affix  to  every  package  of  such  fertilizer,  in  a conspicuous 
place  on  the  outside  thereof,  a plainly  printed  statement  clearly  and  truly 
certifying  the  number  of  net  pounds  in  the  package  sold,  or  offered  for 
sale,  name  or  trade  mark  under  which  the  article  is  sold,  the  name  of  the 
manufacturer  or  shipper,  the  place  of  manufacture,  the  place  of  business 
and  a statement  of  the  following  fertilizing  constituents  namely:  the  per- 
centage of  nitrogen  in  an  available  form,  the  percentage  of  potash  soluble 
in  water,  and  the  percentage  of  available  phosphoric  acid,  soluble  and 
reverted,  as  well  as  total  phosphoric  acid. 

Section  2.  Every  manufacturer,  company  or  person  who  shall  offer  or 
expose  for  sale  in  this  state  any  commercial  fertilizer  or  material  used  for 
fertilizing  purposes,  the  price  of  which  exceeds  ten  dollars  per  ton,  shall 
for  each  and  every  fertilizer  bearing  a distinguishing  name  or  trade  mark, 
file  annually  with  the  director  of  the  agricultural  experiment  station  of 
the  University  of  Wisconsin,  between  the  first  and  last  days  of  December, 
a certified  copy  of  the  statement  named  in  section  1 of  this  act,  said  certi- 
fied copy  to  be  accompanied,  when  required,  by  a sealed  glass  jar  or  bottle 
containing  at  least  one  pound  of  the  fertilizer  to  be  sold  or  offered  for  sale, 
and  the  company  or  person  filing  said  certified  copy  with  its  accompany- 
ing sample  of  fertilizer,  shall  thereupon  make  affidavit  that  the  said  sam- 
ple corresponds  within  reasonable  limits  to  the  fertilizer  which  it  repre- 
sents, in  the  percentage  of  nitrogen  in  an  available  form,  total  and  avail- 
able phosphoric  acid,  and  potash  soluble  in  water,  which  it  contains,  said 
affidavit  to  apply  to  the  entire  calendar  year  next  succeeding  the  date  upon 
which  it  is  made.  Additional  brands  may  be  offered  for  sale  during  the 
year,  provided  samples  and  affidavits  a-e  filed  as  above  directed  at  least 
one  month  before  such  brands  of  fertilizers  are  offered  for  sale,  in  which 
case  an  analysis  fee  of  double  the  usual  amount  must  be  paid.  The  de- 
posit of  the  sa«pleof  fertilizer  as  herein  provided  shall  be  required  by  said 
director,  unless  the  company,  manufacturer  or  persons  selling  or  offering 
for  sale  a fertilizer  coming  within  the  provisions  of  this  act,  shall  certify 
that  its  composition  for  the  succeeding  year  is  to  be  the  same  as  given  in 
the  last  previously  certified  statement,  in  which  case  the  requiring  of  the 
said  sample  shall  be  at  the  discretion  of  said  director. 

Section  3.  The  director  of  the  agricultural  experiment  station  shall 
analyze  or  cause  to  be  analyzed  all  the  samples  of  fertilizers  which  come 
into  his  possession  under  the  provision  of  section  2 of  this  act,  and  shall 
publish  the  results  thereof  in  a bulletin  or  report  on  or  before  the  first  day 
of  April  next  succeeding. 

Section  4.  Any  manufacturer,  importer,  agent  or  seller  of  any  com- 
mercial fertilizer  coming  within  the  provisions  of  this  act,  shall  pay  annually 
to  the  director  of  the  Wisconsin  agricultural  experiment  station,  for  each 
brand  of  fertilizers  sold  within  the  state  a fee  of  twenty-five  dollars,  and 
upon  fulfilling  the  requirements  laid  upon  him  by  this  act,  shall  for  each 
brand  receive  from  the  director  a certificate  of  compliance  with  this  act, 
which  certificate  shall  be  a license  permitting  a sale  of  the  same  within 


10 


Bulletin  No.  73. 


the  state  for  the  calendar  year  for  which  the  fee  is  paid.  All  fees  received 
by  said  director  shall  be  paid  by  him  into  the  treasury  of  said  experiment 
station.  ^ 

Section  5.  Any  manufacturer,  importer  or  person  who  sha'l  sell,  offer 
or  expose  for  sale  in  this  state  any  commercial  fertilizer  without  comply- 
ing with  the  requirements  of  sections  one,  two  and  four  of  this  act,  or  any 
fertilizer  which  contains  substantially  a smaller  percentage  of  constituents 
than  are  certified  to  be  contained,  shall,  on  conviction  in  a court  of  com- 
petent jurisdiction,  be  fined  one  hundred  dollars  for  the  first  offense,  and 
two  hundred  dollars  for  each  subsequent  offense. 

Section  6.  The  director  of  the  Wisconsin  experiment  station  shall  an- 
nually analyze,  or  cause  to  be  analyzed,  at  least  one  sample  of  every  fer- 
tilizer sold  or  offered  for  sale  under  the  provisions  of  this  act.  Said  direc- 
tor is, hereby  authorized  in  person  or  by  deputy  to  take  a sample,  not  ex- 
ceeding two  pounds  in  weight,  for  said  analyses,  from  any  lot  or  package 
of  fertilizer  or  any  material  used  for  manurial  purposes  which  may  be  in 
the  possession  of  any  manufacturer,  importer,  agent  or  dealer  in  this 
state:  but  said  sample  shall  be  drawn  in  the  presence  of  said  party  or 
parties  in  interest,  or  their  representatives,  and  taken  from  a parcel  or  a 
number  of  packages  which  shall  not  be  less  than  ten  per  cent,  of  the  whole 
lot  sampled,  and  shall  be  thoroughly  mixed  and  then  divided  into  equal 
samples  and  placed  in  glass  vessels  and  carefully  sealed  and  a label  placed 
on  each,  stating  the  name  or  brand  of  the  fertilizer  or  material  sampled, 
the  name  of  the  party  from  whose  stock  the  sample  was  drawn  and  the 
time  and  place  of  drawing,  and  said  label  shall  als  ) be  signed  by  the  direc- 
tor or  his  deputy  and  by  the  party  or  parties  in  interest,  or  their  representa- 
tive, at  the  drawing  and  sealing  of  said  samples;  one  of  said  duplicate  sam- 
ples shall  be  retained  by  the  director  and  the  other  by  the  party  whose 
stock  was  sampled;  and  the  sample  or  samp'es  retained  by  the  director 
shall  be  for  comparison  with  the  certified  statement  named  in  section  two 
of  this  act.  The  result  of  analysis  of  the  sample  or  samples  so  procured 
shall  be  reported  to  the  person  or  persons  requesting  the  analysis  and  shall 
also  be  published  in  a report  or  bulletin  within  a reasonable  time. 

Section  7 It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  direct  )r  of  the  Wisconsin  agri- 
cultural experiment  station  to  enforce  the  provisions  of  this  act,  and  to 
prosecute  or  cause  to  be  prosecuted  any  party  or  parties  violating  the 
same. 

Section  8.  This  act  shall  take  effect  from  and  after  December  1st,  1895. 

Approved  March  23,  1895. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN. 


Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

BULLETIN  NO.  74. 


A STUDY  OF  DAIRY  SALT. 


MADISON,  WISCONSIN,  MAY,  1899. 


$&-The  Bulletins  and  Annual  Reports  of  this  Station  are  sent  free  to  all 
residents  of  this  State  upon  request . 


Democrat  Printing  Company,  State  Printer,  Madison,  Wis. 


UNIVE  RSIY  OK  WISCONSIN 


AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 


BOARD  OF  REGENTS. 

STATE  SUPERINTENDENT  of  PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION,  ex-officio. 
PRESIDENT  of  the  UNIVERSITY,  ex-officio. 

State-at-large,  JOHN  JOHNSTON,  Milwaukee. 

State-at-large,  WILLIAM  F.  VILAS,  Madison. 

First  District,  OGDEN  H.  FETHERS,  Janesville. 

Second  District,  B.  J.  STEVENS,  Madison. 

Third  District,  JOHN  E.  MORGAN,  Spring  Green. 

Fourth  District,  GEORGE  H.  NOYES,  Milwaukee. 

Fifth  District,  JOHN  R.  RIESS,  Sheboygan. 

Sixth  District,  C.  A.  GALLOWAY,  Fond  du  Lac. 

Seventh  District,  BYRON  A.  BUFFINGTON,  Eau  Claire. 

Eighth  District,  ORLANDO  E.  CLARK,  Appleton. 

Ninth  District,  J.  A.  VAN  CLEVE,  Marinette. 

Tenth  District,  J.  H.  STOUT,  Menomonie. 

Officers  of  the  B iard  of  Regents. 

JOHN  JOHNSTON,  President.  I STATE  TREASURER,  Ex-Officio  Treasurer. 

GEORGE  H NOYES,  Vice-President.  | E.  F.  RILEY,  Madison,  Secretary. 


Agricultural  Committee. 

Regents  CLARK,  STOUT,  FETHERS,  RIESS.  MORGAN  and  PRESIDENT  ADAMS. 


OFFICERS  OF  THE  STATION. 

THE  PRESIDENT  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY. 

W.  A.  HENRY, Director 

S M BABCOCK,  - - - - - - - - Chief  Chemist 

F.  H.  KING,  - ...  ....  Physicist 

E.  S.  GOFF,  ----------  Horticulturist 


W.  L.  CARLYLE,  --------  Animal  Husbandry 

F.  W.  WOLL,  Chemist 

H.  L.  RUSSELL,  Bacteriologist 

E.  H.  FARRINGTON.  -------  Dairy  Husbandry 

J.  A.  JEFFERY,  - - Assistant  Physicist 

J.  W.  DECKER,  - - . - - - - - . - Dairying 

ALFRED  VIVIAN,  Assistant  Chemist 

FRED  CRANEFIELD  ------  Assistant  in  Horticulture 

LESLIE  H.  ADAMS,  -------  Farm  Superintendent 

IDA  HERFURTH,  -------  Clerk  and  Stenographer 

EFFIE  M.  CLOSE,  Librarian 


FARMERS’  INSTITUTES. 

GEORGE  McKERROW,  --------  Superintendent 

HATTIE  V.  STOUT,  ------  Clerk  and  Stenographer 

General  Offices  and  Departments  of  Agricultural  Chemistry,  Animal  Hus- 
bandry, Bacteriology,  Farmers’  Institutes  and  Library,  in  Agricultural  Hall, 
near  University  Hall,  on  Upper  Campus. 

Dairy  Building  and  joint  ^orticulture-Physics  Building,  west  end  of  Obser- 
vatory Hill,  adjacent  to  Horticultural  Grounds  and  Experiment  Farm. 
Telephone  to  Station  Office,  Dairy  Building  and  Farm  Office. 


A STUDY  OF  DAIRY  SALT. 


F.  W.  WOLL. 

Common  salt  is  known  to  chemists  as  sodium  chlorid,  or  chlorid  of 
sodium  (symbol,  NaCl).  It  is  one  of  the  necessities  of  human  life. 
With  the  advance  of  civilization  and  the  coincident  gradual  change  in 
diet,  the  need  of  salt  to  man  has  steadily  increased.  Primitive  races 
live  largely  on  a meat  diet  and  crave  little  or  no  salt  beyond  what  is 
already  present  in  their  food,  but  to  civilized  man,  living  on  a mixed 
and  generally  highly  varied  diet,  the  supply  of  salt  to  the  food  is  as 
essential  as  is  water  or  the  food  itself.  Salt  performs  important  phys- 
iological functions  in  the  processes  of  digestion  and  assimilation  of 
food;  it  also  acts  as  a condiment  and  as  a preservative,  giving  taste 
to  the  food  eaten  and  preserving-  animal  and  vegetable  materials  from 
decay. 

The  herbivora,  at  least  the  domesticated  ones  among  them,  require 
a supply  of  salt  in  their  food,  as  is  the  case  with  man,  and  salt  is  there- 
fore generally  added  to  the  food  of  farm  animals  or  is  placed  where 
they  will  have  free  access  to  it. 

Aside  from  its  use  in  human  and  animal  nutrition,  salt  is  an  essen- 
tial in  the  manufacture  of  a thousand  and  one  articles,  like  chemical 
products,  glass,  china  ware,  leather,  dye-stuffs,  refined  oils,  paper, 
cellulose,  freezing  mixtures,  and  agricultural  produces  like  canned 
meats,  pickles,  butter,  cheese,  etc. 

According  to  Mulhall,  the  annual  per-capita  consumption  of  salt  in 
different  countries  in  the  beginning  of  this  decade  was:*  Great 
Britain,  62  pounds;  United  States,  48  pounds;  Canada,  45  pounds; 
Scandinavian  countries,  44  pounds;  France,  36  pounds;  Germany,  35 
pounds;  Russia,  33  pounds;  Italy,  25  pounds;  Austria,  18  pounds; 
Spain  and  Portugal,  19  pounds;  India,  12  pounds.  The  same  eminent 
English  authority  states  that  whenever  the  consumption  of  salt  falls 
below  20  pounds  per  inhabitant  it  is  bad  for  public  health.  During 
the  Paraguayan  war,  1864-70,  it  was  observed  that  the  men  who  had 
been  without  salt  for  three  months  when  wounded,  however  slightly, 
died,  as  their  wounds  would  not  heal.  “A  reduced  death  rate  and 


*The  Dictionary  of  Statistics,  1892,  page  518. 


4 


Bulletin  No.  7^. 


higher  efficiency  of  workmen  are  results  of  the  greater  consumption 
of  salt.”* 

Importance  of  the  American  salt  industry. — Since  salt  is  used  in  every 
household  in  the  land,  and  furthermore  enters  into  the  manufacture  of 
all  the  products  mentioned  and  others,  it  is  but  natural  that  the  salt 
industry  of  the  United  States  is  one  of  considerable  magnitude.  The 
value  of  the  annual  output  amounts  to  about  five  million  dollars  at  the 
factory.  Salt  is  found  in  a large  number  of  places  in  this  country, 
and  in  many  cases  in  immense  deposits.  The  United  States  ranks 
second  among  the  salt-producing  countries  of  the  world,  being  led  only 
by  Great  Britain,  with  Russia  and  Germany  coming  third  and  fourth, 
respectively.  In  1897  there  was  manufactured  in  this  country  13,153,524 
barrels  of  salt  (of  280  pounds).  Adding  to  this  quantity  the  excess 
importation  above  what  was  exported,  we  reach  the  immense  figure  of 
nearly  fifteen  million  barrels  or  over  four  thousand  million  pounds, 
which  represents  the  present  annual  consumption  of  salt  in  this 
country. 

The  statistical  government  reports  do  not  furnish  definite  informa- 
tion concerning  the  production  of  the  various  grades  of  domestic  salt; 
the  following  table,  taken  from  the  11th  annual  report  of  the  United 
States  Geological  Survey!  will,  however,  show  the  quantities  of  dairy 
and  table  salt  produced  in  this  country,  with  total  product  and  the 
value  of  the  latter.  It  will  be  noticed  that  thirteen  states  of  the  Un- 
ion manufactured  salt  during  1896,  the  state  of  New  York  producing 
the  largest  quantities,  both  of  all  grades  of  salt  and  of  table  and  dairy 
salt,  with  Michigan,  Ohio  and  Kansas  following  in  the  order  given.  In 
the  manufacture  of  table  and  dairy  salt,  Ohio  comes  second,  Michigan 
third,  and  Kansas  fourth.  In  1897  (the  last  year  for  which  statistics 
are  at  hand)  the  production  of  salt  in  Kansas  was  greater  than  that 
of  Ohio,  and  Michigan’s  output  was  greater  than  that  of  New  York. 


Production  of  salt  in  1896 , by  states  and  grades . 


State. 

Table  and 
dairy. 

Total 

product. 

Total 

value 

(at 

factory). 

California 

Barrels. 
41,714 
93, 174 
152, 3 -*8 
1,348,998 
400, 263 
715 
70, 886 
5,000 
117,271 

Barrels. 

430,121 
1,408,607 
3,164,238 
6,069,040 
1,662,358 
198, 596 
279,800 
176,921 
461,045 

$198,963 
397,296 
718,408 
1,896,681 
432, 877 

56. 717 
96, 550 

50.717 
192,630 

Kansas 

Michigan 

New  York 

Ohio 

Pennsylvania 

Utah 

West  Virginia 

Illinois,  Nevada,  Texas,  Louisiana  and  Virginia  . 

Total 

2,230, 409 

13,850, 726 

$4,040,839 

^'Dictionary  of  Statistics,  1886,  page  398. 
JNo.  Y,  page  1274. 


A Study  of  Dairy  Salt. 


5 


Production  of  dairy  salt. — We  notice  that  about  one-sixth,  or  16  per 
cent.,  of  the  total  output  of  salt  is  table  and  dairy  salt,  the  retail  value 
of  which  would  come  at  nearly  five  million  dollars.  About  four-fifths 
of  this  quantity  again  is  sold  as  dairy  salt.  The  expression  dairy  salt 
is,  however,  very  loosely  applied  by  salt  manufacturers  and  is  under- 
stood to  be  synonymous  with  the  term  factory-filled.  The  great  bulk 
of  salt  g*raded  as  factory-filled  is  not  used  in  dairying,  but  for  table 
purposes  and  in  the  preparation  of  ham,  bacon,  olives,  or  in  the  manu- 
facture of  canned  goods,  pickles  and  many  other  articles.* 

The  amount  of  dairy  salt  used  In  this  country  may  be  estimated  ap- 
proximately from  the  statistics  of  the  butter-  and  cheese  production  of 
the  United  States,  as  given  by  the  United  States  Census.  If  we  assume 
that  the  butter  made  in  this  country  is  salted  at  the  rate  of  one  ounce 
to  the  pound,  which  is  the  general  rule,  and  that  cheese  is  salted  two 
and  one-half  pounds  per  one  hundred  pounds,  the  domestic  butter-  and 
cheese  production  called  for  the  quantities  given  below.  The  figures 
relate  to  the  year  ending  December  31,  1889. 


Total  production  of  butter  on  farms  in  the  U.  S.  in  1889 
(not  including  farm  less  than  3 acres,  except  where 
$500  worth  of  the  produce  of  the  farm  had  been  ac- 


tually sold  during  the  year)  . . . . 1,021, 223,468  lbs. 

One-sixteenth  thereof 

Total  production  of  cheese  on  farms  in  the  U.  S in  1889  18,726,818  lbs. 

Two  and  one-lxalf  per  cent,  thereof 

Total  factory  production  of  butter 181,284,916  lbs. 

One-sixteenth  thereof 

Total  factory  production  of  cheese 238,035,065  lbs. 

Two  and  one-half  per  cent  thereof 


64,013,967  lbs. 

468,170  lbs. 
11,430,307  lbs. 
5,950,877  lbs. 


* 81,863,321  lbs. 

The  retail  value  of  this  quantity  of  dairy  salt  wovdd  approximate 
eight  hundred  thousand  dollars.  The  requirements  of  purity  and  high 
quality  in  dairy  salt  used  for  other  purposes  than  for  butter-  and 
cheese  making  are,  however,  generally  the  same  as  those  of  dairy 
salts  proper,  and  other  interests  are  therefore  affected  by  the  quality 
of  this  salt  to  a similar  extent,  as  is  dairying. 

Methods  of  manufacture. — Salt  is  obtained  by  three  distinct  methods: 
one,  by  evaporation  of  the  water  of  the  ocean,  which  contains  about 
2.5  per  cent,  salt;  two,  from  brine  by  evaporating  the  water  by  means 
of  solar  or  artificial  heat,  and  three,  by  mining  rock  salt.  Of  these 
methods,  the  second  one  only  is  of  importance  in  our  discussion. 
About  90  per  cent,  of  the  domestic  salt  product  is  manufactured 
from  brine,  there  being  only  four  companies  that  mine  rock  salt, 
viz.,  one  in  Louisiana,  two  in  Kansas  and  one  in  New  York;  the 
New  York  company  owns  a number  of  different  mines,  only  two  of 
which  were  operated  in  1896.  Salt  was  manufactured  in  154  establish- 


*Private  communication  from  Dr.  H.  G.  Piffard,  president  Genesee 
Salt  Co. 


6 


Bulletin  No.  7Jf. 


merits  in  this  country  in  1896,  exclusive  of  rock  salt  mines.  More 
than  one-third  of  this  number  of  establishments  (viz.,  fifty-four)  were 
in  Michigan,  39  in  New  York,  24  in  California,  10  in  Kansas,  and  the 
others  scattered  as  shown  in  the  table. 

The  processes  by  which  salt  is  manufactured  from  brine  differ  ac- 
cording to  the  kind  of  heat  applied  for  evaporating  the  water  of  the 
brine,  this  taking  place  either  by  means  of  solar  heat  in  shallow  pans, 
or  by  artificial  heat;  by  the  latter  method,  either  direct  heat  or  steam 
heat  is  used,  the  brine  being  evaporated  in  large  open  pans,  ini  vacuum 
pans,  kettles,  or  in  so-called  grainers.  The  details  of  the  methods  of 
manufacture  of  dairy  salts  will  be  further  explained  below." 

According  to  the  eleventh  annual  report  of  the  United  States  Geolog- 
ical Survey,  49  establishments  used  solar  heat  in  the  manufacture  of 
salt  in  1896;  26  used  open  pans,  18  vacuum  pans,  6 kettles,  and  82 
grainers;  some  establishments  employed  more  than  one  process  of 
manufacture.  Direct  heat  was  applied  in  31  establishments,  and  steam 
heat  in  91. 

Properties  of  salt. — Common  salt  is  not  found  in  nature  as  absolutely 
pure  sodium  chlorid,  but  always  in  combination  with  small  amounts 
of  impurities  from  which  it  cannot  be  entirely  separated  except  by 
painstaking  chemical  work.  Even  so-called  C.  P.  (chemically  pure) 
sodium  chlorid,  as  manufactured  for  the  use  of  chemists,  may  contain 
appreciable  quantities  of  various  impurities  (see  below,  analysis  of 
sample  No.  66).  The  common  impurities  in  dairy  salt  are  calcium  sul- 
fate (gypsum),  calcium  and  magnesium  chlorids;  sometimes  sodium 
sulfate,  or  perhaps  magnesium  sulfate;  furthermore,  moisture  and  me- 
chanical impurities,  like  dirt,  pan  scale,  pieces  of  wood,  etc.  The  im- 
purities mentioned  are  generally  present  in  only  small  quantities  in 
good  dairy  salt,  but  nearly  all  are  always  found  present  therein,  as 
we  shall  see  later. 

Salt  has  a specific  gravity  of  about  2.2;  its  hardness  is  2.  It  crystal- 
lizes in,  what  mineralogists  call,  the  isometric  system,  generally  in 
cubes  or  related  forms.  When  a salt  solution  is  evaporated  slowly,  the 
cubes  aggregate  in  the  form  of  thin,  concave,  hopper-shaped  crystals 
like  those  shown  in  figure  1.  Rapidly  evaporated  brines  give  fine,  hard 
crystals  of  a reg’ular  cubical  form.  Salt  manufactured  by  the  vacuum- 
pan  process  assumes  this  form  of  crystallization.  (See  plates  showing 
salt  crystals.) 


*See  Chatard,  Salt-Making*  Processes  in  the  United  States,  U.  S.  Geo- 
logical Survey,  7th  An.  Report,  1885-86,  pp.  497-535.  For  an  historical 
sketch  of  the  salt  industry  in  the  United  States,  see  the  lltli  An.  Re- 
port of  the  Survey,  pp.  1288-1313,  and  Piffard,  The  Salt  Industry,  in 
Depew,  One  Hundred  Years  of  American  Commerce,  Yol.  II.,  pp. 
442-445. 


A Study  of  Dairy  Salt. 


7 


Fig.  1.— French  Dairy  Salt  (No.  42),  showing  hopper-shaped  crystals.;  (Photomi- 
crograph, magnified  two  times.) 

AN  INVESTIGATION  OF  AMERICAN  AND  FOREIGN  DAIRY  SALTS. 

Object  of  the  investigation. — An  inquiry  received  from  a Wisconsin  firm 
during-  the  spring  of  1898  in  regard  to  the  value  of  a well-known  brand 
of  salt  in  comparison  with  other  brands,  led  to  the  present  study. 
The  keen  competition  between  the  different  salt  manufacturers  is 
shown,  among  other  ways,  by  glowing  and  often  misleading  advertise- 
ments by  which  patronage  of  the  various  brands  is  sought.  One 
brand  is  widely  advertised  as  “the  salt  that’s  all  salt;”  another,  as  “the 
best  salt  in  the  world;”  another  ag-uin  takes  all  premiums  at  fairs  and 
conventions,  etc.  It  was  believed  that  the  dairy  public  has  a right  to 
expect  correct  information  from  the  experiment  stations  as  to  the 
comparative  value  of  the  different  kinds  of  salt,  so  that  these  may  be 
sold  on  their  respective  merits  rather  than  on  the  word  of  the  particu- 
lar manufacturer  or  agent.  The  study  was  considered  so  much  the\ 

(more  opportune  as  no  systematic  investigation  of  this  subject  has 
ever  been  made  in  this  country  or  abroad;*  even  the  number  of  chem- 
ical analyses  made  of  the  various  brands  is  very  small,  and  the  avail- 1 
able  data  therefore  unsatisfactory. 

The  writer  aimed  to  obtain  samples  of  the  leading  brands  of  dairy 

*Alex.  Muller,  in  1863,  published  a paper  on  “Butter-Salting  and  the  ) 
Salt  to  be  Used  for  It”  (Landw.  Vers.  Sta.,  V,  pp.  184-188),  which  is  the 
only  discussion  bearing  directly  on  this  subject. 


8 


Bulletin  No.  74. 


salt  for  analysis  from  creameries  and  cheese  factories  so  as  to  show 
the  chemical  composition  of  the  various  kinds  as  found  in  the  market* 
and  also  to  secure  samples  direct  from  the  different  manufacturers  for 
comparison  with  the  former.  The  samples  received  under  these  heads 
were  obtained  partly  through  correspondence  with  managers  of 
creameries  and  cheese  factories  or  the  various  manufacturers,  and 
partly  through  the  assistance  of  Mr.  John  W.  Decker,  cheese  instruc- 
tor in  the  Wisconsin  Dairy  School,  on  his  tours  of  inspection  of  fac- 
tories operated  by  candidates  for  dairy  certificates  in  the  Dairy  School. 
As  it  was  considered  of  interest  to  be  able  to  compare  the  quality  of 
our  domestic  dairy  salts  with  those  used  in  foreign  dairy  countries* 
an  effort  was  made  to  obtain  samples  of  the  leading  brands  in  the 
main  European  countries  where  dairying  is  an  important  industry. 
Thanks  to  the  kind  assistance  of  a number  of  dairy  scientists  in  the 
various  European  countries,  a considerable  number  of  samples  of  the 
leading  foreign  dairy  salts  were  received  and  have  been  analyzed.  In 
all  eighty-one  samples  were  subjected  to  chemical  and  mechanical 
analysis,  of  which  number  fifty-five  were  domestic  dairy  salts  or  such 
as  are  used  in  this  country,  and  twTenty-five  foreign  dairy  salts.  The 
number  includes  thirty-seven  different  brands  of  salt,  of  which  nine- 
teen are  sold  on  the  American  and  Canada  market,  and  sixteen  in  the 
United  States. 

The  largest  amount  of  work  done  on  this  investigation  was  expended 
in  a chemical  analysis  of  the  samples  received;  the  effort  was  also- 
made  to  examine  critically  the  different  brands  as  to  other  factors- 
which  influence  their  value  for  butter  or  cheese  making,  as  the  rate  of 
solubility,  specific  gravity,  form  of  crystallization,  etc.  A number  of 
churning  experiments  were  also  made  with  a fine-  and  a coarse- 
grained salt,  to  determine  the  effect  of  each  on  the  butter  and  on  the 
weight  of  butter  obtained  in  each  case.  The  investigation  was  begun 
during  the  early  spring  of  1898,  but  was  not  completed  until  the  pres- 
ent time  owing  to  interruption  of  work  in  other  lines  which  demanded 
immediate  attention. 

The  following  list  gives  information  concerning  the  origin  of 
the  salt  samples  analyzed,  with  the  names  of  the  parties  forwarding 
the  samples  for  analysis: 


Sta- 

tion 

No. 

40 

41 

52 

61 

1 

72 

80 

51 

22 

33 

76 

77 

4 

59 

67 

69&8J 

75 

56 

35 

46 

47 

48 

49 

62 

63 

64 

65 

73 

12 

34 

68 

5 

78 

79 

54 

3 

6 

7 

11 

60 

74 

32 

53 

57 

58* 

2 

58 

* 


A Study  of  Dairy  Salt. 


O' 


Description  of  samples  of  dairy  salt. 


Name  of  brand. 


Used  for 


Name  of  sender. 


A . Domestic  Brands. 


Acme  dairy  salt 

Anchor  dairy  and  table  salt 

Anchor  dairy  and  table  salt 
Anchor  dairy  and  table  salt. 
Ashton  factory-filled  dairy 

salt 

Ashton  factory-filled  dairy 
salt 


Ashton  factory-filled  dairy 

salt 

Bradley  salt 


Canfield  & Wheeler  salt 

Canfield  & Wheeler  salt.  — 
Canfield  & Wheeler  salt  r 32) 
Canfield  & Wheeler  salt(32F) 
Diamond  Crystal  salt. .. . 


Diamond  Crystal  salt. 


Diamond  Crystal  salt. 
Diamond  Crystal  salt. 


Brick  cheese 


Butter 


Cheese 


Cheese 

Cheese 


Butter 

Butter 

Butter 

Butter 


Diamond  Crystal  salt Butter  

Empire  dairy  salt Brick  cheese 

Genesee  salt j Butter. 

Genesee  salt Butter 

Genesee  salt Butter 

Genesee  salt i Butter 

Genesee  salt 

Genesee  salt 

Genesee  salt 


Butter  

Butter 

Brick  cheese. 


Genesee  F.  F Butter 


Genesee  F.  F. 


Higgins’  Eureka  dairy  salt. 

Kansas  salt  (“Perfection”). 
Kansas  (No.  2,  butter  salt). 

Kansas 

LeRoy  cheese  salt  (“Snow 

Flake”)  

LeRoy  butter  salt 

LeRoy  cheese  salt 

Lone  Star  dairy  salt 


Vacuum  Pan  dairy  salt. 
Vacuum  Pan  dairy  salt.. 
Vacuum  Pan  dairy  salt. 
Vacuum  Pan  dairy  salt. 
Vacuum  Pan  dairy  salt. 
Vacuum  Pan  dairy  salt. 


Warsaw  salt. 
Warsaw  salt. 
Warsaw  salt. 


Windsor  salt 

Worcester  dairy  salt.. 

Worcester  dairy  salt.. 


Cheese 


Butter.. 
Butter. , 
Butter  . 

Cheese 
Butter 
Cheese  , 


Butter. 

Butter. 

Cheese 


Cheese 


Butter 

Brick  cheese. 
Brick  cheese. 


Butter. 

Butter. 


Butter 


A H.  Reid,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

The  Percy  Salt  Works,  Ludington,. 
Mich. 

J.  A.  Emison,  Rogersville,  Wis. 

Wm.  J.  Emison,  Eldorado,  Wis. 

University  Creamery,  Madison,  Wis. 

Francis  D.  Moulton  & Co.,  New 
York  City. 

J.  A.  Woll.  Seattle,  Wash. 

Brunswick  Cheese  Factory,  Clia- 
tonville,  Wis. 

A.  Henseler,  Bakerville,  Wis. 

Jas.  McPherson,  Veefkind,  Wis. 

The  Canfield  & Wheeler  Co.,  Man- 
istee, Mich. 

University  Creamery,  Madison,  Wis. 

( Sample  taken  March  24,  1898.) 

University  Creamery,  Madison,  Wis. 
(Sample  taken  Aug.  7,  1898.) 

Diamond  Crystal  Salt  Co.,  St.  Clair, 
Mich. 

Mazomanie  Creamery,  Mazomanie, 
Wis. 

Wernick  & Hammer,  Hillsboro,  Wis. 

Anton  Miller,  Neeuah,  Wis. 

•J.  O.  Gibson.  Urne,  Wis. 

H.  W.  Comely,  Clinton  Jet.,  Wis. 

Elkhorn  Creamery,  Elkliorn,  Wis. 

Tibbitts’  Creamery,  Tibbitts,  Wis. 

Volga  Creamery,  Volga,  Wis. 

T.  W.  Harville,  Millville,  Wis. 

Perrin’s  Cheese  Factory,  Eggers- 
ville,  Wis. 

The  Genesee  Salt  Co.,  New  York, 
N.  Y. 

The  Genesee  Salt  Co.,  New  York, 
N.  Y. 

Francis  D.  Moulton  & Co.,  New^ 
York.  N.  Y. 

Union  Creamery  Co.,  Madison,  Neb. 

C.  B.  Merry,  Nortonville,  Kan. 

Prof.  H.  M.  Cottrell,  Manhattan, 
Kan. 

A.  Grimm,  Manawa,  Wis. 

The  LeRoy  Salt  Co  , LeRoy,  N.  Y. 

The  LeRoy  Salt  Co.,  LeRoy,  N.  Y. 

R.  A.  Pearson,  Asst.  Chief  Dairjr 
Div.,  Washington,  D.  C. 

University  Creamery,  Madison, Wis. 

Chas.  Lambert,  Pickett,  WTis. 

Tlios.  E.  Bolchen,  Mt.  Ida,  Wis. 

F.  D.  Teel,  Baraboo,  Wis. 

J.  O.  Batchelder,  Fond  du  Lac,  Wis. 

The  Butters  & Peters  Salt  and  Lum- 
ber Co  , Ludington,  Mich. 

Rusk  Co-operative  Cr’y,  Rusk,  Wis. 

J.  F.  Leitzke,  Hustisford,  Wis. 

Union  Cheese  Factory,  Hustisford^ 
Wis. 

L.  E,  Scott,  Neenah,  Wis. 

University  Creamery,  Madison, Wis- 
(Sample  taken  Mch.  24,  1898.) 

University  Creamery,  Madison, Wisr 
(Sample  taken  Aug.  17,  1898.) 


ame  of  manufacturer  unknown  ; very  likely  of  Canadian  manufacture. 


10 


Bulletin  No.  74- 


Description  of  samples  of  dairy  salt.—  Continued. 


Sta- 

tion 

No. 

Name  of  brand. 

Used  for 

Name  of  sender. 

13 

J.  M Hod  son.  Montpelier,  Ohio. 

E.  W.  Feak,  Rockland,  Wis. 
Ellenboro  Cr’y,  Ellen  boro,  Wis. 
Worcester  Salt  Co.,  New  York,  N.Y. 
John  G.  Klossner,  Eggersville,  Wis. 

Wm.  Strupp,  Coon  Valley,  Wis. 
Genesee  Salt  Co  , New  York,  N.  Y. 

45 

Butter  .... 

50 

Worcester  dairy  salt 

Butter 

70&71 

Worcester  (A  & B; 

27 

“ New  York  ” salt 

Cheese 

31 

Cheese  salt  (“second  qual- 
ity” > 

66 

Merck’s  NaCl,  C.  P 

B.  Canadian  Brands. 

36 

Coleman’s  butter  and  cheese 
salt 

Prof.  H.  H.  Dean,  Guelph,  Ont. 

Prof.  H.  H.  Dean,  Guelph,  Ont. 

Prof.  H.  H.  Dean,  Guelph,  Ont. 

Prof.  H.  H.  Dean,  Guelph,  Ont. 

37 

38 

39 

C.  European  Brands. 

8 

Dr.  B.  Martiny,  Berlin,  Germany. 

Dr.  B.  Martiny,  Berlin,  Germany. 

Dr.  P.  Vieth,  Hameln,  Germany 

Director  Johs.  Siedel,  Giistrow, 
Germany. 

Director  Johs.  Siedel,  Giistrow, 
Germany. 

Director  F.  H.  Wereaskiold,  Chris- 
tiania, Norway. 

Director  F.  H.  Werenskiold,  Chris- 
tiania, Norway. 

Director  F.  H.  Werenskiold,  Chris- 
tiania, Norway. 

Dairy  Counselor  B.  Boggild,  Co- 
penhagen, Denmark. 

Prof.  J.  P.  Sheldon,  Sheen,  Ash- 
bourne, England. 

Prof.  James  Long,  Burleigh,  Ches- 
hunt,  England. 

Prof.  R.  Lez6,  Buc,  pres  Versailles, 
France. 

Prof.  R.  Leze,  Buc,  pres  Versailles, 
France. 

Prof.  R.  Leze,  Buc,  pres  Versailles, 
France. 

Insp.-Adj.  Paul  de  Vuyst,  Gand, 
Belgium . 

Insp.  -Adj.  Paul  de  Vuyst,  Gand, 
Belgium. 

Insp.-Adj.  Paul  de  Vuyst,  Gand, 
Belgium. 

Dr.  Ed.  von  Freudenreich,  Berne, 
Switzerland. 

Di.  C.  Besana,  Lodi,  Italy. 

Dr.  F.  Gabriel,  Friedland,  Bohemia. 

Dr.  F.  Gabriel,  Friedmnd,  Bohemia. 

9 

Stade  salt 

24 

25 

26 

Schonebecker  salt 

14 

Norwegian  dairy  salt 

(Lueneberg,  M.) 

15 

Norwegian  dairy  salt 

(Lueneberg,  S.) 

16 

Norwegian  dairy  salt 

(Lueneberg,  O.) 

19 

Danish  Krone-salt  ” 

17 

Higgins’  Eureka  dairy  salt 

18 

D.  S.  C.  L.  dairy  salt... 

42 

French  dairy  salt  (“  Sel 
ordinaire,  Daguin  mines”) 

French  i“  Sel  de cuisine”) 

43 

44 

French  (“  Sel  de  cuisine,  sel 
de  mer”) 

. 

20 

Belgian  dairy  salt  (“  Sel 
Anglais” 



21 

Belgian  dairy  salt  (“Sel 
fin  fin  Beige  ”) 

28 

Belgian  dairy  salt  (Dairy  of 
Borsheke ) 



10 

Swiss  cheese  salt  (from 
Schweizerhalle  on  the 
Rhine ) 

23 

Italian  cheese  salt 

29  I 

Bohemian  salt  (“Sud  salz”) . 
Rock  salt  (from  Wieliczka). 



I 

30 



1 

A Study  of  Dairy  Salt. 


11 


CHEMICAL  ANALYSIS  OF  DAIRY  SALT. 

Methods  of  analysis. — The  methods  of  chemical  analysis  followed  are 
given  in  outline  below.  The  analyses  were  made  in  duplicate,  or  in 
quadruplicate,  when  the  first  set  of  analyses  were  not  considered  sat' 
isfactory.  Two  lots  of  ten  grams  of  salt  each  were  weighed  out,  dis- 
solved in  200  cc.  of  water,  and  the  time  required  to  effect  perfect  solu- 
tion was  noted.  The  solution  was  then  filtered  through  a tared  plati- 
num gooch  and  the  insoluble  residue  in  the  gooch  determined  on  dry- 
ing in  air-bath  for  about  four  hours  at  110  to  120  degrees  C.  The  fil- 
tered solution  was  made  up  to  500  cc.  with  distilled  water,  200  cc.  of 
which  was  taken  for  the  determination  of  lime  and  magnesia,  and  150 
cc.  for  the  determination  of  sulfuric  acid.  The  water  content  of  the 
salt  was  determined  by  drying  two  grams  of  the  substance  in  a steam 
oven  at  100  degrees  C.  for  five  hours.  The  sodium  chlorid  was  ob- 
tained by  difference. 

The  combinations  in  which  bases  and  acids  are  found  in  a complex 
chemical  compound  often  cannot  be  given  with  absolute  certainty, 
but  the  rate  of  solubility  of  the  various  combinations  of  bases  and 
acids  that  might  be  found  therein,  will  in  all  probability  determine 
which  ones  are  actually  present.  Soda,  lime  and  magnesia  are  the 
bases  found  in  all  common  salt,  and  sulfuric  and  hydrochloric 
acids,  the  acid  radicals.  The  lime  must  be  combined  with  sulfuric 
acid  because  the  calcium  sulfate  is  more  insoluble  than  either  sulfate 
of  magnesia  or  sulfate  of  soda;  if  more  sulfuric  acid  is  present  than  is 
required  for  the  formation  of  calcium  sulfate  from  the  lime  present, 
the  excess  is  combined  with  soda  as  sodium  sulfate.  If  lime  is  found 
in  excess  of  what  is  required  to  form  the  combination  calcium  sulfate 
from  the  sulfuric  acid  present,  the  excess  must  be  combined  with 
chlorin  as  calcium  chlorid.  The  magnesia  found  in  salt  is  present  in 
combination  with  chlorin  as  magnesium  chlorid. 

Chemical  analysis  of  dairy  salts—  The  results  of  the  analyses  'of  do- 
mestic and  foreign  dairy  salts  are  given  in  the  following  tables,  the 
different  brands  having  been  grouped  in  the  same  manner  as  in  the 
preceding  list,  and  the  average  results  of  the  analyses  calculated. 


v 


12 


Bulletin  No.  7 If, 


Chemical  composition  of  dairy  salts. 


No. 

Name  of  brand. 

So- 

dium 

chlo- 

rid. 

Cal- 

cium 

sul- 

fate. 

Cal- 

cium 

chlo- 

rid. 

Magne- 

sium 

chlo- 

rid. 

Insol- 

uble 

matter. 

Moist- 

ure. 

A.  Domestic  Brands. 

Per  ct. 

Per  ct. 

Per  ct. 

Per  ct. 

Per  ct. 

Per  ct. 

40 

Acme  salt 

98.39 

1.22 

12 

.07 

.03 

.17 

41 

Anchor  dairy  and  table  salt 

97.82 

1.41 

,32 

.03 

.14 

.28 

52 

Anchor  dairy  and  table  salt... 

97.95 

1.29 

.32 

.09 

.01 

.34 

61 

Anchor  dairy  and  table  salt 

97.61 

1.73 

.20 

.12 

.03 

.31 

Average 

97.79 

1.48 

.28 

.08 

.06 

.31 

1 

Ashton  F.  F.  dairy  salt 

97.95 

1.50 

.12 

TT 

.03 

72 

Ashton  F.  F.  dairy  salt 

98.11 

1.41 

.12 

.15 

.02 

.19 

80 

Ashton  F.  F.  dairy  salt  

97.97 

1.34 

.36 

.14 

.03 

.16 

Average  

98.01 

1.42 

.20 

.16 

.03 

.18 

51 

Bradley  cheese  salt 

TTT 

TT 

"io 

.(T~ 

7)2 

734 

22 

Canfield  & Wheeler  salt 

~ 98J2 

1.29 

.02 

TT 

!04_ 

~40 

33 

Canfield  & Wheeler  salt 

98.44 

1.04 

.20 

.11 

.04 

.17 

76 

Canfield  & Wheeler  salt  (32)  

98  19 

1.19 

.30 

.11 

.02 

.19 

77 

■ Canfield  & Wheeler  salt  (32  F.)  — 

97.99 

1.33 

.36 

.11 

.05 

.16 

Average 

98.18 

1.21 

.22 

.12 

.04 

.23 

4 

Diamond  Crystal  salt 

99.29 

.39 

" ~ . 16 

.10 

.02 

.04 

59 

Diamond  Crystal  salt 

99.41 

.31 

.24 

.02 

.02 

.00 

67 

Diamond  Crystal  salt 

99.22 

.46 

22 

.06 

.04 

.00 

69*j 

Diamond  Crystal  salt  ..  

98.68 

1.09 

'.ll 

.06 

.03 

.00 

75 

Diamond  Crystal  salt 

99.30 

.44 

.20 

.03 

.03 

.00 

Average 

99.18 

.54 

.19 

.05 

.03 

.01 

56 

Empire  dairy  salt 

98.58 

.66 

.54 

7io~ 

.02 

To 

35f 

Genesee  salt 

97.38 

.85 

32 

.06 

.04 

1.35 

46 

Genesee  salt 

98  48 

1.07 

.12 

.08 

.04 

.21 

47 

Genesee  salt 

98.51 

1.12 

.14 

.06 

.02 

.15 

48 

Genesee  salt 

98.15  ! 

1.19 

.38 

.06 

.02 

.20 

49 

Genesee  salt 

98.08 

1.17 

.44 

.07 

.04 

.20 

62 

Genesee  salt 

98.53 

1.05 

.20 

.06 

.04 

.12 

63 

Genesee  salt 

98.35 

1.22 

.14 

.09 

.07 

.13 

64 

Genesee  salt. 

98  60 

.92 

.28 

.06 

.02 

.12 

65 

Genesee  salt 

98.32 

1.17 

.24 

.07 

.03 

.17 

Average  

98.27 

1.11 

.24 

.07 

.04 

.16 

73 

Higgins’  Eureka  salt 

98.19 

1.44 

.14 

.10 

.02 

~~n 

12 

Kansas  salt 

98.60 

1.03 

.20 

.09 

.01 

.07 

34 

Kansas  salt  

97  44 

1.60 

.52 

.03 

.09 

.32 

68 

Kansas  salt 

97.57 

1.87 

.22 

.09 

.05 

.20 

Average 

97.87 

1.50 

.31 

.07 

.05 

.20 

5f 

Le  Roy  salt 

96.41 

1 31 

.16 

.07 

.03 

2.02 

78 

Le  Roy  salt 

98.29 

1.26 

.•-8 

.08 

.01 

.08 

79 

Le  Roy  salt 

98.01 

1.36 

.50 

.09 

.01 

.03 

Average  

98.15 

1.31 

.39 

.08 

.01 

.06 

54 

Lone  Star  salt 

TsTTr 

~L46~ 

*06 

_~0S  ’ 

*06 

Tio 

* Another  sample  from  the  same  source  (No.  81)  had  the  following  compositition  : So- 
dium chlorid,  98  75  per  ct.,  calcium  sulfate,  .95  per  ct.,  calcium  chlorid,  .18  per  ct., 
magnesium  chlorid,  .05  per  ct.,  insoluble  matter,  .03  per  ct.,  moisture,  .04  per  ct. 
t Not  included  in  average. 


A Study  of  Dairy  Salt. 


13 


Chemical  composition  of  dairy  salt. — Continued. 


No. 

Name  of  brand. 

So- 

dium 

chlo- 

rid. 

Cal- 

cium 

sulfate. 

Cal- 

cium 

chlo- 

rid. 

Magne- 

sium 

chlo- 

rid. 

Insol- 

uble 

matter. 

Moist- 

ure. 

A..  Domestic  Brands—  Continued. 

Per  ct. 

Per  ct. 

Per  ct. 

Per  ct 

Per  ct. 

Per  ct. 

3 

Vacuum  Pan  salt 

97.96 

1.21 

.32 

.17 

.02 

.32 

6 

Vacuum  Pan  salt 

98.15 

1.24 

.14 

.12 

.03 

.32 

7 

Vacuum  Pan  salt 

98.20 

1.12 

.28 

.12 

.02 

.26 

11 

Vacuum  Pan  salt 

97.73 

1 29 

.48 

.14 

.06 

.30 

60 

Vacuum  Pan  salt 

98.04 

1.14 

.28 

.17 

.02 

.35 

74 

Vacuum  Pan  salt 

97.90 

.92 

.65 

.19 

.02 

.32 

Average 

98.00 

1.15 

36 

.15 

.03 

.31 

32 

Warsaw  salt ... 

98.50 

1.16 

.14 

.04 

.02 

.14 

53 

Warsaw  salt  

98.39 

90 

.50 

.05 

.03 

.13 

57 

Warsaw  salt 

98.40 

.82 

.57 

.10 

.03 

.08 

Average 

98.43 

.96 

.40 

.06 

.03 

.12 

:55 

Windsor  salt 

98.44 

1.21 

.12 

.08 

.01 

.14 

2 

Worcester  salt 

~ 98^28" 

1.17 

"20- 

"l2 

.01 

^22 

13 

Worcester  salt 

99.07 

.41 

.22 

.15 

.01 

.14 

45 

Worcester  sa.'t 

98.62 

.83 

.29 

.02 

.04 

.20 

-50 

Worcester  salt 

98.53 

.92 

.30 

.04 

.02 

.19 

58 

Worcester  salt 

98.34 

1.29 

.24 

.03 

.00 

.10 

'70* 

Worcester  salt 

99.36 

.34 

.20 

.03 

.01 

.03 

71* 

Worcester  salt 

99.53 

.29 

.14 

.02 

.01 

.01 

Average 

98.57 

.92 

.25 

.07 

.02 

.17 

27 

“New  York  salt” 

98  09 

1.11 

.18 

.06 

"04 

"52 

31 

“Cheese  salt” 

97.29 

1.45 

.04 

.07 

.99 

.16 

66 

Merck’s  NaCl,,C.  P 

d.  C SaaA.  £5.  S 

B.  Canadian  Brands. 

99.70 

.03 

.24 

.02 

.01 

.00 

gpy? 

.oS- 

.06 

„ -a  3 

36 

Coleman’s  salt 

98.21 

1.48 

.10 

.04 

.08 

.09 

37 

Rice’s  salt 

97.57 

1.85 

12 

.09 

.07 

.30 

■ 38 

Windsor  salt  (butter) 

98.29 

.73 

.83 

.03 

.02 

.10 

39 

Windsor  salt  (cheese) 

98.55 

.75 

.59 

.00 

.03 

.08 

C.  European  Brands. 

8 

Liineburg  salt 

97.93 

1.19 

• 21f 

.39 

.03 

.25 

9 

Stade  salt 

98.07 

1.39 

.08 

.29 

.03 

.14 

24 

Egestorff  salt 

98.36 

.92 

.25t 

.26 

.04 

.17 

25 

Lindener  salt 

98.46 

.90 

.30f 

.21 

.04 

.09 

26 

Schonebecker  salt 

98  55 

1.09 

• 04t 

.08 

.03 

.21 

14 

Liineburg  salt  (from  Norway) 

97.31 

1.19 

.55f 

.53 

.09 

.33 

15 

Liineburg  salt  (from  Norway) 

97.76 

1.26 

.30f 

.40 

.04 

.24 

16 

Liineburg  salt  (from  Norway) 

Danish  “Krone-salt” 

97.81 

1.19 

.37f 

.36 

.08 

.19 

19 

98.53 

1.02 

.00 

.17 

.06 

.22 

17 

Higgins’  salt 

98  06 

1.63 

.14 

.05 

.08 

.04 

18 

D.  S.  C.  L.  salt  (from  England) 

98.15 

1.48 

.22 

.03 

.04 

.08 

42 

French  dairy  salt 

97.69 

1.34 

.25  f 
.22 

.26 

.26 

.20 

43 

French  dairy  salt 

98.82 

.46 

.17 

.04 

.29 

44 

French  dairy  salt 

96.88 

1.69 

.02 

.26 

.11 

1.04 

20 

Belgian  dairy  salt 

96.54 

1.51 

.05  f 

.03 

.05 

1.82 

21 

Belgian  dairy  salt 

98.15 

.51 

.18 

.15 

.05 

.96 

'-28 

Belgian  dairy  salt 

91.20 

.87 

.12 

.08 

.03 

7.70 

10 

Swiss  cheese  salt 

95  02 

.86 

.59 

.12 

.05 

3.36 

23 

Italian  cheese  salt 

98  29 

.71 

.16 

.19 

.24 

.41 

29 

Bohemian  dairy  salt 

96.71 

.83 

1.50  f 

.23 

.07 

.66 

30 

Bohemian  rock  salt 

94.94 

.37 

.16 

.03 

4.40 

.10 

O’ 


* Not  included  in  average, 
t Sodium  sulfate. 

C®-) 


-oJat  Sio.f  R*jjJi 


14 


Bulletin  No.  7 4. 


The  average  composition  of  the  main  domestic  brands  of  dairy  salt 
analyzed  is  summarized  in  the  following  table: 


Average  composition  of  American  dairy  salts , in  per  cent. 


Name  of  brand. 

No. 

of 

sam- 

ples. 

Sodium 

chlorid. 

Calcium 

sulfate. 

Calcium 

chlorid. 

Magne- 

sium 

chlorid. 

Insolu- 

ble 

matter. 

Moist- 

ure. 

Anchor 

3 

97.79 

1.48 

.28 

.08 

.06 

.31 

Ashton 

3 

98.01 

1 42 

.20 

.16 

.03 

.18 

Canfield  & Wheeler 

4 

98.18 

1.21 

.22 

.12 

.04 

.23 

Diamond  Crystal 

5 

99.18 

.54 

.19 

.05 

.03 

.01 

Genesee 

8 

98.27 

1.11 

.24 

.07 

.04 

.16 

Kansas 

3 

97.87 

1.50 

.31 

.07 

.05 

.20 

LeRoy 

2 

98.15 

1.31 

.39 

.08 

.01 

.06 

Vacuum  Pan 

6 

93.00 

1.15 

.36 

.15 

.03 

.31 

Warsaw 

3 

98.43 

.96 

.40 

.06 

.03 

.12 

Worcester 

5 

98.57 

.92 

.25 

.07 

.02 

.17 

Discussion  of  results. — We  notice  from  the  preceding  tables  that  the 
leading  brands  of  dairy  salt  in  general  contain  98  to  over  99  per  cent, 
of  pure  sodium  chlorid,  .5  to  1.5  per  cent,  calcium  sulfate,  .1  to  .5  per 
cent,  calcium  chlorid,  a trace  to  .2  per  cent,  magnesium  chlorid,  none 
to  .3  per  cent,  moisture,  and  none  to  below  .1  per  cent,  of  insoluble  im- 
purities. A high  content  of  calcium-  and  magnesium  chlorids  will 
most  likely  be  accompanied  by  a high  water-content,  and  the  salt  will 
be  apt  to  be  damp  and  to  cake,  on  account  of  the  water-absorbing 
power  of  these  compounds.  A salt  with  a normal  content  of  calcium 
and  magnesium  chlorids  will,  however,  be  found  to  contain  an  abnor- 
mal percentage  of  water,  if  placed  where  it  is  exposed  to  steam  or 
much  dampness;  this  was  evidently  the  case  with  sample  No.  35.  (See 
below,  p.  18.) 

The  purity  of  the  Diamond  Crystal  salt  is  very  striking,  as  shown  by 
the  high  per  cent,  of  the  sodium  chlorid  which  it  contains,  and  its  low 
contents  of  calcium  sulfate,  calcium-  and  magnesium  chlorids,  and 
moisture.  As  regards  the  calcium-sulfate  content,  Worcester  salt 
comes  next  to  the  Diamond  Crystal,  and  Genesee  salt,  third.  Either  of 
these  salts  contain,  however,  nearly  one-half  per  cent,  more  sulfate 
than  does  the  Diamond  Crystal. 

Comparison  of  domestic  and  foreign  dairy  salts. — If  we  compare  the 
analyses  of  domestic  and  foreign  dairy  salts  we  are  at  once  struck  by 
the  great  variations  in  the  composition  of  the  latter  salts,  and  also 
by  the  fact  that  the  leading  brands  of  our  American  dairy  salts  are 


A Study  of  Dairy  Salt. 


15 


equally  pure,  and  in  some  cases,  purer  than  any  brands  which  rank 
highest  in  foreign  dairy  countries.  It  will  be  noticed  that  but  thir- 
teen of  the  twenty-five  analyses  given  of  foreig’n  salts  show  a content 
of  pure  sodium  chlorid  above  98  per  cent.,  while  all  but  fourteen  out 
of  fifty-five  analyses  of  the  dairy  salts  found  on  our  market  which  are 
represented  in  these  analyses,  come  above  this  limit.  The  dairy  salts 
in  use  on  the  continent  and  in  Europe  generally  contain  a high  per- 
centage of  magnesium  chlorid,  a matter  which  has  been  recognized  by 
German  authorities.  The  agricultural  department  of  the  province  of 
Posen,  Germany,  has  called  attention  to  the  fact  that  salt  containing 
.6  per  cent,  of  magnesium  sulfate  is  found  on  the  German  market, 
which  component  when  present  in  this  quantity  gives  a bitter  taste  to 
the  butter,*  and  that  an  ideal  butter  salt  should  contain  only  .025  per 
cent,  of  magnesium  sulfate  (equivalent  to  .02  per  cent,  magnesium 
chlorid).  The  analyses  given  on  pp.  12-13  show  that  nearly  all  of  our 
leading’  American  brands  of  dairy  salt  will  approach  this  minimum 
limit. 

The  best  foreign  dairy  salts,  as  far  as  can  be  determined  by  chemical 
analysis  alone,  are:  among  the  German  salts,  Egestorff,  Lindener,  and 
Schonebecker,  and  among-  other  foreign  salts,  the  Danish  Krone-salt, 
and  French  salt  No.  43.  None  of  these  dairy  salts,  however,  come  up 
to  our  best  American  brands  in  purity. 


MECHANICAL  ANALYSIS  OF  DAIRY  SALT. 

The  fineness  or  coarseness  of  the  grain  of  dairy  salt  is  of  consid- 
erable importance  both  in  butter-  and  cheese  making,  since  the  rate 
of  solubility  of  a salt  and  its  mechanical  effect  on  the  butter-  or  cheese 
product  depends  to  a large  extent  on  the  size  and  the  shape  of  the 
salt  crystals.  The  different  brands  of  salt  which  were  obtained  in  this 
investigation  were  therefore  subjected  to  a mechanical  examination, 
including  size  of  grain,  apparent  specific  gravity,  and  relative  rate  of 
solubility. 

I.  Size  of  grain. — The  size  of  the  salt  crystals  was  determined  by 
means  of  two  sieves;  one,  20  and  the  other,  40  meshes  to  the  inch.  The 
salt  was  separated  into  three  portions,  viz.:  salt  remaining  on  the 
20-mesh  sieve  {coarse),  salt  passing  through  the  20-mesh  sieve,  but  re- 
maining on  the  40-mesh  sieve  {medium),  and  salt  passing  through  the 
40-mesh  sieve  {fine). 

II.  The  apparent  specific  gravity  was  determined  by  weighing  a tared 
100  cc.  cylinder  filled  with  salt.  The  salt  was  allowed  to  pack  lightly 
in  the  cylinder,  all  lumps  being  previously  crushed  with  a rubber 
pestle. 


*Molkerei-Ztg.,  Berlin,  1898,  page  429. 


16 


Bulletin  No.  7 


III.  Relative  rate  of  solubility. — :An  attempt  was  made  to  determine 
the  rate  of  solubility  of  the  various  brands  of  dairy  salt.  For  this 
purpose  the  time  in  seconds  was  noted  which  it  took  to  dissolve  10 
grams  of  salt  in  200  cc.  of  water,  and  2 grams  of  salt  in  10  cc.  of  water 
(see  p.  11).  The  means  of  the  results  thus  obtained  are  given  in  the 
following  table.  These  quantities  of  salt  were  weighed  out  for  the 
determination  of  the  chemical  composition  of  the  various  brands,  and 
the  data  as  to  rate  of  solubility  were  therefore  obtained  with  com- 
paratively little  extra  labor.  The  following  table  presents  the  results 
obtained  in  regard  to  the  three  points  mentioned: 


Mechanical  Analysis 

Appar- 
ent spe- 
] cific 
gravity 

Rela- 

tive 

No. 

Name  of  Brands. 

Coarse. 

Medi- 

um. 

1 

Fine. 

rate  of 
solu- 
bility. 

40 

A.  Domestic  Brands. 

7.8 

92.2 

.944 

Sec. 

24 

41 

Anchor 

.1 

37.1 

62  8 

1.125 

31  3 * 

1 & 72 

Ashton  

8.7 

36.3 

55  0 

.703 

39  3 

51 

Bradley 

52.6 

38.5 

8.9 

.876 

63 

76 

Canfield  & Wheeler  

.1 

31.2 

68.7 

1.010 

27  4 

77 

Canfield  & Wheeler 

16.7 

83  3 

1.114 

25 

4 & 67 

Diamond  Crystal 

.9 

75.0 

24.1 

.880 

33  5 

56 

Empire 

.3 

39.7 

60.0 

.933 

32 

64 

Genesee  (butter) 

1.2 

48.7 

50.1 

.875 

31  8 

65 

Genesee  (cheese) 

27.9 

65.0 

7.1 

.671 

34 

17&  73 

Higgins’  Eureka 

20.5 

79.5 

.907 

28  2 

12 

Kansas  (Perfection  butter) 

6.5 

93  5 

1.090 

28 

68 

Kansas 

42.4 

57.6 

.96) 

32  3 

78 

Le  Roy  (butter) 

20.8 

79.2 

1.094 

25 

5 & 79 

Le  Roy  (cheese)  .. 

10.3 

64  4 

25.3 

.944 

37  2 

54 

Lone  Star 

.2 

18.5 

81.3 

1.072 

28 

3 & 74 

Vacuum  Pan 

.1 

16  1 

83.8 

1.075 

30  6 

53 

Warsaw 

14.0 

51.2 

34.8 

.962 

39  3 

55 

Windsor 

18  9 

81.1 

1.104 

28 

:2  & 70 

Worcester  (A) 

3.1 

96.9 

| 1.149 

29  5 

71 

Worcester  (B) 

48.5 

51.5 

: 1.140 

29 

36 

B.  Canadian  Brands. 

Coleman . . . 

.1 

70.2 

29.7 

.865 

28 

37 

Rice 

9.8 

78.4 

11.8 

>28 

30 

38 

Windsor  (butter) 

10.1 

89.9 

1.109 

23 

39 

Windsor  (cheese) 

6.2 

55.5 

• 38.3 

.891 

.32 

8 

C.  European  Brands. 

Lueneburg 

1 17.2 

48.5 

34.3 

.781 

34 

15 

Lueneburg  (from  Norway) 

8 5 

37.6 

53.9 

.725 

31 

14 

Lueneburg  (from  Norway) 

10  3 

41.2 

48.5 

.741 

37 

16 

Lueneburg  (from  Norway) 

18.3 

41.9 

39.8 

.822 

.35 

9 

Stade 

11.5 

39.7 

48.8 

.746 

.33 

24 

Egestorff 

20.7 

37.7 

41  6 

.764 

39 

25 

Lindener 

10.5 

38.6 

50.9 

.787 

35 

26 

Schonebecker 

81.7 

14  1 

4.2 

.834 

66 

19 

Danish  “ Krone-salt  ” 

13.9 

40.7 

45.4 

.811 

36 

18 

English  D.  S.  C.  L.  salt 

7 

16.0 

83.3 

1.023 

32 

74 

42 

French  No.  I 

81.4 

14.8 

3.8 

.790 

43 

French  No.  II 

91.1 

7.5 

1.4 

.744 

63 

44 

French  No.  Ill 

11.8 

27  0 

61.2 

.974 

51 

20 

Belgian  No.  I 

6.9 

55.1 

38.0 

.944 

37 

21 

Belgian  No.  II 

.3 

20.0 

79.7 

.894 

35 

10 

Swiss  t 

75.8 

20.8 

3.4 

.861 

73 

23 

Italian 

90.8 

6.8 

2.4 

1.078 

114 

29 

Bohemian 

36.8 

43.5 

19.7 

.866 

58 

Average  for  3 samples,  t D ry  salt. 


centimeters  (see  page  17). 


centimeters  (see  page  17). 


A Study  of  Dairy  Salt. 


17 


The  data  presented  in  this  table  cannot,  for  lack  of  space,  be  fully 
discussed  here.  We  may  call  attention  to  the  fact,  however,  that 
there  is  a decided  difference  as  to  the  results  of  the  mechanical  analy- 
ses between  the  various  butter-  and  cheese  salts,  the  former  contain- 
ing' no  coarse  salt  or  but  a very  small  proportion  thereof,  and  more 
than  half  of  it,  in  some  cases  even  nine-tenths,  is  fine  salt.  The  cheese 
salts,  on  the  other  hand,  contain  an  appreciable  quantity  of  coarse 
salt,  and  the  greater  portion  consists  of  salt  of  medium  grain. 

In  strict  correlation  to  the  proportionate  parts  of  coarse,  medium 
and  fine  salt  stands  the  apparent  specific  gravity  of  the  various  brands 
of  salt.  While  the  absolute  specific  gravity  of  salt  varies  but  little 
and  is  always  very  near  2.2,  the  apparent  specific  gravity  is  subject 
to  great  fluctuations  according  to  the  size  of  the  salt  crystals.  Coarse- 
grained flakey  salt  packs  but  lightly,  and  a certain  volume  of  such  salt 
will  therefore  weigh  less  than  the  same  volume  of  fine-grained  salt. 
A high  apparent  specific  gravity  in  dairy  salt  is,  as  a rule,  a sign  of 
thin-walled,  flakey  crystals;  while  a 1owt  apparent  specific  gravity 
shows  a fine-grained  salt  having  small  crystals  that  pack  well.  Gen- 
erally speaking,  the  more  medium  and  coarse  salt  in  a brand,  the  lower 
its  apparent  specific  gravity.  The  data  obtained  for  the  various 
brands  given  range  between  .671  (Genesee  cheese  salt)  to  1.149  (Wor- 
cester, brand  A).  The  average  for  the  apparent  specific  gravity  for 
flakey  butter  salt  will  come  considerably  below  1,  while  cubical 
(vacuum-pan)  salts  will  have  an  average  apparent  specific  gravity 
above  1. 

The  figures  shown  in  the  last  but  one  column  of  the  preceding  table 
are  represented  graphically  in  another  manner  in  Fig.  2.  Six  500  cc. 
glass  cylinders  were  partly  filled  with  salt  of  the  various  brands, 
the  same  weight  of  salt  being  taken  in  all  cases,  viz.,  385  grams,  which 
was  the  weig'ht  obtained  for  500  cc.  of  Genesee  salt.  The  points  to 
which  the  different  brands  filled  the  respective  cylinders  are  seen  in 
the  illustration.  The  difference  in  the  volume  of  the  same  weight 
of  our  leading  dairy  salts  is  strikingly  shown,  varying  from  about  540 
cc.  (in  case  of  Ashton  salt)  to  340  cc.  (Worcester  salt).  These  figures 
stand  in  nearly  the  same  relation  as  the  data  given  in  the  table  for 
the  apparent  specific  gravity  of  the  two  salts: 

540  : 340  ::  X : .703 
X=1.117 

Viz,.  1.117  instead  of  1.149.  Identical  figures  could  not  be  expected 
because  the  data  in  the  table  are  averages  of  several  determinations  in 
different  samples.  There  is,  however,  in  general,  a very  satisfac- 
tory agreement  between  the  twm  methods  of  presentation.  The  dif- 
ference in  the  weight  of  the  same  bulk  of  the  different  brands  of 
dairy  salts  on  our  market  is  much  greater  than  suspected  by  even 
’well-informed  dairymen. 

2 


18 


Bulletin  No.  7Jf. 


The  effect  of  the  size  of  grain  on  the  apparent  specific  gravity  of 
the  salt  is  further  illustrated  by  the  following  data.  A quantity  of 
Ashton  salt  (No.  72)  was  separated  into  three  different  portions  by 
means  of  the  20-  and  40-mesh  sieves  used  in  the  mechanical  analysis; 
the  apparent  specific  gravity  was  then  determined  as  before,  with  re- 
sults as  follow: 


Apparent 
sp.  gr. 


Coarse  salt  (grains  larger  than  holes  in  20- mesh  sieve) 504 

Medium  salt  (grains  larger  than  holes  in  40-mesh  sieve,  bat  smaller  than  those  of 

20-mesh  sieve) . . . 593 

Fine  salt  (grains  smaller  than  holes  in  40-mesh  sieve) 824 


The  relative  rate  of  solubility  of  the  different  brands  of  dairy  salt 
is  shown  in  the  last  column  of  the  table.  In  the  main  the  finer  the 
salt,  the  shorter  time  it  takes  to  dissolve.  The  extreme  figures  are  23 
seconds  (Windsor  butter  salt),  and  114  seconds  (Italian  cheese  salt). 
The  figures  for  butter  salts  generally  come  at  about  30  seconds,  and 
those  for  cheese  salts  somewhat  higher. 

The  rapidity  with  which  salt  of  different  sized  grains  comes  into 
solution  is  illustrated  by  the  data  obtained  from  the  three  portions  of 
salt  No.  72,  mentioned  above.  The  solubility-figure  for  the  coarse  salt 
was  45  seconds,  for  the  medium  salt  30  seconds,  and  for  the  fine  salt 
25  seconds.  In  the  same  way  salt  of  the  same  origin,  but  of  different 
grain,  will  give  the  following  average  results  when  the  data  shown  in 
the  table  on  page  16  are  summarized: 

Relative  rate  of 
solubility. 


Coarse-grained  salt  (average  for  7 brands) 32  seconds. 

Fine-grained  salt  (average  for  7 brands)  27  seconds. 


The  form  of  crystallization  has  doubtless  considerable  influence  on 
the  rapidity  with  which  salt  goes  into  solution.  Thin,  flakey  crystals 
offer  a larger  surface  for  the  action  of  the  wTater  than  cubical  crystals, 
and  will  therefore,  under  otherwise  similar  conditions,  dissolve  more 
rapidly;  but  a fine  cubical  salt  like  the  Worcester  (96.9  per  cent,  fine) 
dissolves  in  a shorter  time  than  a flakey,  comparatively  fine  salt  like 
Genesee  (50.1  per  cent,  fine),  or  the  somewhat  coarser  Diamond  Crystal 
salt  (24.1  per  cent.  fine). 

Comparing  the  foreign  dairy  salts  with  those  found  on  the  Amer- 
ican market  we  note  that  the  former  are  uniformly  somewhat  coarser 
than  our  butter  salts.  The  apparent  specific  gravity  is  fairly  uniform 
at  about  .8,  and  the  rate  of  solubility  for  the  butter  salts  generally 
lies  between  30  and  40  seconds. 

Water-absorbing  power  of  dairy  sail. — It  has  been  stated  that,  other 
things  being  equal,  a high  content  of  calcium-  and  magesium  chlorids 


A Study  of  Dairy  Salt. 


19 


in  a salt  will  generally  be  accompanied  by  a high  water-content.  This 
has  been  proved  experimentally  by  exposing  salts  containing  different 
amounts  of  these  chlorids  in  a damp  atmosphere  or  one  saturated  with 
moisture.  Of  the  large  number  of  data  accumulated  on  this  point  by 
the  writer,  the  following  results  are  here  presented:  10  grams  of  the 
dairy  salts  given  in  the  table  were  weighed  out  on  watch  glasses, 
either  direct,  or  after  having  been  dried  at  120°  C. ; they  were  left 
standing  in  the  laboratory  weighing-room  for  24  hours,  and  after- 
wards placed  under  a bell  jar  on  a crystallizing  dish  half  tilled  with 
water.  A piece  of  linen  cloth  dipping  into  the  water  was  placed  un- 
der the  jar  so  as  to  keep  the  air  saturated  with  water  vapor.  By 
weighing  the  watch  glasses  at  the  intervals  stated,  the  results  shown 
below  were  obtained: 

Water-absorbing  power  of  dairy  salts. 


Salt  No  75. 

( 23  per  cent, 
chlorids.*; 

Salt  No.  48. 

( 44  per  cent, 
chlorids.*) 

Salt  No  74. 
(.84  percent, 
chlorids.*) 

Weighed 
' ut 
direct. 

Dried 

before 

weighed 

out. 

Weighed 

out 

direct. 

Dried 

before 

weighed 

out. 

Weighed 

out 

direct. 

Dried 

before 

weighed 

out. 

/ er  cen '.  wa'er  absorbed. 

Kept  in  damp  atmosphere. 

24  hours 

.020 

.036 

.080 

.187 

.495 

.712 

Kept  in  saturated 

atmos- 

phere,  1 hour . . 

.411 

.251 

.527 

.504 

.954 

1.058 

Kept  in  saturated 

atmos 

phere,  2 hours 

.632 

.499 

.773 

.712 

1.221 

1.300 

Kept  in  saturated 

atmos 

phere,  6 hours 

1 

1.370 

.884 

1.489 

1.263 

1.982 

1.924 

Kept  in  saturated 

phere,  24  hours 

atuiuo-  J 

4.111 

3.081 

4.732 

4 016 

4 865 

4.571 

* Exclusive  of  sodium  chlorid. 

By  exposure  for  twenty-four  hours  in  a damp  atmosphere  (raining 
or  cloudy  out-doors,  with  the  window  in  the  room  open  a little),  an 
amount  of  water  corresponding  to  from  .02  to  .50  per  cent,  was  ab- 
sorbed by  the  three  salts,  and  when  these  were  dried  before  being 
weighed  out,  the  increase  was  from  .04  to  .71  per  cent.,  the  water- 
absorption  of  the  salts  in'  all  cases  increasing  with  their  contents  of 
CaCl2  and  MgCla.  If  salt  is  kept  in  a saturated  atmosphere,  the  ab- 
sorption of  water  is  remarkable;  after  12  days  an  increase  of  43  to  63 
per  cent,  was  thus  obtained  with  10  grams  of  the  salts  mentioned, 
and  all  of  these  finally  deliquesced.  The  latter  experiments  may  not 
be  practical,  as  dairy  salt  would  not  be  kept  under  such  conditions,  but 
they  show  that  even  salt  lowest  in  calcium-  and  magnesium  chlorids 
may  be  spoiled  by  exposure  to  a moisture-laden  atmosphere  for  only 
a short  time.  Salt  must  be  kept  in  a dry  place,  preferably  in  a special 
box,  covered  so  as  to  avoid  its  becoming  damp  and  caking. 


20 


Bulletin  No.  7J>. 


THE  LEADING  BRANDS  OF  DAIRY  SALTS  ON  THE  AMERICAN  MARKET. 

A large  number  of  brands  of  dairy  salt  are  at  the  present  time  on 
the  market  in  this  country;  while  it  is  not  claimed  that  the  analyses 
given  in  the  preceding  tables  represent  even  a majority  of  these,  there 
is  no  doubt  but  that  they  do  include  those  brands  which  during  late 
years  have  taken  the  lead  among  our  dairy  salts,  and  the  merits  of 
which  are  generally  put  before  the  dairy  public  through  more  or  less 
catchy  advertisements  and  circulars.  The  following  five  brands  may 
be  considered  the  main  competing  dairy  salts  in  this  country  at  the 
present  time,  at  least  for  butter  making,  viz.,  Ashton,  Diamond  Crys- 
tal, Genesee,  Vacuum  pan,  and  Worcester.  As  the  interests  of  dairy- 
and  factory  men  center  around  these  salts  we  shall  briefly  outline  the 
methods  of  manufacture  of  each  of  these  brands  and  give  such  dis- 
cussions of  their  comparative  value  as  the  data  at  hand  will  warrant. 
The  descriptions  of  the  manufacturing  processes  are  taken  from 
the  circulars  of  the  different  salt  companies,  or  from  private  communi- 
cations from  the  manufacturers,  and  may  therefore  be  considered  au- 
thoritative. 

Ashton  salt. — This  is  an  imported  salt,  manufactured  in  England. 
Prior  to  1882,  when  but  little  refined  salt  was  made  in  this  country, 
la-rge  quantities  of  English  table  and  dairy  salt  were  imported.  The 
maximum  import  of  salt  in  bags,  barrels  and  other  packages  took 
place  in  1881,  when  412,442,291  pounds  were  imported,  while  the  im- 
ports of  salt  in  bulk,  and  such  used  for  curing  fish,  amounted  to 
nearly  700,000  pounds;  since  that  time  the  imports  from  abroad  have 
decreased  almost  every  year  up  to  the  present  time.  There  is  still, 
however,  large  quantities  of  Ashton  and  Higgins’  Eureka  dairy  salt 
used  in  this  country,  particularly  in  the  East  and  on  the  Pacific  coast. 
The  agents  of  this  salt  in  this  country  write  that  they  “are  not  fami- 
liar with  the  process  of  manufacture  from  which  this  salt  is  made. 
We  claim  that  the  brine  from  which  this  salt  is  made  is  purer  than 
any  brine  found  in  the  United  States.” 

The  analyses  show  that  the  Ashton  salt  is  high  in  calcium  sulfate 
and  in  magnesium  chlorid,  but  low  in  calcium  chlorid;  the  content  of 
pure  sodium  chlorid  is,  however,  satisfactory,  being  98  per  cent. 

Diamond  Crystal  salt. — This  salt  comes  from  St.  Clair,  Mich.  The 
supply  of  salt  is  obtained  from  a strata  of  salt  rock  1,635  feet  below  the 
surface.  The  rock  is  dissolved  by  water,  which  is  forced  down  the 
well  through  one  pipe,  the  same  pressure  bringing  back  the  saturated 
brine  through  another  pipe.  The  brine  is  heated  in  a succession  of 
closed  heaters,  in  the  first  of  which  it  is  heated  to  a temperature  of 
165  degrees  Fahr.,  in  the  second  to  185  degrees  Fahr.,  and  so  on  rising 
to  the  sixth  heater  in  which  a temperature  of  280  degrees  Fahr.  is 


A Study  of  Dairy  Salt. 


21 


reached.  After  this  it  goes  through  a large  circular  grainer.  On  be- 
ing exposed  to  the  air  the  crystals  at  once  begin  to  form  here  and  are 
sent  to  the  bottom  of  the  grainer  by  an  agitation  of  the  brine  caused 
by  a small  piece  of  metal  moved  rapidly  over  the  surface  by  a revolv- 
ing shaft.  In  connection  with  the  fifth  heater  there  is  a “gravel  pit,” 
and  the  brine  which  is  here  heated  to  260  degrees  Fahr.,  deposits 
nearly  all  the  lime  on  the  gravel  so  that  it  is  exceedingly  pure  when 
coming  into  the  sixth  heater. 

The  claims  of  this  company  for  exceptional  purity  and  dryness  in. 
their  salt  are  fully  substantiated  by  the  analytical  results  obtained  by 
the  writer.  The  sample  No.  81  is  from  the  same  lot  as  No.  69,  and  has 
therefore  not  been  included  in  the  calculated  average  composition  of 
Diamond  Crystal  salt.  This  sample  was  secured  as  it  was  deemed 
important  to  decide  whether  the  relatively  high  calcium-sulfate  con- 
tent of  the  first  sample,  No.  69,  was  due  to  errors  in  sampling  or 
analysis.  The  analysis  shows  that  this  brand  of  salt  may  also  vary 
considerably  in  chemical  composition  and  perhaps  more  than  the 
manufacturers  are  aware. 

Genesee  salt. — This  salt  is  manufactured  at  Piffard,  Livingston  Co., 
New  York,  and  is  obtained  from  clarified  brine  evaporated  in  open 
pans  at  a uniform  temperature  of  226  degrees  Fahr.  The  salt 
crystallized  out  is  raked  onto  wooden  drips  and  after  a few  hours  is 
removed  to  bins  where  it  is  left  for  several  weeks.  It  is  then  passed 
to  wooden  driers  and  comes  from  these  to  sieves  separating  it  accord- 
ing to  fineness  of  grain,  into  table-,  butter-  and  cheese  salt,  with  a 
small  amount  of  “tailings”  going  toward  coarser  grades. 

The  analyses  made  of  Genesee  salt  show  great  uniformity  in  com- 
position, with  a medium  content  of  calcium  sulfate,  calcium  chlorid 
and  magnesium  chlorid.  The  figures  given  do  not  justify  any  serious 
criticism  of  the  salt  as  regards  its  chemical  composition. 

Vacuum  pan  salt. — This  salt  is  manufactured  at  Ludington,  Mich., 
from  brine  which  is  pumped  from  wells  2,240  feet  deep,  filtered  and 
ripened  prior  to  evaporation  in  a vacuum  pan  or  steel  tank;  the  latter 
is  lined  inside  with  hard  wood  and  cemented,  and  the  evaporation  is 
effected  by  the  steam  passing  through  copper  flues  in  the  vacuum  pan, 
so  that  neither  brine  nor  salt  comes  in  contact  with  iron  or  steel  in 
the  process  of  manufacture.  . 

Vacuum  pan  salt  is  somewhat  higher  in  calcium  sulfate,  in  calcium- 
and  magnesium  chlorids,  and  in  water,  than  the  two  salts  just  men- 
tioned. The  percentages  of  calcium-  and  magnesium  chlorids  contained 
in  the  samples  analyzed  are  greater  than  those  of  the  samples  exam- 
ined of  the  leading  dairy  salts  on  the  market,  and  as  a result  we  find 
the  average  per  cent,  of  water  in  the  salt  higher  than  in  case  of  the 
other  brands. 


22 


Bulletin  No.  7£. 


Worcester  salt. — The  factory  where  this  salt  is  made  is  located  at 
Silver  Spring’s,  New  York.  The  brine  is  obtained  from  wells  2,200  to 
2,600  feet  deep.  It  is  held  in  tanks  to  ripen  and  is  treated  to  precipi- 
tate the  common  impurities  found  in  the  salt  bed.  The  manufacturers 
state  that  both  open  and  closed  pans  are  used  in  evaporating-  the 
brine;  no  sample  of  this  brand  has,  however,  been  received  which  was 
made  by  the  open-pan  process.  The  Worcester  salt  comes  next  to  Dia- 
mond Crystal  in  purity,  judging  from  the  analyses  made.  The  aver- 
age content  of  calcium  sulfate  is  below  one  per  cent.,  with  a medium 
content  of  moisture  and  calcium  chlorid,  and  very  low  in  magnesium 
chlorid  and  insoluble  impurities.  Under  the  microscope  the  Worcester 
salt  shows  perfect  cubes  of  remarkably  uniform  size. 

The  accompanying  plates  show  photo-micrographs  of  salt  crystals 
of  the  various  brands  of  dairy  salt  on  the  American  market  at  the  pres- 
ent time,  and  also  a number  of  typical  foreign  dairy  salts.  The  salt 
was  in  all  cases  magnified  11  times.  These,  as  well  as  other  photo- 
graphs reproduced  in  this  bulletin,  were  taken  by  Mr.  Decker  of  this 
experiment  station. 

The  effect  of  salt  on  butter. — The  effect  of  salt  of  different  brands  and 
degree  of  purity  on  the  quality  of  butter  is  a subject  that  has  occa- 
sioned a great  deal  of  controversy,  and  concerning  which  we  unfor- 
tunately are  much  in  the  dark.  It  may  be  stated  at  the  outset  that 
there  are  doubtless  several  brands  of  salt  on  the  market  which  may 
be  considered  of  nearly  equal  value  in  the  making  of  butter  for  imme- 
diate consumption;  any  differences  that  may  be  found  in  the  effect  of 
these  salts  on  the  flavor  of  the  butter  will  not  be  likely  to  become 
noticeable  until  the  butter  has  been  kept  in  cold-storage  for  at  least 
three  or  four  months.  Furthermore,  the  fact  that  a butter-maker  is 
used  to  one  particular  brand  places  at  a disadvantage  any  new  brand 
that  he  may  want  to  try,  since  the  working  of  the  butter  cannot  be 
performed  in  the  same  manner  in  case  of  different  brands  and  it  will 
take  same  time  before  he  learns  how  to  use  a new  brand  of  salt.  Then 
again,  the  different  markets  demand  butter  salted  in  a different  man- 
ner, hence  one  special  brand  may  be  preferred  in  one  market,  and  an- 
other in  another  market.  There  is  evidently  no  single  brand  of  dairy 
salt  which  is  best  adapted  for  all  kinds  of  makers  and  in  all  markets. 
These  remarks  apply  only  to  the  few  Reading  brands  of  dairy  salt; 
they  do  not  imply  that  any  dairy  salt  on  the  market  may  prove  satis- 
factory for  butter  making. 

The  difficulty  in  obtaining  definite  information  instead  of  opinions 
as  to  the  effect  of  salt  on  butter  is,  however,  great.  The  testimony  of 
butter  makers  and  creamery  men  presented  by  the  manufacturers  and 
agents  of  the  various  brands  cannot  be  considered  conclusive  evidence; 
while  without  doubt  the  testimony  in  most  cases  gives  the  honest  con- 
viction of  the  different  parties,  their  experience  with  different  kinds 


IMate  I. 


TPor  'ces  ter  f7J)  sJn  cTior  tJJ) 


Brands  of  American  Dairy  Salt.  (Photomicrographs,  magnified  11  times.) 


Plate  II. 


^Empire  fS6)  JJs  tsrZ/cf/  ZT/) 


Vole  man  (36) ZUcr  (G7J  ] 


Brands  of  American  Dairy  Salt.  (Photomicrographs,  magnified  11  times."* 


, 

Plate  III. 


Dicrmonc/  C/'^stalft) 


T^crenn/nJPan  f 3 ) 


yJ  s/i  / o/i  ft J 


Tf/n  ft, s o/- (3 1 


Brands  of  American  Dairy  Salt.  (Photomicrographs,  magnified  11  times.) 


Plate  IV. 


Brands  of  Foreign  Dairy  Salt.  (Photomicrographs,  magnified  11  times.) 


Z ii neZtri'ff  ( J(5)  Sc/? o/i e/sec/terf*? 6) 


Stctclc  f*rJ) 


J/cznisZ?  C/O) 


/Uftf/f/xf?  (jfij 


y* . \ Ws  “ 

Uc{.(/ff/r/  fJZO) 


A Study  of  Dairy  Salt. 


23 


•of  salt  is  apt  to  be  limited,  and  there  is  generally  but  a small  amount 
of  careful  observation  back  of  the  opinions  rendered.  It  is  also  diffi- 
cult to  supply  direct  experimental  evidence  on  this  point  with  the 
facilities  at  hand  in  any  American  experiment  station  since  experi- 
ments in  this  line  must  be  conducted  on  a large  scale  and  for  a consid- 
erable length  of  time  to  be  of  any  value,  and  the  scoring  of  the  butter 
must  be  done  by  several  judges  independently,  so  as  to  overcome  in- 
dividual preferences  and  other  personal  factors. 

Appreciating  these  difficulties,  the  writer  made  an  effort  to  secure 
evidence  on  the  point  under  discussion,  from  men  who  have  had  spe- 
cial facilities  for  giving  this  subject  much  thought  and  study,  viz.:  But- 
ter judges,  commission  men  and  large  creamery  companies.  A letter 
was  therefore  addressed  to  a number  of  the  most  prominent  repre- 
sentatives in  these  branches  in  the  country  asking  for  their  opinion  as 
to  the  value  of  different  brands  of  salt  on  the  market  for  butter-  and 
cheese  making,  also  as  to  the  effect  of  the  size  of  grain  of  the  salt  and 
the  effect  of  the  degree  of  purity  as  found  in  the  leading  dairy  salts.  It 
was  stated  that  the  opinions  given  would  be  considered  confidential, 
if  desired,  and  we  are  therefore  not  at  liberty  to  publish  the  names 
of  the  different  parties  who  kindly  replied  to  the  letter  of  inquiry. 
It  may  be  stated,  however,  that  the  gentlemen  from  whose  replies 
extracts  are  presented  in  the  following  experts’  testimony  are  all  well- 
known  to  the  dairy  public,  and  are  prominently  identified  with  the 
butter  industry  in  different  parts  of  the  country. 

Opinions  of  Butter  Judges. 

I.  “I  made  tests  for  seven  years  in  succession,  salting  two  sixty-pound  tubs 
each  year  with  different  kinds  of  salt.  I commenced  by  using  Ashton  in  two, 
Genesee  in  two  and  Diamond  Crystal  in  two.  This  butter  was  stored  and  kept 
in  the  store  house  for  four  months.  It  was  taken  from  the  store  house,  and 
I selected  experts  to  pick  out  the  two  best  tubs  out  of  the  six,  and  they  always 
selected  the  two  tubs  salted  with  Diamond  Crystal,  as  being  worth  one  cent  a 
pound  more,  and  sometimes  some  of  the  judges  would  say,  one  and  a half  cents 
a pound  more  than  the  other. 

Then  I tried  it  with  several  other  kinds  of  salt  and  among  them  Worcester, 
and  we  always  found  the  same  results.  I also  requested  people  in  Chicago  to 
make  this  same  test,  and  it  was  done  at  . . . .,  and  the  butter  was  stored 

in  Chicago,  and  they  had  the  same  results.  ...  In  regard  to  fresh  butter,  I 
do  not  think  any  man  can  tell  any  difference  in  any  of  the  so-called  dairy  salts. 
. . . . My  judgment  is  that  the  flakey  salt  will  cut  the  grain  of  the  butter 

less  than  the  cube-grained  salt.” 

II.  ‘‘We  prefer  fine-grained  salt  for  our  trade,  something  that  dissolves 
quickly  and  that  has  no  ‘gritty’  taste.  Our  trade  demands  strictly  new  butter, 
therefore  do  not  care  for  butter  salted  for  cold  storage.  We  have  given  prefer- 
ence to  the  Worcester  salt  on  account  of  its  flue  grain,  but  have  no  doubt  the 
Diamond  Crystal  is  equally  as  good  if  it  could  be  of  the  same  grain.  Have  made 
many  tests  of  butter  salted  witn  different  kinds  of  salt,  and  in  freshly  made 
have  almost  invariably  found  the  Worcester  first,  Diamond  second,  and  Genesee 
third.  Ashton  about  second.  There  is  a flavor  in  freshly  made  butter  salted  with 
Genesee  that  is  not  liked  by  our  patrons,  but  have  decided  in  several  salt  contests 
of  cold-storage  butter  in  favor  of  Genesee.  I am  of  the  opinion  that  the  lime 
content  is  detrimental  to  flavor,  and  the  high  degree  of  purity  is  of  great  ad- 
vantage.” 


24 


Bulltein  No.  7 4. 


III.  “About  thirty  years  ago  I bought  the  first  car  of  Ashton  salt  that  ever 

came  to  ...  . Up  to  that  time  all  the  dairies  were  using  common 

Michigan  barrel  salt.  Then  Higgins’  came  in,  and  I bought  a car  of  that,  as  it 
was  so  much  finer  grain,  but  I soon  became  convinced  that  the  coarse  grain  was- 
the  best,  as  the  butter  would  retain  more  of  the  salt  and  give  best  results.  I 
then  went  back  to  Ashton,  until  the  last  fifteen  years,  when  I have  had  more 

experience  with  the  Genesee,  Diamond  Crystal  and  Worcester In 

butters  held  four  to  nine  months  there  is  less  of  the  fishy  taste  in  the  Genesee 
salt.  I should  prefer  the  coarse  grain  like  Genesee  or  Diamond  Crystal  salt. 
I should  not  reject  butter  with  the  Diamond  Crystal  salt,  for  it  is  a good  salt, 
but  would  prefer  the  Genesee  for  cold-storage 

I think  the  less  lime  and  pan  scales  the  better.  I am  of  the  opinion  that  a 
high  degree  of  purity  in  the  salt  is  preferable.” 

IV.  “For  uniform  results,  either  for  immediate  use  or  for  cold  storage,  by 

long  odds  my  experience  has  been- the  best  with  Genesee,  although  I am  candid 
to  say  that  my  experience  with  Ashton’s  has  been  rather  limited 

My  experience  with  factories  which  are  using  Diamond  Crystal  salt  and  ship- 
ping to  this  market,  has  been  that  the  butter  if  otherwise  perfect,  gave  much 
the  best  results  in  the  Boston  or  other  New  England  markets  where  they  are 
used  to  handling  sharp-salted  New  York  state  and  Northern  butters.  These 
same  factories,  however,  do  not  prove  satisfactory  when  shipped  either  to  New 
York  or  Philadelphia,  or  the  markets  between  here  (Chicago)  and  those  cities. 

My  experience  with  Worcester  salt  has  been  that  nearly  every  factory  using 
it  which  is  shipping  to  us,  sends  their  butter  in  too  light  salted  for  either  the 
New  England  or  New  York  markets,  but  inasmuch  as  Philadelphia  and  the  ad- 
jacent markets  desire  mild  salted  butter,  I can  usually  fill  orders  for  that  sec- 
tion of  the  country  with  these  butters  to  very  good  advantage.  I observe  this, 
however,  that  it  is  practically  useless  for  me  to  urge  butter  makers  to  change 
the  salting  of  their  butter,  when  using  either  Diamond  Crystal  or  Worcester, 
as  they  seem  to  be  unable  to  control  the  salting  when  they  vary  from  their 
usual  custom,  and  I find  it  necessary  to  take  the  butter  as  I find  it  and  ship  it 
where  it  will  give  the  best  satisfaction. 

My  experience  with  factories  using  Genesee  salt  is  that  the  butter,  if  salted 
to  the  right  degree,  will  give  satisfaction  in  any  market  of  the  United  States, 
and  if  I have  been  shipping  the  butter  to  the  New  England  states  and  have 
been  having  it  highly  salted,  I simply  have  to  notify  the  butter  makers  to  use 
less  salt  and  I am  then  able  to  get  butter  that  is  perfectly  satisfactory  in  the 
Philadelphia  market.  I do  not  know  why  it  is,  but  it  seems  that  the  butter 
makers  can  control  saltings  of  their  butter  better  with  Genesee  salt  than  with 
any  other  brand  with  which  we  have  come  in  contact. 

My  experience  with  Genesee  salt  in  cold  storage  has  been  excellent.  While 
a great  many  lots  of  butter  stored  with  Worcester  salt,  although  they  were 
mildly  salted  and  nice  when  they  went  in,  have  afterwards  come  out  with  a 
fishy  taste,  which  one  does  not  expect  to  find  in  mildly  salted  butter;  conse- 
quently, when  I can  control  it,  I always  stipulate  in  my  contracts  that  Genesee 
salt  is  to  be  used,  as  I know  that  I can  get  right  results  from  whatever  market 
I may  desire  to  send  the  goods.” 

V.  “I  have  come  to  the  conclusion  that  where  coarser-grain  salt  is  used,  the 

butter  is  usually  salted  more  evenly,  and  less  liable  to  be  light  in  salt  than  where 
they  use  the  finer-grained  salt.  I think  the  reason  is  that  with  fine  salt,  when 
the  butter  is  left  standing  a short  time,  it  dissolves,  there  being  considerable 
moisture  in  the  butter,  and  is  more  apt  to  run  off  in  the  brine  than  when  coarser 
salt  is  used 

My  opinion  is  that  salt  that  has  a large  percentage  of  lime  in  it  is  not  as  good 
for  keeping  qualities  of  the  butter.” 

Opinions  of  Commission  Dealers. 

VI.  “Twenty-five  or  thirty  years  ago  we  never  recommended  anything  to  but- 
ter makers  but  the  Ashton  salt.  We  had  become  of  the  opinion  that  nothing 
would  compete  with  that  as  a salt  for  butter;  but  since  the  Genesee  people 


A Study  of  Dairy  Salt. 


25 


sent  their  active  and  aggressive  agent  through  the  West  and  have  made  the 
name  of  Genesee  a familiar  word  among  all  dairymen,  we  have  been  obliged  to 
concede  that  there  were  other  salts  fully  as  good  as  the  Ashton,  and  if  we  were 
to  be  honest  with  ourselves,  we  would  probably  say  better. 

In  Europe,  where  dairying  has  been  raised  to  so  high  a degree  of  perfection, 
we  have  been  taught  that  they  prefer  the  salt  which  is  not  absolutely  pure,  and 
this  has  led  all  thinking  butter  men  to  examine  deeply  into  this  feature  of  the 
case,  and  we  are  of  the  opinion  that  they  are  right.  We  are  aware  that  in  many 
cases  imperfections  in  butter  are  easily  and  perhaps  wrongfully  laid  to  the 
quality  of  the  salt  used,  when  the  real  difficulty  is  in  the  carelessness  of  the 
manufacturer. 

We  do  not  believe  that  the  coarseness  of  the  grain  of  any  of  the  leading  dairy 
salts  is  to  the  disadvantage  of  the  butter  maker  or  to  the  value  of  the  goods. 

It  is  sometimes  difficult,  where  many  fine  goods  are  offered,  to  give  an  opinion, 
that  is  entirely  unprejudiced  by  association  or  possibly  friendship,  yet  we  often 
find  it  our  duty  to  recommend  some  one  as  to  the  purchase  of  these  goods,  and  in 
doing  so  have  endeavored  to  be  guided  by  our  best  judgment  and  then  have  recom- 
mended Genesee.” 

VII.  “We  are  receiving  many  makes  wherein  the  coarse  grade  is  used  and 
part  of  the  trade  will  take  this  in  preference  to  the  grade  which  has  the  finer 
salt  and  does  not  show  grittiness.  We  ourselves  much  prefer  the  make  of  but- 
ter which  contains  salt  of  a finer  texture.” 

VIII.  “My  preference  so  far  as  my  experience  goes  is  for  a fine-grain  salt  that 

will  dissolve  and  become  assimilated  completely  with  the  butter 

I have  seen  some  butters  coming  out  of  storage  that  had  kept  well  made  of  both 
fine  and  coarse  salt,  so  I am  at  a loss  to  say  which  is  the  best  to  use  for  storage 
purposes.” 

Opinions  of  Creamery  and  Cheese  Factory  Companies. 

IX.  “We  have  been  using  Worcester  salt  for  the  past  three  or  four  years 
and  we  find  it  very  satisfactory.  We  think  it  has  good  keeping  qualities.  What 
butter  we  have  stored  in  cold  storage  has  turned  out  quite  satisfactory  for  us.” 

X.  “We  take  from  the  same  churning  for  several  days  in  succession  and  pack 
butter  with  the  different  makes  of  salt,  ship  it  to  the  freezer  in  Chicago  and 
carry  it  for  five  to  eight  months  in  the  freezer,  and  have  the  butter  graded  from 

time  to  time  by  our and  others,  none  of  whom  are  aware  of  what  we 

are  trying  to  get  at,  and  from  the  butter  which  holds  the  best  we  determine  the 
salt  we  should  use,  and  in  an  experiment  as  above,  all  the  conditions  of  the  but- 
ter are  practically  identically  the  same,  except  the  salt  which  is  used,  and  from 
that  experiment  we  have  settled  upon  the  Genesee  salt  as  preferable  to  use  in  our 
business. 

We  do  believe,  from  our  years  of  experience  in  the  use  of  different  salts, 
that  there  is  a finer  flavor  when  the  butter  is  close  to  the  churn,  say  not  more 
than  a month,  obtained  by  the  use  of  Genesee,  Ashton  and  the  German  salt,  than 
we  obtain  with  any  of  the  other  salts,  a more  delicate  flavor. 

We  made  a test  this  past  season,  and  after  five  months,  our  pro- 

nounced the  Genesee-salted  butter  worth  2 cents  per  pound  more  on  its  merits; 
than  that  salted  with  the  other  salt.” 

XI.  “We  have  for  some  time  been  satisfied  that  there  are  several  brands  of 
salt  between  which  there  is  no  decided  preference,  and  we  have  as  between  these 
brands  usually  taken  the  cheaper.  We  are  at  present  using  the  Diamond  Crystal, 
but  there  are  two  or  three  other  brands  that  so  far  as  we  know,  from  our  own 
observation,  have  about  the  same  value.” 

XII.  “We  prefer  a salt  that  will  dissolve  readily.  We  have  used  many  brands 
or  grades.  We  are  now  using  Worcester  and  are  fairly  well  satisfied.  Taking 
everything  into  consideration,  we  consider  the  Ashton  as  good  as  any  we  have 
used.” 


26 


Bulletin  No.  7 If. 


XIII.  “The  stress  put  upon  the-  various  brands  of  salt  by  the  manufacturers 
(for  cheese  making)  is  not  borne  out  by  my  observation.  . . . My  mind  is 
that  there  are  so  many  factors  entering  into  the  manufacture  of  butter  and 
cheese  that  the  use  of  many  of  the  best  brands  of  salt,  coarse  or  fine,  will  be 
secondary  in  their  effect  upon  the  product.  . . . For  the  pasi  three  years 
we  have  used  the  Worcester,  and  like  it.  About  500  boxes  June  cheese  were 
carried  in  storage  until  winter,  and  all  came  out  fine.  ...  A comparison  of 
Le  Roy  and  Worcester  was  made  in  one  of  our  factories  a year  ago,  without  our 
being  able  to  observe  any  difference  in  the  quality.” 


An  ideal  butter  salt. — It  may  be  well  at  this  point  to  give  the  opinion 
of  a few  dairy  authorities  as  to  what  is  considered  an  ideal  butter  salt. 
Prof.  Wing-,  in  his  “Milk  and  Its  Products”*  states  that  the  salt  should 
be  dry,  of  uniform  grain,  and  should  readily  and  completely  dissolve 
to  a clear  solution.  Those  brands  of  salt  which  are  made  from  the 
natural  crystal  give  the  best  results  so  far  as  remaining  dry  and 
freedom  from  caking  are  concerned. 

The  Danish  State  Dairy  Counselor  B.  Bdggild,  in  his  book  on  Danish 
Dairy ing,{  states:  “Butter  salt  must  consist  of  thin  flakes  that  offer 
a large  surface  for  the  action  of  butter'  and  rapidly  dissolve  to  large 
brine  drops.  By  closer  examination  good  butter  salt  will  therefore  be 
found  to  consist  of  small,  flat,  thin-walled,  hollow,  four-cornered 
pyramids,  and  by  rubbing  between  the  fingers  it  is  a light,  soft  mass 
which  falls  together  by  gentle  pressure  to  a powder  consisting  of 
small  flakes.” 

According  to  Fleichmann,  the  eminent  German  authority  on  dairy 
science,  “butter  salt  should  be  of  a pure,  white  color  and  free  from 
mechanical  impurities,  and  when  dried,  should  contain  from  98  to  99 
per  cent,  of  sodium  chlorid.  Salt  with  a musty  smell  or  mixed  with 
sand,  or  containing  several  per  cent,  of  gypsum  or  sodium  sulfate, 
calcium  chlorid,  and  magnesium  chlorid,  and  which  in  consequence 
absorbs  moisture  rapidly  from  the  air,  is  not  suited  for  salting  butter. 
The  salt  best  suited  for  salting  butter  is  that  which  consists  of  not 
too  small,  but  very  thin  and  delicate  crystals.  • Such  salt  is  largely 
composed  of  little  pieces,  which  remain  behind  on  the  coarsest  sieve, 
exhibit  a relatively  small  specific  gravity  and  dissolve  rapidly  in 
water.”§ 

It  is  not  the  purpose  of  the  writer  to  pronounce  judgment  as  to  the 
merits  of  the  main  American  dairy  salts  on  the  basis  of  the  results  of 
the  chemical  or  mechanical  examinations  reported  in  the  preceding. 
The  reader  who  studies  the  data  presented  will  be  in  a position  to 


*New  York,  1897,  page  150. 

$Malkeribruget  i Danmark,  2nd  ed.,  1896,  page  155. 

§The  Book  of  the  Dairy,  London,  1896,  page  178.  See  also  Ivirchner, 
Handbuch  d.  Milchwurtschaft,  3rd  ed.,  p.  325;  Buschman,  Das  In- 
dustrie-Salz,  Wien,  1892,  p.  150,  and  Mass.  State  Exp.  Sta.,  bull.  26. 


A Study  of  Dairy  Salt. 


27 


decide  which  ones  of  the  salts  analyzed  come  up  to  a fair  standard  of 
purity,  solubility,  grain,  etc.  A careful  perusal  of  the  opinions  of  ex- 
pert butter-  and  cheese  judges  and  others  given  above  will  satisfy  any 
one  that  no  special  brand  stands  first  in  all  respects,  but  that  there  is 
in  general  a fair  choice  between  several  of  our  leading  dairy  salts. 


USE  OF  SALT  IN  BUTTER-  AND  CHEESE  MAKING. 

A. — The  Use  of  Salt  in  Butter  Making. — Nearly  all  butter  sold  in  this 
country  is  salted,  the  quantity  of  salt  added  varying  according  to  the 
different  markets;  the  salt  is  added  in  the  process  of  manufacture 
after  the  granular  butter  has  been  washed  and  drained,  and  before 
it  is  worked.  The  general  practice  in  this  country  as  to  the  quantity 
•of  salt  to  be  used  is  to  add  one  ounce  of  salt  for  each  pound  of  but- 
ter as  it  is  placed  on  the  worker.  As  the  butter  will  contain  varying 
amounts  of  water  at  this  stage,  according  to  the  temperature  of 
churning,  the  size  of  the  butter  granules,  thoroughness  of  draining, 
•etc.,  the  salting,  if  done  according  to  this  rule  is  apt  to  be  uneven, 
more  or  less  of  the  salt  being  lost  through  the  working,  according 
to  the  water  content  of  the  butter,  unless  the  churning  conditions 
are  carefully  controlled  so  that  but  small  variations  occur.  When 
the  combined  churn  and  worker  is  used,  in  which  case  the  weight  of 
granular  butter  in  the  churn  cannot  be  readily  ascertained,  the 
rate  of  salting  is  based  on  the  quantity  of  cream  churned,  since  this 
will  vary  but  slightly  in  quality  from  day  to  day,  or  on  the  amount 
of  butter  fat  in  the  butter  as  calculated  from  the  per  cent,  of  fat  in  the 
milk  or  in  the  cream;  in  this  case  the  usual  practice  is  to  allow  eight 
pounds  of  salt  per  100  pounds  of  butter  fat. 

Salt  serves  a three-fold  purpose  in  butter  making:  first,  it  causes  the 
minute  buttermilk  drops  to  run  together,  thus  making  it  possible  to 
work  considerable  water  out  of  the  butter.  Second,  it  preserves  the 
butter  from  early  decay  by  checking  germ  growth  therein  for  a time; 
and,  third,  it  gives  a distinct  flavor  to  the  butter  which  in  the  markets 
of  this  and  many  other  countries  is  considered  desirable.  It  may  be 
well  to  discuss  these  points  a little  more  in  detail,  and  we  shall  con- 
sider first: 

I.  The  effect  of  salt  on  the  water  content  of  butter. — Water  is  present  in 
butter  in  the  shape  of  an  immense  number  of  microscopic  water-  or 
buttermilk  drops.  The  diameter  of  the  vast  majority  of  these  drops, 
according  to  Storch,  is  less  than  .01  millimeter.  Storch*  determined 
the  number  of  these  drops  at  3 to  over  13  millions  per  cubic  milli- 
meter, a quantity  of  about  the  size  of  a pin-head.  The  number  varies 
considerably  in  different  kinds  of  butter,  and  at  least  two  distinct 


*36th  Report  Copenhagen  Experiment  Station,  1897. 


28 


Bulletin  No.  7Jf. 


types  of  butter  may  be  traced;  such  having1  comparatively  few  and 
large  drops,  and  such  having  a large  number  of  comparatively  small- 
sized drops.  Butter  of  the  former  kind  may  not  contain  as  much 
water  percentagely  as  the  latter  kind,  but  on  standing,  brine 
will  leak  out  and  there  will  be  a loss  in  weight.  Such  butter  will, 
give  the  impression  of  containing  a great  deal  of  water  when  cut 
or  tried,  while  butter  in  which  the  water  is  found  in  an  immense 
number  of  relatively  small  drops,  will  appear  very  dry.  The  difference 
in  the  appearance  of  salted  and  unsalted  butter  in  this  respect  is 
generally  very  marked.  When  salt  is  added  to  the  butter  it  is  in  a 
short  time  dissolved  in  the  water  and  forms  brine  drops;  owing  to  the 
osmotic  action  of  salt  there  will  be  a movement  of  liquid  toward 
the  strong  brine  drops,  and  the  drops  of  larger  size  thus  formed  can 
be  readily  worked  out  of  the  butter,  and  its  water  content  thereby 
decreased.  By  the  addition  of  salt  the  object  sought  in  the  work- 
ing of  the  butter  can  therefore  be  carried  further  than  would  other- 
wise be  the  case. 

Composition  of  salted  and  unsalted  butter. — A number  of  experiments, 
have  been  made  which  show  that  a direct  diminution  of  the  water 
content  of  butter  will  take  place  through  the  addition  of  salt;  the 
best  proof,  however,  is  presented  by  a compilation  of  all  analyses  made 
of  salted  and  unsalted  butter.  The  following  summary  of  analyses 
has  been  calculated  by  the  writer  from  the  data  presented  in  Dr. 
Martiny’s  recently  published  comprehensive  investigation  “On  the 
Water  Content  of  Butter.”*  The  samples  of  butter  included  in  this 
summary  came  from  dairy  countries  both  in  the  old  and  the  new 
W’orld.  The  salted  butters  came  from  eleven,  and  the  unsalted  from 
six  different  countries;  two-thirds  of  the  latter  samples  being  made- 
in  France  and  Italy. 


Average  composition  of  salted  and  unsalted  butter,  in  per  cent. 


Salted. 

Unsalted. 

Water 

11.95 

84.27 

1.26 

2.52 

100  00 

1,676 

13.07' 

85.24 

1.57 

.12 

loo. oa- 

242: 

Fat 

Casein,  milk  sugar,  lactic  acid,  etc.... 

Ash 

No.  of  samples  included 

According  to  the  average  results  obtained  in  this  compilation,  un- 
salted butter  contains  over  one  per  cent,  more  water,  .3  per  cent- 


*Landw.  Jahrb.  27,  (1898),  pages  773-963. 


A Study  of  Dairy  Salt. 


2S 


more  casein,  milk  sugar,  etc.,  and  one  per  cent,  more  fat  than  salted 
butter*  while  the  latter  contains  about  2 1-2  per  cent,  more  ash  (salt) 
than  is  found  in  the  unsalted  butter.  The  ash  in  the  unsalted  but- 
ter conies  from  the  buttermilk-remnants  in  the  water  drops.  Un- 
salted butter  also  contains  a larger  proportion  of  non-fatty  organic 
substances  than  salted  butter,  which  tends  to  make  it  keep  for 
a briefer  period  than  salted  butter.  If  the  average  analyses  given  in 
both  cases  be  referred  to  a uniform  water  content,  say  12  per  cent., 
we  find  that  the  unsalted  butter  contains  1.44  per  cent  casein,  milk 
sugar,  etc.,  against  1.26  per  cent,  in  the  salted  butter,  showing  that 
these  components  are  appreciably  reduced  as  a result  of  the  addi- 
tion of  salt  to  the  butter.  The  buttermilk-brine  liquid  worked  out 
of  butter  after  this  has  been  salted,  has  been  analyzed  in  two  in- 
stances, by  Miiller*  and  Eichloff.J  The  results  of  the  analyses  are 
shown  below. 


Composition  of  liquid  worked  out  of  butter. 


Muller. 

Eichloff. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

Water 

77.38 

79.92 

Sodium  chlorid ) 

17.01 

19.17 

.14 

Albuminoids 

32 

.20 

Milk  sugar 

3.13 

2.53 

Lactic  acid 

.18 

Fat 

100.00 

99.98 

The  analyses  show  the  liquid  in  both  cases  to  be  a strong  brine- 
solution  mixed  with  soluble  components  of  the  buttermilk,  mainly 
milk  sugar.  In  Muller’s  experiment  the  butter  was  salted  with  3.4 
per  cent,  salt,  and  about  23  per  cent,  of  the  salt  was  lost  in  the  work- 
ing. In  Eichloff’s  experiment,  two  per  cent,  salt  was  added,  of  which 
28  per  cent,  was  lost  in  the  working.  American  market  butter  as 
sampled  and  analyzed  contains  on  the  average  about  three  per  cent, 
of  salt  (see  below);  it  follows  therefore  that  at  least  half  the  amount 
of  salt  added  is  lost  in  the  brine  worked  out  prior  to  packing,  against 
about  25  per  cent,  in  the  two  cases  cited  above,  where  2-3  per  cent,  of 
salt  had  been  added. 


*Landw.  Vers.  Sta.,  9,  page  365. 
$Milch-Ztg.,  1897,  page  83. 


30 


Bulletin  No.  7J+. 


According-  to  Kirchner,*  one-fifth  to  one-half  of  the  salt  added  is  lost 
through  the  subsequent  working;  the  heavier  the  butter  is  salted,  the 
smaller  proportion  of  the  salt  will  in  general  be  incorporated  in  the 
butter.J 

It  is,  however,  possible  to  incorporate  large  quantities  of  salt  in 
butter  beyond  what  will  dissolve  in  the  water  of  the  butter.  In  such 
cases-  the  butter  will  contain  salt  in  crystals  and  be  gritty.  One  hun- 
dred parts  of  water  dissolves  about  36  parts  of  salt  at  ordinary  tem- 
perature. As  the  butter  is  taken  out  of  the  churn  after  having  been 
washed  and  drained,  it  will  contain  at  least  fifteen,  and  ordinarily 
about  twenty  per  cent,  of  water;  100  pounds  of  butter  will  there- 
fore contain  20  pounds  of  water,  which  could  take  up  36x20-rT00=7.2 
pounds  of  salt,  before  the  solution  becomes  saturated.  If  more  salt  is. 
added  than  about  7 per  cent.,  or  if  the  granular  butter  contains  less, 
water  than  normal,  or  sufficient  time  is  not  given  to  allow  the  salt 
to  dissolve  in  the  water  present  in  the  butter,  a part  of  the  salt 
added  will  remain  in  the  butter  in  crystalline  form,  and  the  result 
will  be  a gritty  butter.  The  solution  of  salt  in  the  water  of  butter 
is  effected  by  working  the  butter  twice  or  by  a single  thorough  work- 
ing, thus  bringing  the  salt  in  contact  with  .new  portions  of  butter  un- 
til all  is  dissolved.  Analyses  have  been  published  showing  contents  of 
8 per  cent,  to  13.5,  15.08  and  1£.93  per  cent,  of  salt  in  the  butter, § but- 
such  heavy  salted  butter  must  have  been  exceedingly  gritty  since  the 
water  contents  of  the  samples  in  no  case  appear  to  have  been  exces- 
sive, but  rather  below  normal. 

In  southern  Europe  and  in  France,  as  well  as  to  a limited  extent  in 
select  trade  in  the  large  cities  of  this  country,  no  salt  is  added  to- 
the  butter,  this  being  consumed  within  a short  time  after  it  is  made.. 
In  north-European  countries  the  rate  of  salting  is  about  two  per  cent, 
for  butter  intended  for  immediate  consumption,  and  two  to  five  per 
cent,  for  storage  butter.fi 

Composition  of  foreign  butters. — As  it  was  considered  of  interest  for 
the  sake  of  illustrating  different  methods  of  salting  butter  in  this 
country  and  abroad,  the  writer  secured  and  analyzed  samples  of  for- 
eign butter  and  American  premium  butter  exhibited  at  the  Conven- 

*Handb.  d.  Milchwirtschaft,  3d  ed.,  page  327. 

$See  also  Sweetser  and  Weld,  Agr.  Science,  7,  546. 

§Fischer,  Jahresb.  Chem.  Unters-Amt.  Breslau,  1895-6,  page  25;  Mac- 
Farlane,  Lab.  Ini.  Bev.  Dept.,  Bui.  16;  Bell,  Jour.  Royal  Agrl.  Soc.  Eng., 
1877,  pag-e  181;  see  Landw.  Jahrb.,  1898,  page  827. 

fiMartiny,  loc.  cit, ; Kirchner,  Handb.  d.  Milch w.,  p.  325.  Fleischmann, 
Book  of  the  Dairy,  1 to  3 per  cent,  (immediate  consumption),  4 to  5 
per  cent,  (export);  Boggild,  Malkeribruget,  3 to  6 per  cent.;  Sheldon, 
Dairy  Farming,  one-half  ounce  to  nearly  or  quite  one  ounce  per  pound; 
Pouriau,  La  Laiterie,  3 to>  6 per  cent.;  Leze,  Les  Ind.  du  Lait,  2 to  6 per 
cent. 


A Study  of  Dairy  Salt . 


31 


tion  of  the  National  Buttermakers’  Convention  in  Sioux  Falls,  S.  D., 
in  January,  1899.  The  foreign-butter  exhibit  was  made  by  the  Dairy 
Division  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  and  rep- 
resented the  main  countries  supplying  butter  to  the  English  market. 
The  samples  were  obtained  through  the  kind  permission  of  the  Chief 
of  the  Dairy  Division,  Maj.  Henry  E.  Alvord,  and  were  taken  by  Mr. 
R,  A.  Pearson,  Assistant  Chief  of  the  Dairy  Division,  and  Prof.  Far- 
rington of  this  Experiment  Station.  All  samples  were  examined  for 
boracic-acid  preservatives,  with  results  as  shown  in  the  table.  For  the 
sake  of  comparison,  a compilation  of  all  available  analyses  of  butter 
from  the  various  countries  has  been  added.  The  monograph  by  Dr. 
Martiny  previously  referred  to  furnished  the  data  required  for  this 
compilation.  The  methods  of  analysis  followed  were  those  of  the 
Association  of  Official  Agricultural  Chemists.* 


Percentage  composition  of  foreign  butters. 


Sam- 

ple 

No. 

Origin  of 
samples. 

Style  of  package. 

Water. 

Fat. 

Curd. 

Ash 

(salt.) 

Remarks. 

1 

Denmark 

122  lb  Kiel  cask  . . 

13.02 

84.02 

1.58 

1.38 

2 

do 

131V6  lb  Kiel  cask 

15. 04 

82.27 

1.33 

1.36 

7 

do  

68  lb  keg 

15  32 

81.18 

1.48 

2.02 

Average  

14.46 

82.49 

1.46 

1 59 

Av.  of  all  anal 

yses  t55  samples)  . 

12.86 

83.78 

1.21 

2.15 

3 

Sweden 

120  lb  Kiel  cask.. 

13.64 

83.45 

1.65 

1.26 

Av.  of  all  anal 

yses  (139  samples). 

14.13 

82.57 

.98 

2.32 

4 

Finland 

122*4  5)  Kiel  cask 

~ 83797" 

1.68 

iTTTT 

Av.  of  all  anal 

yses  (1  sample). .. 

13.01 

84.26 

1.47 

1.26 

5 

Holland 

112  lb  Kiel  cask . . 

13.49 

82.63 

1.46 

2.42 

6 

do 

56  lb  keg  . . 

12.36 

84  51 

1 21 

1 92 

29 

do 

28  lb  keg 

12.34 

85.06 

1.65 

.95 

Average 

12.73 

84.07 

1 44 

1 76 

Av.  of  all  anal 

yses  (1  sample).  .. 

13.68 

84.30 

1.25 

.77 

13 

France 

28  lb  basket. - - 

15.10 

82. 9U 

1.52 

7u 

Contained  pre* 

servative. 

28 

do 

24  lb  box 

14.99 

83.19 

.68 

1.14 

do. 

Average 

15  04 

83.06 

1.10 

79 

Av.  of  all  anal 

yses  (235  samples). 

13.32 

84.48 

1.43 

.77 

Salted. 

Av.  of  all  anal 

yses  (58  samples;  . 

13.73 

85 . 80 

1.39 

.08 

Unsalted. 

8 

Ireland 

79  1b  firkin  .... 

11.54 

84 . 58 

U23 

2 65 

9 

....do 

70  lb  firkin  .... 

15.02 

80  95 

1.68 

2.35 

10 

72  lb  firkin  ... 

18 . 42 

71.26 

1.99 

8333 

11 

. . . .do 

56  lb  kitt. 

14  10 

84 . 33 

1 06 

. 51 

12 

...  .do 

56  lb  half  Kiel 

13.11 

83.59 

1.08 

2.22 

25 

do 

56  lb  box  .... 

12.73 

84.  (.0 

1.38 

1 . S9 

Contained  pre* 

servative. 

26 

do 

28  lb  box 

12.50 

84.22 

1.21 

2.07 

do. 

Average  

13  92 

81.85 

1.38 

2.86 

*Bul.  46,  Chemical  Division,  U.  fc».  Dept,  of  Agrl.,  Washington,  1895, 
page  25. 


32 


Bulletin  No.  74, 


Percentage  composition  of  foreign  butters — Continued. 


Sam- 
I pie 
No. 

Origin  of 
samples. 

Style  of  package. 

27 

24  lb  box 

Av.  of  all  anal 

yses  (322  samples) 

Av.  of  all  anal 

yses  (24  samples). 

28a 

Italy  

24  11)  box] 

Av.  of  all  anal 

yses  (6  samples) .. 

Av.  of  all  anal 

yses  (53  samples) . 

14 

Australia 

56  5)  box 

.15 

56  lb  box 

17 

do 

56  ft)  box  * 

18 

56  ft)  box  f 

22 

do 

56  ft)  box 

Average 

Av.  of  all  anal 

yses  (59  samples) . 

Av.  of  all  anal 

yses  (2  samples) . . 

19 

New  Zealand 

56  ft)  box 

16 

j Argentine 

56  lb  box 

20 

j Canada  

57  ft)  box 

21 

do 

56  lb  box 

Average 

Av.  of  all  anal 

yses  (207  samples) 

23 

United  States 

56  ft)  box 

23a 

do 

56  ft)  box 

24 

do 

56  lb  box 

24a 

do 

56  lb  box 

Average 

30 

Am  Premium 

Butter 

1st  prize 

31 

do 

2d  prize 

32 

do 

3d  prize 

Average 

Av.  of  all  anal 

yses  (473  samples) 

Water. 

Fat 

Curd. 

Ash 

(salt) 

Remarks. 

13.54 

85.44 

.34 

.68 

12.09 

84  66 

1.14 

2.11 

Salted. 

13.43 

85.64 

.80 

.13 

Unsalted. 

~ hTssT 

83.57” 

5l3(T 

IT 

Contained 

preservative. 

11.52 

85.56 

1.07 

1.86 

Salted. 

13.67 

85.08 

1.11 

.15 

Unsalted. 

10.06” 

86. 15- 

1.24  j 

2^T 

Contained 

preservative. 

10.83 

85.89 

1.10 

2.18 

do. 

11.60 

84.55 

1.41 

2.44 

do. 

12.28 

82.93 

1.13 

3.66 

do. 

11.92 

84.86 

1.25 

1.97 

do. 

11.34 

84.88 

1.23 

2.56 

11.16 

85  32 

96 

2 56 

Salted. 

10.63 

87.71 

1.38 

.28 

Unsalted. 

1 1 . 48~ 

86.08 

7si 

163 

Contained 

preservative. 

12.15 

84.89 

1.01 

1.95 

Contained 

preservative. 

10.35 

86.79 

1.20 

1.66 

11.50 

85.07 

1.28 

2.15 

10.93 

85.93 

1.24 

1 91 

8.97 

84.29 

1.44 

5 17 

12.96 

~ 83T95~ 

r&r 

U7(T 

13.24 

82.47 

1.09 

3.20 

13.55 

84.22 

.87 

1 36 

13  17 

84.59 

1.05 

1 19 

13.23 

83.81 

1 08 

1.88 

12.46 

83.31 

1.55 

2.68 

10.49 

85.68 

1.38 

2.45 

10.66 

85.82 

1.28 

2.24 

11.20 

84.94 

1.40 

2.46 

11.44 

84.64 

1.02 

2.90 

* “2  per  cent,  salt.”  f ‘‘1  per  cent,  salt.” 


It  is  not  within  the  scope  of  this  bulletin  to  enter  upon  a discussion 
of  the  suggestive  data  presented  in  the  preceding-  table;  keeping  strict- 
ly to  the  subject-matter  proper  of  this  bulletin,  we  may,  however,  call 
attention  to  the  fact  that  the  average  salt  content  of  butters  manu- 
factured in  foreign  countries,  as  analyzed  by  the  writer,  is  found  to 
range  from  .72  per  cent.  (French)  to  2.86  per  cent.  (Ireland),  ex- 
cluding the  sample  of  Italian  butter,  containing  .24  per  cent,  salt, 
which  is  practically  unsalted  butter.  The  highest  per  cent,  salt  in 
the  samples  analyzed  was  found  in  No.  10,  a 72-pound  firkin  of  Irish 
butter,  which  also  contained  an  abnormally  high  content  of  water 
;and  of  curd  (18.42  per  cent,  and  1.99  per  cent.,  respectively),  and  a 


A Study  of  Dairy  Salt. 


33 


corresponding-  low  fat  content  (71.26  per  cent.).  When  analyzed  the 
butter  was  at  least  a month  old  and  was  exceedingly  repulsive.  The 
compilation  of  analyses  g-iven  show  a range  in  average  salt  content  of 
from  .77  per  cent.  (France  and  Holland)  to  5.17  per  cent.  (Ireland). 

II.  — Salt  as  a butter  preservative. — It  is  a matter  of  common  experi- 
ence that  salted  butter  will  keep  longer  than  unsalted  butter;  the  latter 
kind  will  become  rancid  in  a short  time  after  it  is  made.  Salt  there- 
fore preserves  butter  from  decomposition.  Salt  is  a preservative  in  so 
far  as  it  checks  the  growth  of  germ  life.  This  action  is  dependent  on 
the  water-absorbing  power  of  salt,  by  which  the  protoplasm  of  plant 
cells  are  “plasmolyzed,’’  or,  in  a measure,  desiccated,  so  that  their 
faculties  of  growth  and  reproduction  are  destroyed,  at  least  for  the 
time  being.  Salt  is  not  a germ-killer  (germicide),  but  can  only  arrest 
plant  or  germ  growth.  For  this  reason  its  antiseptic  power  is  but 
limited,  and  when  salted  butter  is  eaten,  any  bacteria  present  therein 
are  again  able  to  resume  growth  and  reproduce  of  their  kind.  If 
disease-producing  bacteria  therefore  get  into  the  butter  through  the 
milk  supply  or  otherwise,  they  will  be  able  to  resume  growth  if 
favorable  conditions  arise,  even  if  subjected  to  the  action  of  concen- 
trated brine  solutions  for  a considerable  length  of  time.*  Indirectly, 
however,  the  addition  of  salt  to  the  butter  is  of  great  benefit  as 
regards  its  keeping  qualities.  As  we  have  seen,  salt  tends  to  unite 
the  small  drops  of  water  in  the  butter  to  larger  ones,  which  may  be 
easily  expelled  by  working-.  Less  favorable  conditions  are  thereby 
created  for  the  bacteria,  the  supply  of  moisture  necessary  for  their 
development  being  reduced,  and  as  a result,  also  the  centers  of  germ 
growth. 

III.  — Salt  as  a flavor  producer. — The  flavor  which  salt  yields  to  but- 
ter is  considered  desirable  in  markets  which  call  for  salted  butter.  In 
order  to  produce  a clean,  fine  flavor  in  the  butter,  the  salt  must  have 
a pure  taste  and  odor,  and  must  not  have  been  in  contact  with  any 
contaminating  material  which  might  give  to  it  its  own  peculiar  flavor, 
like  fishy,  oily  flavors,  etc. 

For  butter  intended  for  immediate  consumption,  a dairy  salt  rela- 
tively high  in  calcium-  and  magnesium  chlorids  may  not,  as  before 
stated,  be  especially  objectionable  as  regards  the  flavor  produced  in 
the  butter,  unless  the  contents  of  chlorids  be  excessive.  The  tendency 
to  become  damp  and  to  cake  which  the  salt  will  have  when  these 
impurities  are  present  in  appreciable  amounts,  of  course,  renders  such 
salt  undesirable,  whether  the  butter  is  intended  for  quick  consump- 
tion or  for  storage.  In  the  latter  case  an  additional  requirement  for 
a high  degree  of  purity  in  the  salt  is  essential;  butter  judges  often 

*Grotenfelt-Woll,  Modern  Dairy  Practice,  2d  ed.,  page  242;  Lafar, 
Technical  Mycology,  vol.  1,  page  214. 

3 


34 


Bulletin  No.  7J+. 


complain  of  a fishy  flavor  jDroduced  i'n  butter  after  it  has  been  kept 
in  storage  for  a number  of  months,  and  generally  consider  it  due  to 
the  salt  used.  This  is  in  all  probability  attributable  to  the  action  on 
the  butter  fat  of  the  chlorids  of  the  alkaline  earths  in  the  salt;  the 
glycerides  of  the  volatile  fatty  acids  are  very  likely  decomposed 
through  their  agency,  and  free  butyric  acid  or  other  volatile  organic 
products  are  thus  formed  which  would  yield  the  flavor  mentioned. 

Brine-salting  of  butter. — By  the  use  of  concentrated  brine  solutions 
it  is  possible  to  incorporate  a considerable  amount  of  salt  in  the  but- 
. ter,  as  is  shown  by  experiments  conducted  at  the  Minnesota  experi- 
ment station.*  Well-drained  granular  butter  was  salted  by  immersion 
in  saturated  brine  solutions,  and  after  having  been  worked  in  the 
usual  manner,  was  found  to  contain  4.15  per  cent,  and  2.63  per  cent, 
salt.  The  water  contents  of  the  samples  were  12.20  and  8.81  per  cent., 
respectively,  showing  that  the  water  in  the  butter  contained  in  one 
case  34  per  cent.,  and  in  the  other  30  per  cent  of  salt,  and  was  there- 
fore very  nearly  saturated  solutions. 

Brine-salting  of  butter  is  practiced  to  a limited  extent  by  some  but- 
ter makers,  especially  in  fancy  dairies,  where  a mild-salted  butter 
is  wanted.  It  has  the  advantage  of  removing  the  danger  of  grittiness 
in  the  butter,  but  it  is  difficult  to  reach  uniformity  of  salting  by  this 
method;  the  method  also  gives  more  work  than  dry-salting  and  causes 
a waste  of  salt.$  It  is,  therefore,  not  likely  that  the  practice  of  brine- 
salting will  ever  become  verj^  widespread. 

Weight  of  butter  before  and  after  salting  and  working. — The  weight  of 
butter  before  and  after  salting1  and  working  has  been  a subject  of 
considerable  discussion  and  experimentation  during  late  years,  from 
the  fact  that  the  manufacturers  of  a coarse  salt  claim . peculiar  ad- 
vantages for  their  special  brand  in  this  respect,  viz.:  that  the 
weight  of  butter  after  salting  and  working  will  invariably  be  in- 
creased by  the  use  of  their  salt  beyond  that  obtained  with  competing 
salts.  A large  number  of  comparative  experiments  by  practical  but- 
ter makers  have  been  published  by  the  manufacturers  that  would  seem 
to  substantiate  this  claim. 

It  was  considered  desirable  in  connection  with  the  investigation  of 
the  comparative  value  of  the  various  brands  of  dairy  salts  to  ascertain 
in  how  far  the  claim  suggested  is  warranted,  and  a dozen  churning 
experiments  were  accordingly  made  at  the  University  creamery  in  the 
fall  of  1898.  The  writer  was  assisted  by  Prof.  Farrington  in  the 
conduct  of  these  experiments.  The  chemical  analyses  of  the  samples 
of  butter  were  made  by  myself.  The  general  plan  of  the  experi- 
ments was  to  divide  the  granular  butter  obtained  in  the  regular 

*Hayes  and  Harper,  Minnesota  Experiment  Station,  Bui.  7. 

$See  Sweetser  and  Weld,  Experiments  in  Salting  Butter.  Agricultural 
Science,  7,  page  547. 


A Study  of  Dairy  Salt. 


35 


churning’  into  two  lots,  one  of  which  was  salted  with  a coarse-grained, 
and  the  other  with  a fine-grained  salt  (Diamond  Crystal  and  Worcester 
salt,  respectively).  Careful  and  detailed  records  were  kept  of  all 
conditions  which  would  affect  the  weight  and  the  composition  of  the 
butter  obtained.  For  lack  of  space  only  a few  of  these  can,  how- 
ever, be  given  in  this  place.  The  churnings  were  made  in  a Victor 
combined  churn  and  worker,  No.  5,  or  in  a 150-gallon  box  churn, 
the  butter  being  worked  either  in  the  combined  churn  and  worker  or 
on  a Mason  butter  worker.  In  trials  I to  III,  and  XII,  the  Mason 
table  worker  was  used,  and  the  combined  churn  and  worker  in  the 
other  trials.  Salt  was  added  at  the  rate  of  one  ounce  per  pound;  if 
the  working  was  done  in  the  combined  churn  and  worker  the  quantity 
of  salt  required  was  added  in  two  portions,  about  one-half  at  a time, 
to  allow  a more  even  distribution;,  the  butter  was  generally  worked 
only  once,  until  no  taste  of  grittiness  could  be  discovered.  The  but- 
ter was  taken  out  of  the  churn  after  having  been  washed  and  allowed 
to  drain  thoroughly;  it  was  then  weighed  and  one-half  salted  and 
worked  at  once,  while  the  other  was  placed  in  the  refrigerator  room; 
the  latter  was  salted  and  worked  immediately  after  the  first  lot  was 
packed  and  weighed. 

In  the  following  table,  which  presents  the  main  results  of  the  ex- 
periments and  of  the  analyses  made,  A refers  to  the  fine-grained  salt 
and  B to  the  coarse-grained  salt.  The  lots  salted  with  the  former 
kind  were  worked  first  in  trials  I-V,  VIII  and  IX,  and  those  salted 
with  the  latter  kind  were  worked  first  in  the  other  trials.  The 
weights  of  granular  butter  given  do  not  include  that  of  the  salt  added 
(6.25  per  cent.). 


Experiments  in  salting  butter. 


Trial  I. 

Trial  II. 

Trial  III. 

Tru  l IV. 

n 

ft 

A. 

B. 

A. 

B. 

A. 

B. 

A. 

B. 

Aciditv  of  cream,  pr.  ct 

.65 

.65 

.57 

.50 

Buttermilk,  pr.  ct.  fat  

.40 

.38 

.50 

Churning  temperature,  F 

57 

56 

58 

Churning  time,  min 

15 

44 

Number  of  revolutions 

28 

34 

26 

39 

25 

28 

10 

15 

Weierlitof  butter,  in  lbs: 

Granular 

46.5 

48.0 

90.5 

115.25 

129.5 

124.0 

77.7 

81  5 

Packed  

42.25 

44.0 

87.5 

115.75 

130.0 

129.5 

1 78.4 

82.  C 

Loss  ( — ) or  gain  (+) 

-4.25 

-4.0 

—3  0 

+.5 

+ .5 

1 +-4 

+5.5 

+ ■7 

+ .5 
+ .6 

In  pr.  ct 

—9.1 

-8.3 

—3.2 

+ .4 

+4.7 

+ .9 

Chemical  composition  of  butter: 
Moisture 

13.55 

13.60 

13.14 

13.35 

12.22 

12.75 

13  99 

14.12 

Fat 

81.96 

81.59 

81.26 

80  47 

82.24 

81.07 

82  52 

81.95 

Curd 

1 21 

1.15 

1 .23 

1 l: 

.9! 

.85 

1.15 

1.20 

Ash  ( salC  

3.28 

3.66 

4 37 

5.05 

4 63 

5 33 

2.34 

2.73 

100.00 

100.00 

1 

100.00 

,100.00 

100.00  100.00 

100.00 

1 1 

100  00 

36 


Bulletin  Ao.  7Jf, 


Experiments  in  salting  butter  — Continued. 


Trial  V. 

Trial  VI.* 

Trial  VII. 

Trial  VIII 

A. 

B. 

A. 

B. 

A. 

B. 

A. 

B. 

v , 

v ^ / 

v ‘ 

j 

Acidity  of  cream,  pr.  ct 

Ts6 

^52 

.50 

.60 

Buttermilk,  pr.  ct.  fat 

.12 

.13 

.31 

.13 

Churning  temperature,  F 

59 

55 

59 

( 

>0 

Churning  time,  min 

28 

67 

42 

29 

Number  of  revolutions 

14 

15 

12 

13 

16 

14 

14 

19 

Weight  of  butte  r,  in  lbs. : 

Granular 

113.5 

114.0 

91.75 

101.0 

97.75 

94.5 

77.0 

96.25 

Packed  

110.0 

111.0 

86.5 

93.5 

98.00 

94.5 

74.5 

96.50 

Loss  (— ) or  gain  (+) 

-3.5 

-3  0 

-5  25 

-7.5 

+ .25 

0.0 

-2  5 

++25 

In  pr.  ct 

—3.1 

—2.6 

-5.7 

—7.4 

+ •3 

0 

-3.4 

+ .3 

Chemical  composition  of  butter: 

Moisture 

13  97 

14.06 

14.57 

14.05 

13.30 

13  91  i 

13.94 

14.43 

Fat 

82.47 

82  96 

80.17 

82.64 

82.60 

82. Ill 

82.60 

81.47 

.Curd 

.98 

.98 

1.14 

1 26 

.82 

.88 

1.02 

1.00 

Ash  (salt)  

2.58 

2.00 

4.12 

2.05 

i 

3.28 

2.50 

2.44 

3.10 

100. Ot 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

100  00 

Experiments  in  salting  butter  — Continued. 


Trial  IX.* 

Trial  X. 

Irial  XI. 

Trial  XII. 

A* 

B. 

! A- 

B. 

A. 

B. 

A. 

B. 

Acidity  of  cream,  pr.  ct 

53 

I To 

.51 

.56 

Buttermilk,  pr.  ct.  fat  

.45 

.35 

.30 

.15 

Churning  temperature,  F 

58 

56 

57 

57 

Churning  time,  min  

47 

30 

30 

36 

N umber  revolutions 

13 

10 

14 

13 

14 

14 

25 

29 

Weight  of  butter,  in  lbs. : 

Granular 

136  25 

125  25 

98.5 

106  5 

93  5 

86.0 

79.75 

75.75 

Packed 

104.75 

100  00 

, 95.8 

107  5 

91  8 

85.7 

81  7 

75.4 

Loss  ( — ')  or  gain  (+) . . . 

—31  5 

—25.25 

—2  7 

+1  0 

—1  7 

— .3 

+1  95 

— .35 

In  pr.  ct 

-23.1 

-20.2 

—2  7 

+ -9 

—1.8 

-.3 

1+2.4 

— .4 

Chemical  composition  of  butter: 

Moisture 

14.19 

14.98 

13.05 

13.70 

13.44 

13  93 

12.94 

13.60 

Fat 

82.42 

81  57 

81.62 

81.67 

82.63 

82.0:- 

1 80  80 

80.02 

Curd 

1.46 

1.60 

.85 

.84 

.80 

.77 

.95 

.99 

Ash  (salt; 

1.9 

1 85 

4.48 

3 79 

3 13 

3.2; 

5.31 

5.39 

100.00 

100.00 

100. 0J 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

* Pasteurized  cream. 


4 Study  of  Dairy  Salt. 


37 


The  results  ot  these  experiments  as  regards  the  weight  of  butter 
before  and  after  salting  and  working  show  that  the  coarse-grained  salt 
will,  in  the  majority  of  cases,  make  more  weight  than  the  fine-grained 
salt;  if  there  is  a decrease  in  weight  of  the  packed  butter  compared 
with  that  of  the  granular  butter,  there  will  be  a smaller  loss  in 
weight.  There  is  a greater  gain  or  a smaller  loss  with  the  coarse- 
grained salt  in  all  cases  but  three,  when  the  fine-grained  salt  came 
out  slightly  ahead.  A summary  of  the  twelve  comparative  experi- 
ments is  shown  below: 


Summary  of  churning  experiments. 


Total  Weight  of 
Butter. 

Loss  in 

Weight. 

Granular. 

Packed. 

Pounds. 

Per  cent. 

Coarse-grained  salt 

1,168.0 

1,135  35 

32.65 

2.8 

Fine-grained  salt 

1,132.2 

1.081.2 

51.00 

f 4.5 

Difference  in  favor  of  coarse  salt. . . . 

18.35 

1.8 

There  was  a total  loss  in  weight  in  the  butter  during’  working 
amounting  to  32.65  pounds  on  1,168  pounds  of  granular  butter  in  case  of 
the  coarse  salt,  and  of  51.0  pounds  on  1,132.2  pounds  of  butter  in 
case  of  the  fine  salt,  a difference  of  18.35  pounds,  or  1.8  per  cent.,  in 
favor  of  the  coarse  salt.  This  difference  may  not  be  very  large,  but 
if  the  result  obtained  is  corroborated  by  further  trials  conducted 
under  a variety  of  conditions  it  is  a point  in  favor  of  the  coarse  salt, 
provided  the  quality  of  the  butter  is  not  at  the  same  time  appreciably 
lowered.  The  butter  made  on  the  experiments  was  judged  by  Mr. 
Woolverton,  of  Chicago,  but  the  score  for  flavor  or  salt  did  not  disclose 
any  marked  difference  in  favor  of  either  salt.* 

One  factor  of  great  importance  as  regards  the  weight  of  butter  ob- 
tained and,  the  water-  and  salt  contents  of  the  same,  is  the  time  inter- 
val which  elapses  between  draining,  and  the  salting'  and  final  work- 
ing. As  the  experiments  were  conducted,  one-half  of  the  butter  had 
to  be  worked  first,  and  the  second  half  after  the  first  lot  was  packed 
in  the  tubs.  In  most  cases  the  lot  which  was  salted  and  worked  first 
lost  the  most  or  gained  less  in  weight  irrespective  of  the  kind  of  salt 
used,  and  it  is  possible  that  the  summary  given  above  may  have  been 
slightly  influenced  by  the  fact  that  the  coarse  salt  was  used  for  the 
first  lot  of  butter  in  five  trials,  and  the  fine  salt  for  the  first  lot  in 
seven  trials. 


*See  reference  on  next  page. 


38 


Bulletin  No.  7J+. 


It  is  easy  to  manipulate  experiments  on  this  point  in  such  a way 
that  any  desired  result  may  be  obtained;  numerous  conditions  affect 
the  final  result  one  way  or  another  so  as  to  make  it  difficult  to  feel 
certain  that  data  obtained  really  show  what  they  seem  to,  unless 
extreme  care  is  taken  to  eliminate,  so  far  as  possible,  all  factors  that 
might  influence  the  result  obtained,  aside  from  the  differences  in  the 
salt  used,  and  unless  averages  of  a large  number  of  trials  are  con- 
sidered. For  this  reason,  single  practical  experiments  made  in  the 
rush  of  every-day  creamery  conditions  are  of  but  doubtful  value. 

The  only  experiments  conducted  in  this  line  elsewhere  were  made 
at  the  Iowa  experiment  station  in  1895,*  where  a lot  of  freshly-churned 
butter  was  separated  into  six  portions,  each  portion  being  salted  with 
a different  brand  of  salt.  Otherwise  the  samples  were  treated  ex- 
actly alike.  The  butter  was  kept  in  a refrigerator,  and,  five  weeks 
after  it  was  made,  samples  were  sent  to  two  butter  experts  in  Chi- 
cago for  scoring.  Each  of  the  tubs  had  begun  to  show  the  effects 
of  keeping*  somewhat,  although  not  at  all  rancid,  and  the  judges  found 
practically  no  difference  between  the  different  lots.  Later  the  lots 
were  scored  again,  but  no  noticeable  difference  was  found. 

Effect  of  salt  on  composition  of  batter. — The  churning  experiments 
described  on  pp.  34-36  offer  some  evidence  as  to  the  effect  of  salt  on 
the  chemical  composition  of  butter  and  as  to  the  composition  of  but- 
ter worked  in  a combined  churn  and  worker  and  on  a Mason  worker. 
Averaging  the  percentage  composition  of  the  twelve  samples  of  but- 
ter salted  with  the  fine  salt,  and  of  the  twelve  samples  salted  with 
coarse  salt,  we  have: 


Average  chemical  composition  of  butter. 


Fine-errained 
salt  (Worcester). 
Av.  of  12  trials. 

Coarse-grained 
salt  (Diamond 
Crystal). 

Av.  of  12  trials. 

Water 

13.53  per  cent. 

81.94  per  cent. 

l.Ot  per  cent. 

3.49  per  cent 

13.87  per  cent. 

81.69  per  cent 

1.05  per  cent. 

3.39  per  cent. 

Fat 

Curd 

Salt  and  ash 

100.00  per  cent. 

100.00  per  cent. 

Contrary  to  what  might  be  expected,  the  butter  salted  with  fine- 
grained salt  contained  less  water  and  more  salt  than  that  salted  with 
coarse-grained  salt.  In  all  cases  but  one,  the  coarse-salt  but- 
ter contained  more  water  than  the  fine-salt  butter,  and  in  seven  out 


*Bull.  28;  Expt.  Station  Record,  7,  626. 


A Study  of  Dairy  Salt. 


39 


of  the  twelve  trials,  more  salt  was  found  in  the  former  butter.  The 
lots  of  butter  salted  and  worked  first  (in  seven  cases  salted  with  fine- 
grained salt  and  in  five  cases  with  coarse-grained  salt)  contained  on  the 
average  13.67  per  cent,  water,  with  3.21  per  cent,  salt,  against  13.72  per 
cent,  water  and  3.77  per  cent,  salt  for  the  lots  salted  and  worked 
last.  In  eight  out  of  twelve  trials  the  lots  worked  first  contained  least 
water;  in  six  out  of  these 'eight,  and  in  two  other  cases,  less  salt  was 
found  in  these  lots  than  in  the  corresponding  lots  salted  and  worked 
last.  It  is  not  apparent  how  these  results  can  be  reconciled  with  the 
average  data  obtained  for  the  two  kinds  of  salt.  The  number  of 
experiments  made  is  very  likely  not  sufficiently  large  in  either  case 
to  show  definitely  the  relation  between  the  chemical  composition  of 
the  butter  and  the  size  of  grain  of  salt  used,  or  the  interval  between 
washing  and  working. 

Combined  churn  and  worker  vs.  table  worker. — In  four  trials  of  the  ex- 
periments referred  to  on  pp.  34-36,  the  butter  was  worked  on  a Mason 
table  worker,  and  in  eight  in  a Victor  combined  churn  and  worker. 
The  data  obtained  as  regards  the  chemical  pomposition  of  the  butter 
thus  made  are  summarized  below.  The  two  trials  in  which  pasteurized 
cream  was  churned  are  excluded  from  this  summary,  since  no  cor- 
responding trials  were  made  with  the  table  worker. 


Composition  of  butter  worked  in  combined  churn  and  worker  and  on 

table  worker. 


Mason  table 
worker. 

Victor  combined 
churn  and 
worker . 

No.  of  samples 

8 

13.14  per  ct. 

81.18  per  ct. 

1.05  per  ct. 

4.63  per  ct. 

12 

13.82  per  ct. 

82.27  per  ct. 

.94  per  ct. 

2.97  per  ct. 

Water  

Fat  

Curd 

Salt 

100.00  per  ct. 

100.00  per  ct. 

The  trials  with  the  two  kinds  of  butter  workers  were  made  on  differ- 
ent days,  under  varying  conditions  of  acidity,  thickness  and  tem- 
perature of  cream,  time  of  churning,  and  point  at  which  the  churn- 
ing was  stopped,  etc.,  conditions  which  were  made  as  uniform  as 
possible,  but  nevertheless  on  no  two  days  exactly  the  same;  for  this 
reason  it  may  not  be  safe  to  generalize  from  the  data  presented  in 
the  last  table,  which  show  a greater  water-  and  fat  content  in  the 
butter  worked  in  the  combined  churn  and  worker,  and  a decided 


Bulletin  No.  7Jf. 


4 0 

drop  in  the  salt  content  in  this  butter,  as  compared  with  that  worked 
on  the  Mason  table  worker.  So  far  as  the  results  go,  they  are  in 
favor  of  the  combined  churn  and  worker.  The  yield  of  butter  was 
slightly  in  favor  of  the  table  worker,  there  being  an  average  loss  in 
weight  of  4 per  cent,  in  case  of  the  table  worker  (8  trials),  against 
1.8  per  cent,  with  the  combined  churn  and  worker  (12  trials).* 

Salt  and  mottles. — The  subject  of  mottles  in  butter  has  been  discussed 
frequently  in  dairy  papers  and  at  dairy  conventions  during  late  years. 
Prof.  Wing  in  his.  “Milk  and  Its  Products, ”$  states  that  “salt  has  a 
deepening  effect  upon  the  color  of  the  butter,  and  if  some  undissolved 
portions  of  the  salt  remain,  these  afterwards  dissolving  in  the  water 
content  in  the  butter  will  make  a strong  brine  at  that  particular 
point,  and  consequently  a deeper  color,  and  mottled  and  streaked 
butter  is  the  result.”  The  correctness  of  this  view  can  be  easily 
proved  experimentally,  as  has  also  been  done  repeatedh*.  Butter 
from  the  same  churning’  may  be  separated  into  three  portions,  one 
being  worked  without  the  addition  of  any  salt  and  the  other  two 
after  having  been  salted;  one  portion  of  the  latter  lot  is  worked 
thoroughly  so  as  to  evenly  distribute  the  salt  in  the  butter,  and  the 
other  insufficiently  worked.  Mottles  will  then  be  very  apt  to  appear 
in  the  latter  portion  and  not  in  the  unsalted  portion  or  in  the  salted 
butter,  which  has  been  worked  enough  so  as  to  mix  and  dissolve  the 
salt  uniformly  throughout  the  mass  of  butter.  This  shows  that  the 
appearance  of  mottles  proper  is  caused  by  uneven  distribution  of  salt 
in  the  butter;  where  salt  is  allowed  to  accumulate,  a deeper  yellow 
color  will  appear  than  where  none  or  but  little  salt  is  found,  and  a 
mottled  appearance  of  the  butter  is  the  result.  There  Is  a g’reater 
danger  in  this  respect  in  case  of  a coarse-grained  salt  than  with  a 
brand  having  a fine  grain,  since  it  takes  less  working  to  have  the 
latter  evenly  dissolved  and  distributed  in  the  butter.  In  case  of  the 
former  kind  of  salt  there  is,  however,  no  danger  in  this  respect 
when  the  butter  is  always  worked  until  all  grittiness  disappears,  when 
the  salt  has  been  brought  into  solution.  It  follows  from  what  has 
been  said  that  mottles  do  not  occur  when  brine  salting  is  practiced. 

The  appearance  of  mottles  may  be  brought  about  by  other  causes 
than  through  an  uneven  distribution  of  salt  in  the  butter,  like  the 
presence  of  fine  butter-g’ranules  or  particles  of  curd  in  the  cream, 
etc.  (white  specks,  streaks  in  butter).  Careful  straining  of  the  cream 
will  remove  these  causes  of  difficulty. § 

It  has  been  suggested!!  that  a mottled  appearance  of  the  butter 


*See  bull.  27,  Yt.  Experiment  Station. 
JPage  150. 

§Chieago  Dairy  Produce,  1898,  July  23. 
({Hoard’s  Dairyman,  1898,  page  517. 


A Study  of  Dairy  Salt. 


41 


may  be  caused  by  white  colloidal  casein  which  has  not  been  dis- 
solved by  salt  in  the  working  of  the  butter.  Casein  and  albumen 
are  soluble  in  dilute  salt  solutions,  and  it  is  therefore  argued  that 
where  this  solution  has  not  been  effected,  on  account  of  insufficient 
working,  mottles  will  appear.  While  albuminoids  are  soluble  in  dilute 
salt  solutions,  most  of  them  are  insoluble  in  concentrated  solutions; 
in  fact,  salt  precipitates  casein  completely  from  its  solutions,  and  we 
have  seen  that  the  solution  of  the  salt  in  the  water  present  in  but- 
ter must  be  saturated,  or  very  nearly  so,  and  no  such  solvent  effect 
could  therefore  take  place,  at  least  as  regards  the  casein.  The  ex- 
planation in,  reality  comes  back  to  the  absence  of,  or  relative  freedom 
from  salt  in  the  mottles  of  the  butter,  as  in  case  of  the  deepening  of 
the  color  of  the  butter  through  the  agency  of  the  salt.  The  only 
remedy  for  mottles  is  an  even  distribution  of  salt  in  the  butter;  if 
the  working  cannot  be  continued  until  the  salt  is  all  dissolved,  for 
fear  of  injuring  the  grain  of  the  butter,  it  should  be  set  aside  in 
the  refrigerator  to  give  the  salt  time  to  dissolve,  and  a second  working 
after  several  hours  is  then  given. 

In  American  creameries,  the  butter  is  in  general  worked  only  once, 
and  after  working’,  it  is  immediately  packed  and  ready  for  shipment. 
Owing  to  the  high  rate  of  salting  practiced  in  this  country,  the  water 
content  of  the  butter  thus  made  will  not  be  excessive;  if  the  demands 
of  the  market  should  change  so  as  to  require  a milder-salted  butter,  it 
may  prove  necessary  to  work  the  butter  twice,  to  avoid  a too  high 
water  content  therein.  The  second  working  should  in  such  case  take 
place  after  the  butter  has  been  kept  in  the  refrigerator  for  at  least 
six  hours.  The  advantage  gained  by  working  the  butter  twice  is  not 
only  in  an  even  distribution  and  perfect  solution  of  salt  in  the  butter, 
thereby  doing  away  with  the  liability  to  grittiness  and  mottles,  but 
the  working  of  the  butter  may  then  be  continued  till  all  buttermilk 
remnants  are  expelled,  without  any  danger  of  injuring  the  grain  of 
the  butter,  and  in  warm  weather  the  consistency  of  the  butter  is  im- 
proved through  the  effect  of  the  low  temperature  in  the  refrigerator 
room. 

All  Danish  export  butter  is  worked  twice  or  three  times;  the  method 
of  working  the  butter  twice  is  generally  recommended  by  foreign 
dairy  writers,  and  also  by  some  of  our  own  best  dairy  authorities,  e.  g., 
the  Dairy  Commissioner  of  Canada,  Prof.  J.  W.  Robertson.* 

B. — The  Use  of  Salt  in  Cheese  Making. — The  method  of  salting 
cheese  varies  according  to  the  kind  of  cheese  to  be  manufactured. 
Three  methods  are  practiced:  First,  salt  may  be  added  direct  to  the 

*The  Dairy  World,  Dec.  25,  1898.  For  influence  of  double  working* 
on  the  water-content  of  butter,  see  28  Rep.  Copenhagen  Exp.  Sta.; 
Exp.  Sta.  Record  5,  p.  723. 


42 


Bulletin  No.  7Jf. 


milled  curd  before  it  is  put  in  press,  as  in  case  of  cheddar  cheese;  or, 
second,  the  cheese,  after  having  been  pressed,  is  immersed  in  saturated 
brine  solutions,  as  in  the  manufacture  of  Swiss,  and  sometimes 
Edam  cheese;  or,  third,  as  the  cheese  are  taken  from  the  press  and 
placed  on  shelves,  salt  is  spread  and  rubbed  on  the  outside,  as, 
for  instance,  in  case  of  brick,  Limburger  and  Swiss  cheese.  The  object 
in  view  in  any  case  is  two-fold,  viz.:  First,  to  extract  a certain  propor- 
tion of  moisture  from  the  cheese,  thereby  controlling  the  fermentation 
(ripening)  processes  essential  in  cheese  making,  and  at  the  same  time 
giving  the  cheese  the  consistency  desired;  and,  second,  to  give  the 
cheese  a pleasant  flavor  and  taste. 

The  remarks  made  in  regard  to  the  effect  of  salt  on  butter  apply 
essentially  to  the  salting  of  cheese  as  well,  but  the  effects  of  salt  on 
cheese  are  farther-reaching  than  in  case  of  butter,  from  the  fact  that 
the  cheese  when  taken  from  the  press  is  only  half  made.  The  ripening 
of  the  cheese  is  perhaps  the  most  important  part  in  the  process  of 
cheese  manufacture,  and  salt  has  a marked  effect  on  the  progress  of  the 
cheese  ripening,  both  directly,  by  checking  to  some  extent  the  growth 
of  bacteria  and  enzymes  in  the  cheese,  and,  indirectly,  by  creating 
less  favorable  conditions  for  germ  life,  through  decreasing  the  water 
content  of  the  cheese,  upon  which  the  activity  of  the  bacteria  is  largely 
dependent. 

I. — Salting  the  curd. — In  the  process  of  cheddar-cheese  making,  dry  and 
fine  salt  is  added  to  the  curd  after  it  has  been  matted  and  run  through 
the  curd  mill.  The  amount  of  water  in  the  curd  at  this  stage  is  evi- 
dently of  considerable  importance;  when  the  curd  contains  much 
water,  more  salt  will  be  lost  in  the  drippings  than  when  the  curd  is 
dry,  and  a larger  amount  of  salt  is  therefore  required  to  reach  the  end 
sought  in  salting  the  cheese;  as  a result  the  progress  of  the  later 
ripening  is  greatly  dependent  upon  the  amount  of  water  in  the 
curd,  and  on  the  amount  of  salt  added.  The  salt  hardens  the  curd 
and  causes  water  to  be  expelled  from  it;  it  retards  the  growth  of 
bacteria  and  enzymes,  and  the  rate  of  salting  therefore  is  one  of  the 
factors  which  decide  whether  a cheese  will  cure  slowly  or  rapidly. 
The  amount  of  rennet  used,  time  of  cooking  the  curd,  temperature 
of  the  curing  room,  etc.,  are  other  factors  of  importance  in  this  con- 
nection. 

The  amount  of  salt  ordinarily  added  in  the  manufacture  of  Ameri- 
can cheddar  cheese  is  2 1-2  pounds  per  100  pounds  of  curd.  In  ex- 
periments on  the  effect  of  salt  upon  cheese  conducted  in  1894,  Mr. 
Decker  of  this  experiment  station,  found*  that  the  amount  of  moisture 
in  the  cheese  is  in  inverse  proportion  to  the  amount  of  salt  added; 
the  more  salt  added,  the  less  water  in  the  cheese,  and  therefore  the 


*llth  Report,  page  220. 


A Study  of  Dairy  Salt. 


43 


smaller  the  yield  of  cheese.  In  experiments  where  no  salt,  1 1-2  pounds, 
and  3 pounds  of  salt  were  added  to  different  portions  of  the  same 
curd  (weighing  10  1-2  pounds  each),  the  yield  of  green  cheese  ob- 
tained was  10.0,  9.75  and  9.5  pounds,  in  the  order  given.  The  analyses 
made  show  that  2.33  to  2.68  per  cent,  of  ash  not  salt  was  found  in  the 
different  cheeses,  the  content  of  salt  in  the  cheese  being  directly  pro- 
portional to  the  amount  of  salt  added,  viz.: 

llA  pounds  of  salt  added  per  103  pounds  of  curd 65  per  cent,  salt . 

2 pounds  of  salt  added  per  103  pounds  of  curd 98  per  cent.  salt. 

3 pounds  of  salt  added  per  100  pounds  of  curd 1.17  and  1.03  per  cent.  salt. 

It  is  seen  then  that  the  amount  of  salt  retained  in  the  cheese  is  less 
than  30  per  cent,  of  that  added  to  the  curd.  The  figures  in  the 
trials  given  range  from  34  to  49  per  cent.  The  amount  of  salt  present 
in  American  cheddar  cheese  has  not  been  determined  in  any  experi- 
ments aside  from  those  just  cited,  so  far  as  known  to  the  writer. 
The  per  cent,  of  total  ash  present  has  been  found  to  range  from 
3 to  5 per  cent.*  Of  this  amount  we  may  consider  one-half  to  two- 
thirds  as  belonging  to  the  ash  of  the  curd,  principally  calcium  phos- 
phate. 

By  the  methods  of  salting  practiced  in  cheddar-cheese  making  the 
salt  is  thoroughly  incorporated  in  the  mass  of  the  cheese,  and  all  por- 
tions thereof  will  be  subjected  to  the  same  conditions  as  regards  the 
development  of  bacteria  and  enzymes,  and  the  work  of  decomposition 
of  the  curd  constituents  which  is  attained  through  their  agency. 

II. — Brine-salting  of  cheese. — In  the  second  method  of  salting  men- 
tioned, the  curd  is  placed  in  the  molds  without  being  salted,  and  after 
having  been  pressed,  is  dropped  into  a concentrated  brine  solution,  and 
salt  spread  on  the  portion  of  the  cheese  rising  above  the  brine.  The 
cheese  are'  left  in  this  position  for  several  days,  being  turned  once 
or  twice  every  day,  and  salt  strewn  on  the  portion  above  the  solution. 
By  this  method  osmotic  currents  are  set  up  in  the  cheese;  whey,  with 
its  solid  components:  milk  sugar,  albumen,  and  ash  materials  in  solu- 
tion, flowing  out  and  brine  penetrating  slowly  to  the  interior.  As 
less  salt  enters  the  cheese  than  water  and  soluble  whey  solids 
taken  out,  the  cheese  loses  in  weight  by  being  immersed  in  brine. 
According  to  Fleischmann4  cheese  weighing  15  to  30  pounds  will  lose 
5 to  6 per  cent,  in  weight  after  four  days’  immersion.  An  outside 
layer  of  about  one-half  inch  thickness  becomes  saturated  with  brine 
by  this  method  of  salting,  and  the  salt  gradually  penetrates  toward 
the  interior  of  the  cheese.  It  is  evident,  however,  that  the  condi- 
tions affecting  fermentative  changes  in  the  cheese  will  vary  consider- 

*Woll,  Handbook  for  Farmers  and  Dairymen,  page  260;  Mass.  Exp. 
Sta.,  Rep.  XII,  p.  456;  Conn.  Exp.  Sta.,  Rep.  1892,  p.  156. 

JBook  of  the  Dairy,  page  229;  Kirchner,  Handb.,  page  437. 


44 


Bulletin  No.  7J+. 


ably  in  different  portions  of  cheese  salted  in  this  manner.  After  hav- 
ing been  kept  in  brine,  the  cheese  is  generally  placed  on  shelves,  and 
the  process  of  salting  is  continued  by  rubbing  the  cheese  with  dry  salt. 

III. — Dry-salting  of  clicese. — In  the  third  method  of  salting  cheese 
mentioned,  the  cheese  are  not  salted  until  placed  on  the  shelves  in  the 
curing  room,  when  they  are  rubbed  and  covered  with  a layer  of  dry 
salt.  The  cheese  are  turned  daily  in  the  beginning  and  new  por- 
tions of  salt  applied  every  time.  As  the  cheese  is  getting  older,  new 
portions  of  salt  are  added  less  frequently.  This  method  requires 
considerable  hand  labor  and  personal  attention  on  the  part  of  the 
maker,  and  can  therefore  only  be  practiced  in  case  of  the  more  ex- 
pensive cheeses.  The  salt  in  this  way  slowly  penetrates  the  whole 
mass  of  the  cheese.  The  maker  has  it  in  his  power  to  hasten  or  retard 
the  drying-out  of  the  cheese,  and  thereby  also  the  fermentative 
changes  occurring’  in  the  same,  by  applications  of  small  or  large 
amounts  of  salt.  The  moisture  and  temperature  conditions  of  the 
curing  room  will  largely  determine  the  amount  and  rate  of  salting 
required  to  bring  forth  the  desired  curing  of  the  cheese. 

More  salt  is  required  when  this  method  of  salting  is  practiced  than 
by  the  two  preceding  methods,  viz.:  at  least  6 per  cent,  of  the  weight 
of  green  cheese.  Brine-salting  is  somewhat  more  economical  as  re- 
gards the  consumption  of  salt,  while  dry-salting  of  the  curd  takes 
less  salt  than  either  of  these  methods.* 

Value  of  different  salts  in  cheese  making. — The  importance  of  purity  in 
cheese  salt  has  long’  been  recognized,  although  the  principle  is  not 
always  observed  in  practice.  In  general  a cheese  salt  must  fill  the 
same  requirements  as  a butter  salt,  the  main  difference  being  that  a 
rather  coarse  salt  is  often  preferable  for  the  salting  of  cheese.  In 
the  manufacture  of  brick  and  Swiss  cheese,  coarse  salt  is  used  in 
preference  to  the  fine-grained  salt,  since  the  latter  makes  a slimy, 
slippery  cheese,  or,  as  it  is  called,  “burns”  the  cheese  (Decker).  By 
referring  to  the  tables  on  pag’e  13,  we  notice  that  salt  No.  31  con- 
tained very  nearly  one  pound  of  insoluble  impurities,  dirt,  pieces  of 
wood,  etc.,  in  every  100  pounds  of  salt.  This  salt  is  a fair  representa- 
tive of  the -kind  formerly  used  extensively  in  small  cheese  factories  in 
this  and  other  states.  The  idea  that  any  kind  of  salt  will  do  for 
cheese-making  is  now,  however,  less  frequently  met  with  than  form- 
erly, and  the  leading'  brands  of  dairy  salt  are  more  and  more  forcing 
second-quality  barrel  salt  out  of  our  cheese  factories. 

Impurities  of  calcium-  and  magnesium  chlorids  in  the  salt  will  give 
rise  to  a bitter,  sharp  taste  in  the  cheese,  as  in  butter,  and  are  equally 
objectionable  in  cheese-  as  in  butter  making  on  account  of  the  ten- 
dency of  salt  of  this  kind  to  become  damp  and  to  cake.  Only  clean, 


*Fleischmann,  Book  of  the  Dairy,  page  228. 


A Study  of  Dairy  Salt. 


45 


dry  salt  of  pure  smell  and  flavor  should  be  used  for  salting-  the  curd, 
or  dry-salting-  of  cheese.  No  information  is  at  hand  relative  to  the 
comparative  value  of  the  various  brands  of  dairy  salt  on  the  market  for 
cheese  making-,  but  it  is  safe  to  conclude  that  none  but  those  among 
them  that  come  up  to  the  requirements  of  a g-ood  butter  salt  can  be 
trusted  to  produce  cheese  of  clean,  fine  taste  and  flavor.  The  salting 
is  only  one  factor  in  the  production  of  such  cheese,  but  it  is  as  im- 
portant as  right  cooking  or  curing.  The  manufacture  of  a high-grade 
cheese  calls  for  salt  of  standard  quality,  both  on  account  of  the  salt 
being  incorporated  in  an  article  intended  for  human  consumption,  and 
from  its  effect  on  the  production  of  the  desirable  fermentative  changes 
and  a pure  flavor  in  the  cheese.' 


UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN 


Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


BULLETIN  NO.  75. 


TESTING  COWS  AT  THE  FARM. 


MADISON,  WISCONSIN,  JUNE.  1899. 


The  Bulletins  and  A-nnual  Reports  of  this  Station  are  sent  free  to  all 
residents  of  this  State  upon  request. 


No,  74,  entitled  “A  Study  of  Dairy  Salt,”  was  not  sent  to  the 
He supply  &on hand' LaSi  hlS  bulIetm  Wl11  be  sent  llP°n  request,  so  long  us 


UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN 


AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 


BOARD  OF  REGENTS. 

STATE  SUPERINTENDENT  of  PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION,  ex-officio. 
PRESIDENT  of  the  UNIVERSITY,  ex-officio. 

State-at-large,  JOHN  JOHNSTON,  Milwaukee. 

State-at-large,  WILLIAM  F.  VILAS,  Madison. 

First  District,  OGDEN  H.  FETHERS,  Janesville. 

Second  District,  B.  J.  STEVENS,  Madison. 

Third  District,  JOHN  E.  MORGAN,  Spring  Green. 

Fourth  District,  GEORGE  H.  NOYES,  Milwaukee. 

Fifth  District,  JOHN  R.  RIESS,  Sheboygan. 

Sixth  District,  C.  A.  GALLOWAY,  Fond  du  Lac. 

Seventh  District,  BYRON  A.  BUFFINGTON,  Eau  Claire. 

Eighth  District,  ORLANDO  E.  CLARK,  Appleton. 

Ninth  District,  J.  A.  VAN  CLEVE,  Marinette. 

Tenth  District,  J.  H.  STOUT,  Menomonie. 

Officers  of  the  Board  of  Regents. 

JOHN  JOHNSTON,  President.  I STATE  TREASURER,  Ex-Officio  Treasurer. 
GEORGE  H NOYES,  Vice-President.  | E.  F.  RILEY,  Madison,  Secretary. 


Agricultural  Committee. 

Regents  CLARK,  STOUT,  FETHERS,  RIESS,  MORGAN  and  PRESIDENT  ADAMS. 


OFFICERS  OF  THE  STATION. 

THE  PRESIDENT  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY. 

W.  A.  HENRY,  

S M BABCOCK, 

F.  H.  KING,  ...  - 

E.  S.  GOFF, 

W.  L.  CARLYLE, 

F.  W.  WOLL, 


Director 
Chief  Chemist 
Physicist 
Horticulturist 
Animal  Husbandry 
Chemist 


H.  L.  RUSSELL, 

E.  H.  FARRINGTON. 
J.  A.  JEFFERY,  - 
J.  W.  DECKER, 
ALFRED  VIVIAN, 
FRED  CRANEFIELD 
LESLIE  H.  ADAMS, 
IDA  HERFURTH, 
EFFIE  M.  CLOSE, 


Bacteriologist 
Dairy  Husbandry 
Assistant  Physicist 
Dairying 
- Assistant  Chemist 
- Assistant  in  Horticulture 
Farm  Superintendent 
- Clerk  and  Stenographer 
Librarian 


FARMERS’  INSTITUTES. 

GEORGE  McKERROW,  --------  Superintendent 

HATTIE  V.  STOUT,  ......  Clerk  and  Stenographer 

General  Offices  and  Departments  of  Agricultural  Chemistry,  Animal  Hus- 
bandry, Bacteriology,  Farmers’  Institutes  and  Library,  in  Agricultural  Hall, 
near  University  Hall,  on  Upper  Campus. 

Dairy  Building  and  joint  .Horticulture-Physics  Building,  west  end  of  Obser- 
vatory Hill,  adjacent  to  Horticultural  Grounds  and  Experiment  Farm. 
Telephone  to  Station  Office,  Dairy  Building  and  Farm  Office. 


TESTING  COWS  AT  THE  FARM. 


E.  H.  FARRINGTON. 

The  milk  supply  of  a Wisconsin  creamery  or  cheese  factory  is  com- 
monly obtained  from  the  neighboring  farmers  who  keep  from  four  to 
forty  cows.  These  cows  produce  the  material  which  supports  both  the 
farmer  and  the  factory.  The  production  of  each  cow  is  therefore  of 
importance  not  only  to  the  manufacturer  and  the  producer,  but  should* 
be  to  the  cow  herself,  for  her  life  should  depend  on  the  amount  and 
economy  of  her  production,  provided  she  is  rationally  fed  and  cared 
for. 

A method  for  determining  the  milk  value  of  each  cow  is  now 
within  the  reach  of  all  farmers.  They  have  learned  to  demand  that 
the  Babcock  test  shall  be  used  to  determine  how  much  butter  fat  there 
is  in  the  milk  they  send  to  the  factory  in  order  that  they  may  be  justly 
paid  for  it.  This  same  desire  for  fair  play  should  be  extended  to  the 
cow’s.  Each  one  of  them  should  be  given  an  equal  chance  to  demon- 
strate her  butter-producing  capacity  and  to  have  it  measured  by  the 
same  method  of  weighing  and  testing  her  milk  that  the  farmer  re- 
quires of  the  factory. 

There  are  a few  dairymen  in  the  state  who  own  and  use  a pair  of 
scales  and  a Babcock  tester.  They  weigh  and  test  the  milk  a suf- 
ficient number  of  times  to  keep  themselves  informed  of  the  actual  per- 
formance of  every  cow  they  own.  These  records  show  the  relative 
value  of  the  cows  as  milk-producers  and  aid  in  determining  the  actual 
profit  or  loss  which  should  be  charged  to  each  cow  annnually.  Such 
dairymen  have  become  convinced  that  the  time  and  money  spent  in 
these  operations  is  a profitable  investment  for  them,  and  they  could 
not  be  persuaded  to  abandon  the  practice  of  keeping  records  of  the 
quantity  and  quality  of  each  cow’s  milk.  It  would  be  more  difficult 
to  convince  them  that  they  can  not  afford  this  extra  trouble  of  weigh- 
ing and  testing,  than  it  is  to  persuade  the  vast  majority  of  creamery 
and  cheese-factory  patrons  that  they  can  afford  it. 

The  farmer  who  washes  to  keep  cows  that  will  support  him  and 


4 


Bulletin  No.  75. 


does  not  intend  to  work  for  the  purpose  of  supporting  his  cows  needs 
to  understand  that: 

First — if  150  pounds  of  butter  only  pays  for  the  yearly  feed  and 
care  of  a cow,  then  one  producing  only  this  amount  or  less,  is  not 
paying  a profit. 

Second — one  cow  is  often  worth  twice  as  much  as  another,  or  more 
than  two  cows,  although  there  may  not  be  a very  marked  difference 
between  the  total  annual  production  of  two  cows.  This  may  be  illus- 
trated by  comparing  the  record  of  a cow  that  produces  152  pounds 
of  butter  with  one  producing  151  pounds.  The  former  yields  twice  as 
much  profit  as  the  latter,  provided  150  pounds  represents  the  amount 
necessary  to  pay  for  feed  and  care,  and  a 250-pound  cow  makes  twice 
as  much  above  expenses  as  one  with  an  annual  production  of  200 
pounds  of  butter. 

Since  1894  our  Dairy  School  Creamery  has  been  supplied  with  milk 
from  about  400  cows  on  nearly  50  farms  within  eight  miles  of  the  Uni- 
versity. The  five  years’  record  of  this  milk  supply  furnishes  data 
for  studying  many  questions  that  are  of  interest  to  both  the  patron 
and  the  factory.  During  the  past  year  a series  of  tests  have  been 
made  of  the  herds  of  six  patrons  who  never  before  kept  any  record  of 
the  yield  or  quality  of  the  milk  of  their  cows.  This  was  done  under 
the  direction  of  the  writer  to  obtain  some  information  regarding  the 
economy  of  production  of  the  common  dairy  cows  of  this  region  of  the 
state.  There  is  nothing  abnormally  above  or  below  the  average  cream- 
ery or  cheese  factory  patron’s  outfit  on  these  farms,  and  the  fifty  cows 
which  have  been  tested  are  undoubtedly  a fair  sample  of  those  that 
supply  milk  to  a majority  of  the  factories  in  Wisconsin.  These  pat- 
rons may  be  considered  average  representatives  of  the  farmers  who 
feed  the  840,000  cows  furnishing  milk  to  the  951  creameries  and  1,571 
cheese. factories  in  this  state.* 

METHOD  OF  MAKING  THE  FARM  TEST. 

The  tests  made  on  the  different  farms  were  all  conducted  on  the 
same  general  plan.  The  milk  of  each  cow  was  weighed  and  sampled 
at  the  morning  and  night  milking  one  day  in  each  week.  This  testing 
day  was  seclected  by  the  patron.  Each  dairy  was  supplied  with  a 
pair  of  scales  for  weighing  the  milk  of  each  cow  at  milking  time,  a 
box  of  bottles  for  milk  samples,  a small,  1-ounce  tin  sampling  dipper 
and  a record  book.  Each  cow  was  given  a number,  which  was  also 
placed  on  the  label  of  a 2-ounce  sample  botttle,  the  cow  being  known 
by  this  number  throughout  the  test.  About  one-half  g’ram  of  potas- 


*Report  Wisconsin  Dairy  and  Food  Commissioner  for  1896. 


Testing  Coivs  at  the  Farm. 


5 


sium  bichromate  was  added  to  each  sample  bottle  to  keep  the  milk 
sweet  until  tested.  The  box  of  samples  and  the  record  book  con- 
taining’ the  weights  of  both  the  morning1  and  night  milk  of  each  cow 
were  sent  every  week  to  the  university  creamery,  where  the  samples 
were  tested;  the  tests  were  recorded  in  the  patrons’  book  as  well  as 


Milk  weighing  and  sampling  outfit. 

A,  Box  of  sample  bottles;  2 and  4,  milk  sample  bottles;  3 tin  sampling 
dipper;  5,  record  book. 

in  the  permanent  record  at  the  creamery,  after  which  the  book  and 
box  of  sample  bottles  were  returned  to  the  farm.  This  weekly  sam- 
pling, testing  and  weighing  was  continued  throughout  the  year.  The 
records  thus  obtained  furnish  data  for  determining  the  value  of  the 
milk  produced  by  the  different  cows. 


6 


Bulletin  JSo.  75. 


The  following'  instructions  were  plainly  written  on  the  first  few 
pages  of  the  record  book  sent  with  each  box  of  sampling  bottles  to  the 
farms: 

DIRECTIONS. 

1.  Give  each  cow  a permanent  name  or  number. 

2.  Provide  a piace  for  using  the  scales  at  milking  time. 

3.  Select  a milk-weighing  pail  or  bucket. 

4.  Record  the  weight  of  this  empty  pail  or  provide  some  sure  way 
of  deducting  its  weight  from  each  lot  of  milk. 

5.  After  milking  a cow  dry,  pour  all  her  milk  into  the  weighing  pail. 

6.  Record  the  weight  of  this  milk  in  the  proper  place  in  the  book. 

7.  Pour  milk  from  weighing-pail  into  milking  bucket  and  im- 
mediately dip  a sample  from  it  into  a bottle  having  the  number  of  this 
cow. 

8.  The  sample  from  the  first  milking  should  only  fill  the  bottle  one- 
half  full. 

9.  At  the  next  milking  repeat  the  weighing  and  sampling  and  pour 
the  second  sample  into  the  same  bottle  that  was  previously  half 
filled. 

10.  Each  sample  bottle  should  contain  a mixture  of  the  milk  from 
two  successive  milkings  of  one  cow. 

11.  Cork  the  sample  bottles  to  prevent  evaporation. 

12.  Weigh  and  sample  the  milk  of  each  cow  once,  twice  or  four  times 
per  month.  (See  page  21.) 

13.  Note  time  of  each  milking. 

14.  Record  date  each  cow  calves. 

15.  State  how  many  days  each  calf  was  fed  its  mother’s  milk. 

16.  How  did  you  dispose  of  each  calf. 

17.  Weekly  statement  of  cows’  feed.  Including  the  weight,  price  and 
kind  of  grain,  if  any,  with  the  amount  and  kind  of  hay,  cornstalks  or 
other  coarse  fodder. 

18.  Health  of  cows. 

19.  Note  any  change  of  milkers. 

20.  Record  date  when  cow  was  dry. 

The  record  book  sent  with  each  box  of  sample  bottles  to  the 
farm  was  a small,  leather-covered,  4x6  inch  book  that  ordinarily  costs 
five  cents.  After  copying  the  directions  for  making  a test  in  the  first 
part  of  the  book  the  remaining  pages  were  ruled  as  shown  below.  Two 
opposite  pages  were  taken  for  the  record  of  the  weights  of  milk  of  one 
cow.  Other  pages  were  reserved  for  recording  the  observations  in- 
cluded in  directions  15  to  20. 


Testing  Cows  at  the  Farm. 


7 


Method  of  arranging  records. 


Cow  No.  1.  Age Fresh,  Date.. 

Milk  Record.  Breed Sold  calf,  date 


Date. 

Time. 

Night. 

Morn 

Total 

Test. 

Date. 

Time.  1 

Night. 

Morn 

Total 

Test. 

P.  M. 

A.M. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

P.  M. 

A M. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 



The  weighing  and  testing  of  the  milk  of  these  cows  for  one  day  in 
each  week  was  begun  August  1,  1897,  and  continued  for  one  year.  The 
scales  used  by  the  patrons  were  tested  with  standard  weights,  and 
all  samples  of  milk,  about  2,000  in  number,  were  tested  at  the  Dairy 
School  Creamery.  A great  part  of  this  testing  and  the  necessary 
routine  record  work  was  done  by  Mr.  Frank  Dewhirst,  who,  with  the 
writer  visited  each  farm  at  milking  time  twice  during  the  year  to  ob- 
tain data  in  regard  to  the  time  required  by  the  dairyman  for  weighing 
and  sampling  the  milk  and  to  note  the  accuracy  of  the  work  done. 

One  farmer  with  twelve  cows  estimated  that  fifteen  minutes’  extra 
time  was  required  to  weigh,  sample  and  record  the  milk  of  his  twelve 
cows  on  testing  days.  At  another  place  the  records  were  taken  by  a 
boy  who  was  too  young  to  milk,  but  capable  of  doing  the  extra  work 
required  at  milking  time  on  testing  day.  At  one  farm  this  work  was 
done  by  the  women,  who  strongly  objected  to  it,  especially  when  it 
was  necessary  to  use  a lantern  at  the  barn  in  winter. 

ACCURACY  OF  THE  RECORDS. 

The  accuracy  of  such  records  as  these  is  necessarily  influenced  by 
conditions  common  to  nearly  all  farms.  Milking  is  usually  done  with 
more  or  less  haste,  especially  at  the  planting,  haying  or  harvesting 
seasons.  The  milkers  as  a rule  are  not  accustomed  to  the  use  of 
scales  and  often  consider  a weight  within  one  pound  of  the  true  figure 
to  be  “near  enough.”  They  do  not  understand  the  necessity  of  prompt- 
ness in  sampling  milk  after  it  has  been  poured  from  one  pail  to 
another  before  the  cream  has  begun  to  separate.  In  spite  of  these  and 
other  disturbing  factors,  our  results  show  that  tests  of  dairy  cows  can 
be  made  by  the  farmers  themselves  with  sufficient  accuracy  to  give 
a very  satisfactory  knowledge  of  the  performance  of  each  cow. 


8 


Bulletin  No.  75. 


As  these  same  farmers  sent  their  milk  to  the  creamery  daily,  the 
creamery  weights  and  tests  of  the  milk  can  be  compared  with  the 
farm  figures  on  testing  days.  Although  this  is  a comparison  of  one 
weight  at  the  creamery  with  the  sum  of  twelve  to  twenty-four  weights 
taken  at  the  farm,  according  to  the  number  of  cows  in  the  herd,  the 
following  illustration  shows  how  close  results  can  be  obtained  by  such 
a comparison: 


Table  1.  Comparison  of  farm  and  creamery  weights  and  tests. 


Cow  No. 

Wei< 

Night. 

3ht  of  Milk, 

Morn. 

Lbs. 

Total. 

Test. 

Butter  fat, 
lbs. 

1 

10.0 

8.5 

18.5 

5.6 

1.03 

2. 

6.5 

5.0 

11.5 

4.8 

.55 

3 

2.0 

0.0 

2.0 

4.8 

.C9 

4 

18.0 

14.5 

32.5 

4.7 

1.52 

5 

8.7 

8.0 

16.7 

4.7 

.78 

6 

8.8 

5.5 

14.3 

4.5 

.64 

7 

12.0 

9.5 

21  5 

4.7 

1 01 

8 

11.5 

9.5 

21.0 

4.2 

.88. 

9 

9.5 

8.0 

17.5 

4.0 

.70f 

10 

9.0 

7.0 

16.0 

4.0 

.64 

11 

6.5 

3.0 

9.5 

5.6 

.53 

12 

11.5 

7.5 

19.0 

5.5 

1.04 

Total 

114.0 

86.0 

200.0 

4.7 

9.41 

Creamery  weight  and  test 

190.0 

4.6 

8.74 

The  sum  of  the  twelve  weights  at  the  night  milking  is  114  pounds^ 
and  at  the  morning  milking  86  pounds.  This  difference  in  the  weight 
of  the  two  milkings  is  accounted  for  by  the  unequal  time  between 
milkings,  which  was  thirteen  hours  at  the  night  and  eleven  hours  at  the 
morning  milking.  The  sum  of  the  twenty-four  weights  is  200  pounds 
and  the  average  test  of  the  milk  is  4.7  per  cent.  fat.  This  is  found 
from  the  weights  and  tests  of  each  lot  of  milk  as  shown  in  the  table. 

The  creamer  weight  of  the  milk  brought  to  the  factory  on  this  day 
was  190  pounds,  and  its  test  4.6  per  cent.  fat.  A part  of  this  difference 
of  ten  pounds  between  the  farm  and  creamery  weights  is  accounted  for 
by  the  milk  kept  for  family  use  (three  quarts,  or  about  six  founds) 
and  the  twenty-four  ounces  (about  one  and  one-half  pounds)  taken 
for  the  testing  samples.  The  remaining  two  and  one-half  pounds  still' 


Testing  Cows  at  the  Farm. 


9* 

unaccounted  for  may  be  charged  to  the  lack  of  exactness  in  making 
the  twenty-four  farm  weights  and  the  unavoidable  loss  in  handling  so 
many  lots  of  milk. 

These  tests  show  a satisfactory  agreement  as  a difference  of  0.1  per 
cent,  fat  is  not  an  unusual  variation  for  duplicate  tests  of  one  sample- 
of  milk. 

A one-day  trial  similar  to  that  just  described  was  made  at  four  of  the 
farms.  A representative  of  the  Dairy  School  visited  the  farms  at  both 
milkings  in  one  day  and  saw  the  milk  of  each  cow  weighed  and 
sampled. 

The  sum  of  these  weights  and  the  average  tests  were  obtained  in  the 
same  way  as  described  in  Table  I,  and  comparisons  made  with  the 
weights  and  tests  of  the  milk  delivered  at  the  creamery  that  day.  A 
summary  of  these  results  is  given  in  the  following  table: 


Table  II. — Comparison  of  farm  and  dreamery  weights  and  tests 

at  four  farms. 


Farm. 

No.  of 
cows. 

Milk  of  One  Day. 

Farm. 

Lbs. 

Creamery. 

Lbs. 

Difference. 

Farm 

test. 

Creamery 

test. 

Difference. 

A 

8 

130 

115 

15 

4.56 

4.5 

,0J 

C 

11 

231 

211 

20 

4.3 

4.3 

D 

6 

118 

113 

5 

3.8 

4.0 

.2 

E 

4 

79 

73 

6 

4.5 

4.4 

.1 

With  the  exception  of  these  single  comparisons,  which  were  made 
by  us,  the  milk  was  not  tested  at  the  creamery  each  day  the  cows  were 
tested  at  the  farm,  but  the  weekly  tests  of  the  creamery  composite 
samples  may  be  compared  with  the  farm  tests  for  one  day  of  each 
week.  Such  a comparison  was  made  of  the  farm  and  creamery  records 
of  each  patron  for  the  entire  year,  and  a summary  of  these  results  is 
given  for  one  of  the  patrons.  It  is  to  be  expected  that  the  farm  weight 
should  be  greater  than  the  creamery  weight  on  any  given  day,  because 
a certain  amount  of  milk  is  always  kept  at  home  for  family  use,  and 
even  if  this  is  not  the  case,  small  errors  in  making  twelve  to  twenty- 
four  weights  are  unavoidable  in  handling  the  milk  at  the  farm. 

In  some  cases  it  will  be  noticed  that  the  creamery  weight  was  more 
than  the  farm  weight.  This  must  have  been  due  to  carelessness  at 
the  farm  or  by  emptying  the  milk  of  some  cow  into  the  creamery  cans 
without  weighing  it. 


10 


Bulletin  No.  75. 


Table  3. — Comparison  of  the  farm  and  creamery  weights  and 
tests  from  farm  C for  the  entire  year. 


No.  OF 

Weight  of  Milk,  Lbs. 

Test  of  Milk. 

Monthly  Av.  Test 

Milked. 

Farm. 

Cream- 

ery. 

Farm 

excess. 

Farm. 

1 

Cream- 

ery.* 

Farm.  | 

Cream- 

ery. 

Aug. 

1 

12 

234 

231 

O 

4 5 

4 

1 

1 

8 

12 

215.5 

214 

1.5 

4 2 

4.2 

4.3 

4.05 

15 

12 

240 

236 

4 

4 4 

4.2 

r 

r 

22 

12 

244.5 

224 

20  5 

4 

4 

J 

J 

Sept. 

! 

12 

192 

177 

15 

4.1 

3.9 

1 

I 

5 

11 

183 

171 

12 

4.4 

4.3 

1 

12 

10 

169 

162 

7 

4.4 

4.4 

V 

4.46 

Y 

4.35 

19 

10 

139 

139 

0 

4.9 

4.2 

1 

26 

10 

162 

150 

u 

4 6 

4 6 

J 

J 

Oct. 

3 

8 

151 

126 

25  5 

4 7 

4 5 

V 

1 

] 

1 

10 

8 

125 

130 

—5 

4.7 

4.4 

17 

9 

111.5 

109 

2.5 

5.2 

4 9 

r 

1 

4.88 

y 

i 

4.75 

24 

9 

90 

96 

—6 

5.4 

5 

31 

9 

104 

99 

5 

4.5 

5 

J 

j 

Nov. 

7 

8 

87 

90 

—3 

4.9 

4 9 

] 

14 

21 

9 

9 

153 

139.5 

147 

147 

6 

-8.5  | 

4.6 

5.2 

4.7 

4.8 

[ 

5.05 

j- 

4.8 

28 

8 

130.5 

123 

7.5 

5.4 

4.8 

J 

j 

Dec. 

5 

8 

137.5 

145 

-7.5 

4.5 

5 

] 

13 

9 

163.5 

161 

2.5 

4 6 

4.8 

4.55 

[ 

4.75 

20 

9 

166.5 

161 

5.5 

4 3 

4.7 

r 

26 

9 

203.5 

188 

15  5 

4.7 

4 5 

i 

J 

Jany. 

3 

9 

200 

195 

5 

4.7 

4.3 

i 

10 

9 

200 

198 

2 

4.3 

4.4 

16 

9 

209 

230 

—21 

4.1 

4.4 

4.46 

y 

4.3 

23 

9 

234 

235 

—1 

4.4 

4 2 

1 

31 

11 

258.5 

262 

—4.5 

4 6 

4.3 

J 

] 

Feby. 

6 

12 

247 

240 

7 

4.3 

4 4 

1 

i 

14 

12 

275 

273 

2 

4 

4.1 

4.3 

j- 

4.2 

22 

12 

294 

270 

24 

4.2 

4 1 

y 

28 

12 

263 

260 

3 

4.7 

4 2 

j 

i 

) 

March 

8 

12 

272.5 

273 

0 0 

4.4 

4.2 

) 

) 

16 

12 

273.5 

265 

8.5 

4.2 

4.0 

c 

5 

4.4 

[ 

4.05 

26 

12 

259.5 

254 

5.5 

4.3 

4 1 

) 

April 

2 

12 

249 

242 

7 

4.5 

4.2 

i 

i 

9 

12 

230 

230 

0.0 

4.4 

4 0 

i 

16 

11 

223 

224 

—1 

4.6 

4.1 

y 

i 

4.5 

[ 

4.1 

23 

11 

221 

214 

7 

4 4 

4.4 

30 

11 

207.5 

203 

4 5 

4.4 

4.3 

j 

i 

May 

'l 

11 

231 

226 

5 

4.4 

4.4 

i 

14 

11 

232.5 

228 

4 5 

4.1 

4.4 

4.3 

i 

4.35 

21 

11 

229.5 

220 

9.5 

4 4 

4.3 

r 

28 

11 

205.5 

210 

—4.5 

4 3 

4.4 

j 

J 

June 

6 

11 

213 

198 

15 

4 4 

4.3 

] 

11 

11 

209 

195 

14 

4.5 

4.1 

y 

4.3 

i 

4.2 

20 

It 

242.5 

229 

13.5 

4.8 

4.3 

\ 

27 

11 

196 

200 

—4 

4 

4.2 

J 

J 

July 

6 

11 

231.5 

213 

18.5 

4 3 

4 3 

i 

12 

11 

198 

190 

8 

4.7 

4.4 

i 

4.5 

l 

4.4 

20 

11 

158 

142 

16 

4.6 

4.4 

r 

r 

28 

11 

153.5 

140 

13.5 

4.5 

4.6 

1 

* Composite  sample  for  the  week. 


Testing  Cows  at  the  Farm 


11 


The  table  shows  that  the  agreement  between  the  farm  and  creamery 
figures  is  quite  satisfactory  in  this  case,  and  it  will  be  noticed  that  the 
tests  of  the  milk  at  the  two  places  agree  very  closely,  showing  that 
milk  sampling  may  be  done  at  the  farm  with  considerable  accuracy. 
Comparisons  of  the  farm  and  creamery  records  were  made  at  four 
of  the  farms,  but  from  lack  of  general  interest  the  others  are  not 
here  given. 

A comparison  of  the  total  record  of  the  four  herds  as  obtained  at  the 
farm  with  the  creamery  record  for  the  year  is,  however,  given.  The 
farm  figures  in  this  table,  it  should  be  remembered,  are  not  found  by 
weighing  each  cow’s  milk  at  every  milking  during  her  entire  period  of 
lactation,  but'  they  are  calculated  from  the  weights  taken  each  week,  as 
•described  on  page  12. 


Table  No.  4. — Annual  farm  and  creamery  records. 


Farm. 

No.  of 
cows 
milked. 

Weight  of  Milk 

, Lbs. 

W’eight  of  Butter  Fat,  Lbs. 

Farm. 

Creamery 

Farm 

excess. 

Farm. 

Creamery. 

Farm 

excess. 

A 

12 

57,813 

56,053 

1,760 

2,355 

2,270 

85 

€ 

12 

72,675 

71, 0C9 

1,666 

3.246 

3,056 

190 

D 

6 

31, 558 

31,290 

3,268 

1,422 

1,275 

119 

:e 

5 

33, 122 

27,174 

5,948 

1,595 

1,205 

350 

Excepting  at  farm  E,  each  cow’s  record  began  after  her  calf  was  sold 
or  when  her  milk  was  sent  to  the  creamery.  At  farm  E,  the  owner 
milked  each  cow  as  soon  as  fresh  on  testing  days,  weighed  and  sampled 
the  milk,  but  fed  it  to  the  calf  for  about  four  weeks,  until  the  calf  was 
sold.  This  accounts  for  a part  of  the  large  difference  between  the 
farm  and  creamery  records  of  this  herd.  The  variation  is,  however, 
so  much  larger  than  any  of  the  others  that  it  was  decided  to  continue 
the  test  of  this  herd  for  another  year,  and  not  to  use  the  record  of  this 
year,  except  as  here  given. 

The  records  of  the  cows  on  farm  F are  also  omitted  in  this  bulletin 
on  account  of  their  incompleteness.  No  samples  were  received  from 
this  patron  for  several  months  during  the  winter. 

The  milk  from  farm  B was  not  sent  to  the  creamery,  but  sold  to 
private  families.  The  records  of  each  cow  in  this  herd  are  only  given 
in  the  summary  table  on  page  16  as  additioral  evidence  on  the  sub- 
ject of  cow  testing. 


Bulletin  No.  75. 


1°, 


AN  EXAMPLE  OF  THE  RECORDS. 

In  order  to  further  illustrate  the  method  used  for  calculating  the 
total  milk  and  butter  fat  produced  by  each  cow  the  complete  details 
of  one  cow’s  record  are  given  below.  The  weights  and  samples  were 
taken  by  the  milkers  at  the  farms,  but  the  samples  were  tested  at  the 
creamery. 

The  total  annual  production  of  a cow  is  found  by  multiplying  the 
average  of  the  four  or  five  daily  weights  of  milk  and  of  butter  fat 
taken  each  month  by  the  number  of  days  in  the  month,  and  adding  the 
products  together. 

The  money  value  of  the  milk  of  each  cow  is  found  by  multiplying 
the  monthly  weight  of  butter  fat  by  a certain  figure  which  is  one-half 
cent,  less  than  the  average  Elgin  market  price  of  butter  for  that  month 
and  adding  the  products  together.* 

VARIATIONS  IN  THE  TEST  OF  MILK. 

The  daily  tests  of  the  milk  show  to  what  extremes  the  milk  of  one 
cow  will  vary  from  day  to  day,  a difference  of  one-half  of  one  per 
cent.,  and  occasionally  even  more  than  one  per  cent,  being  noticed  on 
some  days.  This  is  shown  by  these  records  for  August, „ November, 
December  and  June.  Such  variations,  however,  tend  to  equalize  each 
other  from  day  to  day,  and  milk  of  unusual  richness  is  generally  fol- 
lowed by  exceptionally  thin  milk,  so  that  the  average  richness  of  the 
two  lots  comes  near  to  the  normal  quality  that  the  cow  produces.  This 
daily  variation  in  milk  is  much  more  striking  in  some  cows  than  in 
others,  even'  in  a herd  having  the  same  feed  and  care;  it  seems  to  de- 
pend largely  on  the  health  and  more  or  less  excitable  temperament  of 
a cow,  nervous  cows  showing  a much  greater  tendency  to  unevenness 
in  the  quality  of  their  milk  than  cows  of  a quiet  disposition. 


*This  is  the  price  which  the  creamery  pays  all  its  patrons  for  milk. 


Testing  Lou; a at  the  Farm , 


13 


Cow  No.  34. — 8 years  old;  fresh  in  June;  milked  350  days;  7,654  lbs.  milk;  average 
test,  4.0#  fat;  360  lbs.  bulter;  creamery  value  of  milk,  $57.56. 


Cow  No.  38.-8  years  old;  fresh  in  January;  milked  249  days;  5,440  lbs.  milk 
average  test,  4.1#  fatj  260  lbs.  butter;  creamery  value  of  milk,  $37.96. 


14 


Bulletin  No.  75, 


Cow  No.  32.— 11  years  old:  fresh  in  October;  milked  304  days;  8,132  lbs.  milk; 
average  test,  4.0#  fat;' 378  lbs.  butter;  creamery  value  of  milk,  $59.81. 


, 


Cow  No.  25.-6  years  old;  fresh  July,  ’97;  milked  365  days;  7,887  lbs.  milk;  average- 
test,  3.95#  fat;  364  lbs.  butter;  creamery  vajue  of  milk,  $58.21. 


Testing  Cows  at  the  Farm , 


15 


Table  5. — Details  of  one  cow's  milk  record. 


cow  no.  32. 


Date. 

Weight  op  Milk, 

1 

Lbs. 

Test,  fat, 

Butter  fat, 
lbs. 

Morniag. 

Night. 

Total. 

per  cent. 

Aug.  1 

8 

15  .. 

3. 

2.5 

2 5 

3 5 

2.5 

2.5 

6.5 

5.0 

5 0 

5.2 

4.5 

4 2 

.34 

.22 

.21 

.19 

22 

2.5 

2.5 

5.0 

3.9 

5.37 

4 5 

.24 

Dry. 

Oct.  26 

Nov.  7 

6.5 

4.5 

11. 

3.6 

.39 

14 

18. 

16. 

34. 

4.5 

1.53 

1.48 

1 52 

21  

18.5 

16. 

34.5 

4 3 

28 

16.5 

14. 

30.5 

5.0 

27.5 

4.5 

1.23 

Dec.  5 

19. 

15.5 

34.5 

3.1 

1.07 

13 

19. 

21. 

17. 

18.5 

36. 

39.5 

4.3 

3.7 

1 55 

20 

1 46 

26 

20.5 

18. 

38.5 

4.1 

1.58 

1.41 

37.1 

3 8 

21. 

19. 

40. 

4.3 

1 72 

10 

2C.5 

16.5 

37 . 

4 0 

1.48 

1.15 

1.50 

1.48 

16 

18.5 

34. 

3 4 

23 

21. 

18.5 

39  5 

3.8 

3.8 

31 

20. 

17. 

37. 

Average. 

37.5 

3.9 

1.46 

Feb.  6 

17. 

16. 

33. 

3.7 

3.4 

3.4 

4.1 

1.22 

1.17 

1.22 

1.31 

14 

16. 

18.5 

17. 

34.5 

22 

19. 

36. 

28 

15. 

17. 

32. 

Average  

33.8 

3 . 6 

1.23 

Mar.  8 

17. 

17 

34 

4 2 

1.43 

1.22 

1.24 

1.33 

16 

26 

17.5 

19. 

16.5 

15.5 

34. 

34.5 

3.6 

3.6 

3.9 

Average 

34  1 

April  2 

19.5 

16 

35.5 

3.8 

4.2 

3.8 

4.4 

3 8 

1.35 

1.41 

1.31 

1.43 

1.08 

9 

19. 

14.5 

33.5 

16 

19. 

15  5 

34.5 

23 

15. 

17  5 

32  5 

30 

17. 

11.5 

28.5 

Average  

32  9 

4.0 

1.31 

May  7 

19. 

14.5 

14. 

12.5 

9. 

3375 

33.5 

31. 

24.5 

3.8 

3.8 
• 3.8 

3.7,- 

1.27 

1.27 

1.17 

.90 

14 

19  5 

21 

18.5 

28 

15.5 

Average  

30.6 

3.7 

1.15 

June  6 

13. 

10 

- 8.5 

9. 

7.5 

23" 

20.5 

21. 

15. 

4~0 

4.6 

5 1 

' ~92 

.94 

1.07 

.63 

11 

12. 

20 

12. 

27 

7.5 

42 

. Average  

19.9 

4.5 

.89 

J uly  6 

12 

7. 

6.5 

7.5 

5. 

14  ~5 

11.5 

7 

4.2 

4.8 

4.4 

4.4 

.60 

.55 

.30 

.20 

20 

4 

3! 

2 

28 

3. 

5. 

’ 

Average  

9.5 

4.4 

.41 

16 


Bulletin  No.  75. 


Table  6. — Monthly  summary  of  table  5. 
cow  no.  32. 


Months. 

Average  Per  Day. 

Multi- 

plied 

by 

days. 

Monthly  Total 

* Price 
per  lb. 
fat. 

Value 
of  fat. 

Milk. 

Test. 

Fat. 

Milk. 

Fat. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Cts. 

Aug 

5.37 

4.5 

.24 

31 

166 

7.44 

16. 

$1.19 

.Sppt 

Dry  . . 

18.6 

Oct 

21.75 

Nov 

27.5 

4.5 

1.23 

30 

825 

36.90 

22.0 

8 11 

Dec 

37.1 

3.8 

1.41 

31 

1,150 

43.71 

21.1 

9 22 

Jan 

37.5 

3.9 

1.46 

31 

1,162 

45.26 

19.1 

8 64 

.Feb 

33.8 

3.6 

1.23 

28 

946 

34  44 

18.9 

6 51 

March  .. 

34.1 

3.9 

1.33 

31 

1,057 

41.23 

18.25 

7 52 

April 

32.9 

4.0 

1 31 

30 

987 

39.30 

17.9 

7 03 

May 

30.6 

3.7 

1.15 

31 

948 

35.65 

15.3 

5 45 

June 

19.9 

4.5 

.89 

30 

594 

26.70 

15  4 

4 11 

•July 

9.5 

4.4 

.41 

31 

294 

12.71 

16.0 

2 03 

Aver . 

26.75 

3.97 

1.06 

18.4 

Total 

304 

8,131 

323. 

$59  81 

* Creamery  price  which  was  one  half  cent  under  the  average  Elgin  market  price  for 
*the  month. 


A record  similar  to  this  one  was  kept  with  each  cow  that  was  tested 
through  her  entire  milking  period,  and  the  annual  amount  of  butter 
'fat,  as  well  as  its  value,  was  calculated  as  in  the  above  illustration. 

FEED  AND  CAEE  OF  THE  HERDS. 

The  cows  at  each  farm  were  fed  and  cared  for  during  the  entire 
year  according  to  the  usual  practice  of  their  owners.  As  far  as  we 
could  ascertain,  all  the  cows  at  one  farm  were  fed  in  the  same  way. 
No  attempt  was  made  to  vary  the  amount  of  feed  which  each  cow 
^should  have,  excepting  that  where  grain-feeding  was  practiced  it  was 
usually  stopped  while  a cow  was  giving  little  or  no  milk. 

At  farm  C the  owner  kept  a careful  record  of  all  grain  bought  and 
led  to  his  cows  during  the  year.  His  estimates  of  this  feed  is  given 
helow : 

Farm  C. — Estimated  feed  cost  and  receipts  from  twelve  coivs. 

EXPENSES. 


* Grain  bought  during  year $180  00 

■30  acres  corn  stalks  $2.00  per  acre 60  00 

10  tons  clover  hay  $5.00 50  00 

10  acres  good  pasture  and  15  acres  woodland 65  00 

Total  cost  of  feed $355  00 

RECEIPTS. 

Received  for  milk  at  creamery $572  00 

Sold  12  calves  at  $5.50 66  00 

$638  00 

60,000  lbs.  skim  milk  10  cts  per  100  lbs 60  00 

Receipts  exceed  feed  cost 343  00 

$698  00  $698  00 


*The  grain  feed  consists  of  corn  and  oais  ground  together,  corn  meal  and  bran,  or 
about  15  tons  of  grain  at  $12.00  per  ton. 


Testing  Cows  at  the  Farm. 


17 


This  shows  that  the  estimated  cost  of  feed  at  farm  C was  nearly  $30 
per  cow,  and  the  total  receipts,  $698,  divided  by  twelve,  the  number 
-of  cows  in  this  herd,  gives  a little  over  $58  as  the  average  receipts  per 
cow.  Assuming  that  the  manure  will  pay  for  the  care  of  a cow,  the 
-owner  of  this  herd  received  an  average  profit  of  $28  per  cow. 

Each  cow  was  fed  about  the  same  amount  of  grain  and  hay  during 
the  period  of  stable  feeding — November  1 to  May  1.  The  grain  was 
fed  dry  just  before  milking,  10  to  14  pounds  per  head  being  fed  per  day, 
•excepting’  the  dry  cows,  which  received  very  little  grain.  Hay  was 
fed  the  last  thing  at  night  after  milking.  During  day  time  the  cows 
were  turned  out  into  a sheltered  yard,  where  they  were  fed  corn- 
stalks that  had  been  stacked  near  the  barn  at  husking  time.  The 
•cornstalks  were  well  eaten,  and  it  is  probable  that  the  cows  satis- 
fied their  differences  in  appetite  on  the  cornstalks,  if,  as  stated,  each 
one  was  given  the  same  amount  of  hay  and  grain.  The  cows  had 
access  to  well-water  during  the  entire  year,  and  were  in  pasture 
from  May  to  November.  When  cows  were  fresh  the  calf  was  allowed 
to  have  its  mother’s  milk  for  about  three  weeks,  when  it  was  sold  for 
veal. 

No  exact  feeding  records  could  be  obtained,  except  at  farm  C.  At 
the  other  farms  corn,  bran  or  shorts,  ground  oats,  pasture  grass  and 
a verjr  little  hay  were  fed  in  uncertain  amounts,  and  apparently  with 
no  definite  plan.  At  farm  A no  money  was  spent  for  feed  during  the 
year,  but  the  corn  and  oats  raised  at  home  supplied  all  the  grain  the 
cows  received,  except  that  some  oats  were  exchanged  for  oran  to  give 
the  cows  a variety  of  feed. 

Although  there  was  quite  a contrast  in  the  feeding  and  manage- 
ment at  the  different  farms,  the  method  of  weighing  and  testing  the 
milk  of  each  cow  was  the  same  in  each  case.  A summary  of  the  re- 
sults from  each  cow  which  was  tested  through  one  entire  period  of 
lactation  is  given  in  the  following  table: 


18 


Bulletin  No.  75 , 


Table  7. — Annual  production  and  creamery  value  of  the  milk  of 
each  cow  tested  through  one  period  of  lactation. 


Farm  A. 


Cow  No. 

Age 

yr’s. 

Fresh. 

Milked 

days. 

Total  Production, 

Lbs. 

Fac- 

tory 

value 

of 

milk. 

Val- 
ue of 
fat 
per 
lb. 

1897. 

1898. 

Milk. 

Test. 

Butter 

Fat. 

*Butt’r 

Cts. 

1 

7 

April.. . 

March. . 

303 

6, 182 

4.8 

296. 

345 

$53  35 

18 

8 

5 

Nov 

Oct 

273 

5, 5 j6 

4.1 

225. 

262 

43  40 

19  3 

5 

6 

March . . 

March . . 

282 

6,203 

3.9 

244. 

285 

42.74 

17.5 

13 

4 

Aug  .... 

March.. 

303 

4,912 

4.1 

204. 

238 

39.36 

19 

4 

5 

Jan 

Jan 

310 

5, 290 

3.8 

203. 

237 

37.24 

18 

12 

9 

Sept. . . . 

301 

4,483 

3 9 

178. 

208 

33.39 

19 

6 

6 

j Nov 

Sept  . . . 

304 

4.248 

4.1 

176. 

205 

33.78 

19  2 

3 

8 

July  — 

Nov 

301 

4,528 

4 1 

185. 

216 

33.26 

18 

10  

9 

Oct 

Sept  . . . 

209 

4,061 

3.9 

160. 

187 

32.13 

20 

2 

10 

March.. 

March . . 

262 

4, 546 

3.6 

164. 

191 

29.04 

17.7 

7 

7 

Dec  . . . 

Dec  . . . 

256 

4,063 

4.2 

173. 

202 

28.90 

16.  9 

9 

7 

Oct  . .. 

Sept  . . . 

273 

3,792 

3.9 

147. 

171 

28.72 

19.5 

Total . 

57,814 

2,355. 

2,747 

$435.31 

Average. 

7 

282 

4,820 

4.0 

196. 

229 

36.30 

Cr’m’y 

paid 

421.36 

Average. 

35.11 

Farm  B. 


25... 

6 

July .... 

365 

7,887 

3.95 

312. 

364 

58.21 

18.  & 

23 

4 

May .... 

April . . . 

274 

6,718 

4.3 

279. 

325 

49.55 

17.7 

24 

4 

July .... 

304 

5,583 

4.75 

265. 

309 

49.53 

18.7 

?i9 

4 

April . . . 

March.. 

316 

5,193 

5.15 

267. 

311 

47.89 

17  9 

21 

6 

June  . . . 

May 

322 

6,534 

3.75 

245. 

286 

44.83 

18.2 

Total  . . . 

31,915 

1,368. 

1,595 

$250.01 

Average. 

5 

316 

6,383 

4.3 

274. 

319 

50.00 

* Calculated  by  adding  one-six4h  to  the  weight  of  butter  fat. 


Testing  Cows  at  the  Farm. 


19 


k- 


Cow  No.  23— 4 years  old;  fresh  in  April;  milked  274  days;  6,718  lbs.  milk;  average 
test,  4.3#  fat;  butter,  325  lbs.;  creamery  value  of  milk,  $49.55. 


20 


Bulletin  No.  75. 


Cow  No.  1. — 7 years  old:  fresh  in  March;  milked  303  days:  6,182  lbs.  milk;  average 
test,  4.8$  fat;  345  lbs.  butter;  creamery  value  of  milk,  $53.35. 


Cow  No.  8. — 5 years  old;  fresh  in  October;  milked  273  days;  5,506  lbs.  milk;  average 
test,  4.1$  fat;  262  lbs.  buffer;  creamery  value  of  milk,  $43.40. 


Testing  Coivs  at  the  Farm , 


21 


Cow  No.  55.-9  years  old;  fresh  in  September;  milked  318  days;  6,570  lbs',  milk; 
average  test,  4.5 # fat;  350  lbs.  butter;  creamery  value  of  milk,  $55.49. 


Bulletin  No.  75. 


O ■) 


Cow  No.  56. — 8 years  old:  fresh  in  December:  milked  321  days;  4,847  lbs.  milk; 
average  test,  4.3#  fat;  butter,  260  lbs.;  creamery  value  of  milk,  $39.60. 


Testing  Cows  at  the  Farm, 


23 


Annual  production  and  creamery  value  of  the  milk  of  each  cow 
tested  through  one  period  of  lactation. 


Farm  C. 


Cow  No. 


Age, 

yrs. 


Fresh. 


1897. 


1898. 


Total  Production,  Lbs. 


Milked 

days. 


Milk. 


Test. 


Butter 

fat. 


*But- 

ter. 


Fac- 

tory- 

value 

of 

milk. 


37. 
32. 

34. 
42. 
31. 
41. 
40. 

38. 

39. 
36. 

35. 
38. 


10 

11 

8 

4 

6 

12 

7 

7 

10 

9 

10 

8 


April.. .. 

Oct  

June  .. . 
March.. 
April.. .. 

Dec 

Dec 

April.. . . 

Dec 

Feb 

June.. .. 
Feb 


Jan. . 
Oct.. 
June. 
Jan. . 
Feb.. 
Oct. . 
Dec. . 


Dec. 

Dec. 

May, 

Jan. 


344 

6,779 

304 

8,132 

350 

7,654 

334 

6,200 

344 

5, 161 

311 

5,870 

278 

6,109 

304 

5,018 

291 

6,561 

312 

5,340 

302 

4,411 

249 

5,440 

Total . 


72,675 


4.95 

336 

4.0 

324 

4 0 

309 

5.0 

315 

5.45 

282 

4.60 

264 

4.1 

256 

4.5 

227 

3.8 

248 

4.5 

240 

5.5 

222 

4.1 

223 

3,246 


392 

$60,72 

378 

59.81 

360 

57.56 

367 

55.45 

329 

50.00 

308 

49.76 

298 

44.71 

264 

43.52 

289 

42.52 

280 

42.45 

259 

41.96 

260 

37.96 

3,784 

$586.42 

Average 

Creamer 

Average 


8/2 

y pa 


id. 


310 


6.056 


4.4 


270 


315 


$48.83 

572.64 

47.70 


Val- 
ue of 
fat 


Cts. 

18 

18.4 
18.6 

17.5 

17.7 

18.8 
17.4 
19  1 
17.1 

17.6 
18.9 
17 


Farm  D. 


55 

51 

9 

9 

7 

8 

Sept 

Mav 

Sept  — 
March.. 

.Tan  . . 

318 

295 

334 

321 

6,570 

5,462 

6,274 

4,847 

4.5 

4.3 

3.95 

4 3 

200 

235 

245 

223 

350 

274 

286 

260 

55.49 

41.04 

40.37 

3y.60 

18  5 

17.4 

16.5 
17.7 

52 

Maich.. 
Jan 

56 

Dec 

Total . 

23, 153 

1,003 

1,170 

$176.50 

Average. 

8 

317 

5,788 

4.3 

251 

292 

44.12 

* Calculated  by  adding  one-sixtli  to  the  weight  of  butter  fat. 


24 


Bulletin  No.  75. 


These  figures  furnish  evidence  for  discussing  many  questions  on 
which  the  great  majority  of  creamery  and  cheese-factory  patrons  have 
more  or  less  positive  opinions.  Probably  very  few  farmers  realize 
that  there  is  so  great  a difference  in  the  production  of  the  different 
cows  in  one  herd  as  is  shown  by  these  records,  but  they  are  un- 
doubtedly a fair  representation  of  the  840,000  cows  that  produce  the 
butter  and  cheese  of  this  state.  As  already  explained,  these  cows 
were  all  measured  by  the  same  standard,  the  weight  and  test  of  their 
milk  for  a year.  About  $10  should  be  added  to  the  factory  value 
of  the  milk  of  each  cow  as  given  in  the  table.  This  represents  about 
the  average  value  of  the  skim  milk,  5,000  pounds  at  10  cents  per  100- 
pounds,  and  a veal  calf  three  weeks  old. 

The  extreme  variation  in  the  butter  value  of  the  cows  on  the 
different  farms  is  shown  in  the  following  table: 


Range  in  value  of  annual  products. 


.Received  for  milk  of 

Farm  A. 

Farm  B. 

Farm  C. 

Earm  D. 

Best  cow 

$53  35 

$58  20 

$60  72 

$55  49 

Poorest  cow 

28  72 

44  83 

37  96 

39  60 

Average  cow 

36  30 

50  00 

48  83 

44  12 

No.  of  cows  in  the  herd 

12 

5 

12 

4 

Since  each  farmer  fed  all  his  cows  in  the  same  way  there  is  no 
evidence  to  show  that  it  costs  farmer  A any  more  to  feed  the  cow  that 
paid  $53.35  than  the  one  that  paid  $28.72.  But  these  figures  , do  not 
mean  that  cow  No.  1 is  worth  $53.00  and  No.  9 $28.00,  because  if  the 
feed  of  a cow  for  a year  costs  $30.00,  as  shown  on  page  -14,  cow 
No.  1 earned  an  annual  profit  of  $23.00,  but  the  farmer  lost  $2.00  by 
keeping  No.  9.  In  five  years  No.  1 would  pay  $115.00  into  the  owner’s 
pocket,  but  if  he  kept  No.  9 during  this  time  a loss  of  $10.00  must  be 
made  up  from  some  other  source. 

An  inspection  of  the  receipts  from  the  twelve  cows  on  each  of  the 
two  farms  A and  C,  shows  that  at  farm  A there  were  three  cows  which 
did  not  produce  milk  enough  to  pay  for  their  feed.  The  entire  herd 
only  paid  a profit  of  $75.00,  and  three  of  the  twelve  cows  paid  $50.00  of 
this  amount,  while  the  combined  profit  of  the  other  nine  cows  was 
only  $25.00.  In  this  case  three  cows  earned  100  per  cent,  more  money 
in  a year  than  was  earned  by  nine  other  cows  on  the  same  farm. 

On  farm  C the  twelve  cows  earned  a total  profit  of  $228.00,  instead  of 
$75.00,  as  on  farm  A,  but  even  at  farm  C there  is  considerable  differ- 
ence in  the  cows.  No.  38  earned  only  about  $8.00  profit,  No.  37  earned 
nearly  $31.00,  a difference  of  about  400  per  cent,  in  the  annual  but- 


Testing  Coivs  at  the  Farm. 


25* 


ter  value  of  these  two  cows  to  their  owner.  The  record  further  shows 
that  six  of  these  cows  paid  60  per  cent,  of  the  total  profit  for  the 
year  and  the  other  six  paid  only  40  per  cent,  of'  it. 

Other  equally  striking  illustrations  of  the  differences  in  value  of 
cows  can  be  cited  from  these  records,  but  it  is  hoped  that  enough 
has  been  said  on  this  point  to  convince  any  cow-owner  that  the 
purchase  of  scales  for  weighing  milk  and  a Babcock  tester  is  a 
profitable  investment. 

Previous  to  making  the  tests  the  owners  of  these  cows  had  very 
little,  if  any,  accurate  idea  of  the  relative  value  of  the  cows,  but  the 
records  show  that  the  information  is  worth  many  times  the  cost  of  a 
Babcock  milk  test  and  the  time  necessary  to  use  it. 

QUALITY  OF  THE  MILK. 

Since  the  Babcock  test  has  been  used  at  butter  and  cheese  factories 
as  the  means  of  determining  the  value  of  different  lots  of  milk, 
patrons  keep  a close  watch  on  their  test.  Some  of  them  seem  to 
think  that  the  highest-testing  milk  is  the  most  profitable,  and  that 
cows  producing’  rich  milk  are  the  ones  to  be  sought  for  and  kept.  This 
impression  is  erroneous,  and  the  error  of  such  a conclusion  is  well 
illustrated  by  these  records.  The  milk  of  cow  No.  35  tested  5.5  per 
cent,  fat,  and  although  she  gave  milk  302  days  during  the  year  the 
total  quantity,  4,411  pounds,  was  so  small  that  her  total  product  only 
amounts  to  $41.96,  while  the  milk  of  cow  No.  32,  which  tested  only 
4 per  cent,  fat,  brought  $59.81,  although  she  gave  milk  only  two  days 
more  during  the  year  than  No.  35.  The  difference  was  in  the  amount 
of  product  for  the  year.  The  8,132  pounds  of  4 per  cent,  milk  made 
378  pounds  of  butter,  while  the  4,411  pounds  of  5.5  per  cent,  milk  pro- 
duced only  259  pounds,  making  the  total  receipts  for  the  year  $18  more 
for  the  4 per  cent,  milk  than  was  received  for  that  testing  5.5  per 
per  cent,  butter  fat. 


TOTAL  WEIGHT  OF  MILK. 

The  records  show  that  weighing  the  milk  during  the  year  is  not 
the  only  thing  necessary  for  determining  the  value  of  a cow’s  milk. 
It  may  be  noticed  that  cow  No.  4 gave  about  100  pounds  more  milk 
during  the  year  than  did  No.  31,  but  it  was  worth  at  the  factory 
$13.00  less  than  that  of  No.  31,  because  it  tested  so  much  lower.  The 
5,290  pounds  of  milk  testing  3.8  per  cent,  fat  produced  by  No.  4 
brought  $37.24,  while  the  5,161  pounds  testing  5.45  of  No.  31  was 
worth  $50.00.  Neither  the  weight  nor  the  test  of  a cow’s  milk  sepa- 
rately is  sufficient  evidence  for  forming  an  opinion  of  her  annual 
production;  both  must  be  taken  to  determine  the  value  of  her  product 
at  creameries  or  at  cheese  factories. 


Bulletin  No.  75. 


26 


LENGTH  OF  MILKING  PERIOD. 

A few  of  the  cows  tested  were  such  persistent  milkers  that  their 
owners  had  some  difficulty  in  drying  them  off.  This  was  especially 
true  of  Nos.  6,  31,  34,  and  37.  These  cows  were  all  among  the  greatest 
producers.  The  cows  that  were  dry  the  longest  time  were  generally 
the  smallest  producers.  This  is  shown  by  the  records  at  farm  A, 
where  several  of  the  cows  were  dry  for  three  or  four  months  in  the 
year.  No.  23  is  a notable  exception,  however,  as  she  was  dry  about 
three  months,  and  the  value  of  her  milk  was  nearly  $50  for  the  year. 

MOST  PROFITABLE  MONTH  FOR  FRESH  COWS. 

The  market  price  of  butter  and  cheese  goes  through  approximately 
the  same  range  of  variations  each  year.  During  the  past  two  years 
— 1897  and  1898 — the  lowest  prices  for  butter  were  in  May,  June 
and  July,  and  the  highest  in  September,  October  and  November.  This 
fact  convinces  many  farmers  of  the  profitableness  of  winter  dairying. 

The  records  here  given  furnish  some  interesting  evidence  on  this 
subject,  as  they  include  cows  which  were  fresh  in  every  month  of 
the  year.  Comparing  cows  Nos.  8 and  51,  we  see  that  No.  8 was  fresh  in 
October,  and  her  262  pounds  of  butter  brought  $43.40,  while  No.  51, 
fresh  in  March,  produced  more  butter,  274  pounds,  but  it  brought  less 
money — $41.04.  The  average  price  paid  by  the  creamery  for  the  but- 
ter fat  produced  by  No.  8 was  19.3  cents,  while  that  of  No.  51  was  17.4 
cents,  a difference  of  nearly  2 cents  per  pound,  due  to  the  season  of  the 
year  when  the  cows  were  fresh. 

The  average  value  per  pound  of  butter  fat  is  given  for  each  cow* 
in  the  last  column  of  table  7.  The  method  of  calculating  the  factory 
value  of  each  cow’s  milk  is  described  on  page  12,  and  the  average 
value  per  pound  of  fat  for  each  cow*  is  obtained  by  dividing  the  total 
value  of  her  milk  by  the  total  butter  fat  which  she  produced  in  a year. 
This  figure  is  naturally  raised  or  lowered  by  the  market  price  of  but- 
ter when  each  cow  was  producing  her  maximum  yield.  As  a rule  the 
cows  gave  the  most  milk  during  the  first  two  or  three  months  after 
calving.  There  was  one  notable  exception  to  this  rule,  however — 
No.  36,  although  fresh  in  April,  gave  more  milk  in  September  and 
October  than  she  did  in  June  and  July,  and  this  raised  the  average 
price  per  pound  received  for  her  butter  fat  abnormally  high  for  a 
spring  cow.  The  dther  cows  show  considerable  uniformity  in  the 
average  value  per  pound  of  fat  according  to  the  month  in  which  they 
were  fresh. 

If  we  group  together  the  prices  received  per  pound  of  butter  fat 
for  all  cows  fresh  in  the  various  months  we  obtain  the  following  table: 


Testing  Cows  at  the  Farm . 


27 


Table  8. — Average  price  per  pound  fat  received  for  the  total  butter 
fat  produced  by  cows  fresh  in  the  different  months. 


December. 

January. 

March. 

April. 

June. 

July. 

Septemb’r. 

October. 

cents. 

cents. 

cents. 

cents. 

cents. 

cents. 

cents. 

cents. 

17.4 

18. 

17.7 

18. 

18.2 

IS. 6 

19. 

18.4 

17.1 

17.5 

17.5 

17.7 

18.6 

18.7 

18.5 

18.8 

17.6 

17. 

17.4 

18.9 

19.2 

19.3 

17.7 

16.5 

17  7 

19.5 

18. 

16.7 

18. 

17.9 

20. 

v 

Av.  17.3 

17.6 

17.6 

1 7.8 

18.6 

18.7 

19.2 

18.6 

Although  there  is  some  variation  in  the  figures  for  the  cows  that 
were  fresh  in  any  given  month,  the  agreement  is  sufficiently  close  to 
show  that  the  highest  price  per  pound  was  received  by  the  cows  fresh 
in  September  and  the  lowest  by  the  cows  fresh  in  December. 

HOW  OFTEN  MUST  MILK  BE  WEIGHED  AND  TESTED 

The  number  of  tests  necessarj"  for  obtaining  the  total  production  of  a 
cow  depends  largely  on  the  uniformity  of  her  milk  in  quality  from 
day  to  day.  The  milk  flow  of  all  cows  gradually  decreases  with  the 
prog’ress  of  the  period  of  lactation,  but  the  richness  of  some  cows’ 
milk  varies  more  than  others  from  day  to  day,  hence  the  number  of 
tests  necessary  to  show  her  average  production  will  vary  with  the 
peculiarity  of  the  cow  in  this  respect. 

The  five  records  given  in  table  9 were  selected  from  those  of  cows 
whose  milk  varied  most-  from  day  to  day,  and  it  can  safely  be  assumed 
that  all  the  others  would  show,  a closer  agreement  than  these  be- 
tween the  total  production  as  calculated  from  one,  two  or  four  tests 
per  month. 


Table  9.—  Total  pounds  butter  fat  as  computed  from  weekly , semi- 
monthly and  monthly  weights  and  tests. 


Weekly. 

Semi- 

monthly. 

Monthly. 

Cow  No.  62 

321 

333 

322 

Cow  No.  34 

309 

308 

324 

Cow  No.  35 

222 

227 

217 

Cow  No  52 

245 

249 

305 

Cow  No.  53 

2;6 

238 

243 

Cow  No.  9 

147 

147 

151 

Bulletin  No.  75. 


28 

This  table  shows  that  weighing  and  testing  a cow’s  milk  at  each 
milking  for  one  day  once  every  two  weeks  will  give  very  satisfactory 
information  in  regard  to  her  total  production,  but  when  made  only 
once  a month  too  wide  a variation  from  the  actual  production  may  be 
obtained  with  some  cows,  the  amount  of  this  variation  depending 
largely  on  the  uniformity  in  weight  and  test  of  a cow’s  milk  from 
day  to  day.  Evidence  on  this  same  point  has  previously  been  pub- 
lished by  the  writer  in  Bulletin  No.  24  of  the  Illinois  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station,  and  a summary  of  the  results  is  here  given: 


Calculations  of  total  weights  of  milk  and  butter  fat  compared  with 
daily  weights  and  tests. 


Cow 

No.  1.  ; 

No.  3. 

No.  4. 

No.  5. 

No.  16. 

1 

No.  18. 

Aver-  I Deviation- 
age.  from  100. 

Weighing  daily 

Once  in  7 days 

Once  in  10  days 

Once  in  15  days 

Once  in  30  days 

Weights  of  milk,  percentages. 

ICO 

98.6 

101 

9S.5 

97.2 

100 

9^.8 

100 

98  1 
97  2 

100 
99.5 
97.2 
97  8 
100.7 

100 

98 

99.6 

101 

102 

100 

97.2 

95.1 

96.8 

90.8 

100 

96  1 
94  4 
93.4 
90.3 

100 

98 

98 

97.6 

96.4 

_2 

—2.4 

-3.6 

Testing  daily 

Once  in  7 days 

Once  in  10  days  . . 

Once  in  15  days 

Once  in  30  days 

Weights  of  butter  fat.  percentages. 

100 

96.9 

100.8 

96.9 

94.5 

100 

102.6 

100.4 

97.8 

98.3 

ICO 

| 15.4 

95  4 
15.4 
1C  2 

100 

99  6 
100.8 
101  5 
104 

100 

99.3 

104 

1 98.2 

i 93.2 

1 ' 

100 

94.8 

94.8 

98.2 

89.6 

100 

98 

99.4 

98.5 
97 

2 

—".6 

—1.5 

-3 

The  average  of  these  results  shows  that  weighing  and  testing  the 
milk  of  a cow: 

Once  a week,  gave  98  per  cent,  of  the  total  milk  and  98  per  cent, 
of  the  total  butter  fat. 

Once  in  ten  days,  gave  98  per  cent,  of  the  total  milk  and  99.4  per 
cent,  of  the  total  butter  fat. 

Once  in  two  weeks,  g’ave  97.6  per  cent,  of  the  total  milk  and  98.5  per 
cent,  of  the  total  butter  fat. 

Once  a month,  gave  96.4  per  cent,  of  the  total  milk  and  97  per  cent, 
of  the  total  butter  fat. 

This  shows  that  there  is  a probable  error  of  about  two  per  cent, 
in  the  calculation  of  a cow’s  annual  production  of  milk  and  of  butter 
fat  when  such  calculations  are  based  on  weights  and  tests  made  for  one 
day  either  once  a week,  once  in  ten  days  or  once  in  two  weeks,  and  that 
a probable  error  of  about  four  per  cent,  exists  in  records  based  on 
weights  and  tests  made  for  only  one  day  in  every  month. 


Testing  Coivs  at  the  Farm, 


29 


Cow  No.  10.— 9 years  old;  fresli  in  September;  milked  209  days;  4,061  lbs.  milk; 
average  test,  3.9$  fat;  187  lbs.  butter;  creamery  value  of  milk,  $32.13. 


Cow  No.  13.— 4 years  cld;  fresh  in  March;  milked  303  days;  4,912  lbs.  milk;  average 
test,  4.1$  fat;  238  lbs.  butter;  creamery  value  of  milk,  $39.36. 


Bulletin  No.  75. 


Dairy  Herd  and  Buildings  of  a Creamery  Patron. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN 


Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


BULLETIN  NO.  76. 


NOXIOUS  WEEDS  OF  WISCONSIN. 


MADISON,  WISCONSIN,  JULY,  1899. 


|B tT'The  Bulletins  and  Annual  Reports  of  this  Station  are  sent  free  to  all 
residents  of  this  State  upon  request . 


Democrat  Printing  Company,  State  Printer,  Madison  Wis. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN 


AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 


BOARD  OF  REGENTS. 

STATE  SUPERINTENDENT  of  PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION,  EX-OFFICIO. 
PRESIDENT  of  the  UNIVERSITY,  ex-officio. 

State-at-large,  JOHN  JOHNSTON,  Milwaukee. 

State-at-large,  WILLIAM  F.  VILAS,  Madison. 

First  District,  OGDEN  H.  FETHERS,  Janesville. 

Second  District,  B.  J.  STEVENS,  Madison. 

Third  District,  JOHN  E.  MORGAN*  Spring  Green. 

Fourth  District,  GEORGE  H.  NOYES,  Milwaukee. 

Fifth  District,  JOHN  R.  RIESS,  Sheboygan. 

Sixth  District,  C.  A.  GALLOWAY,  Fond  du  Lac. 

Seventh  District,  BYRON  A.  BUFFINGTON,  Eau  Claire. 

Eighth  District,  ORLANDO  E.  CLARK,  Appleton. 

Ninth  District,  J.  A.  VAN  CLEVE,  Marinette. 

Tenth  District,  J.  H.  STOUT,  Menomonie. 

Officers  of  the  Board  of  Regents. 

JOHN  JOHNSTON,  President.  I STATE  TREASURER,  Ex-Officio  Treasurer. 
GEORGE  H NOYES,  Vice-President.  | E.  F.  RILEY,  Madison,  Secretary. 


Agricultural  Committee. 

Resents  CLARK,  STOUT,  FETHERS,  RIESS,  MORGAN  and  PRESIDENT  ADAMS. 


OFFICERS  OF  THE  STATION. 

THE  PRESIDENT  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY. 


W.  A.  HENRY,  - 
S M BABCOCK,  - 
F H.  KING, 

E.  S.  GOFF,  - 
W.  L.  CARLYLE, 

F.  W.  WOLL, 

H.  L.  RUSSELL, 

E.  H.  FARRINGTON. 
J.  A.  JEFFERY,  - 
J.  W.  DECKER, 
ALFRED  VIVIAN, 
FRED  CRANEFIELD 
LESLIE  H.  ADAMS, 
IDA  HERFURTH, 
EFFIE  M.  CLOSE, 


Director 
Chief  Chemist 
Physicist 
Horticulturist 

- Animal  Husbandry 

Chemist 
Bacteriologist 
Dairy  Husbandry 
Assistant  Physicist 
Dairying 

- Assistant  Chemist 
- Assistant  in  Horticulture 

Farm  Superintendent 
- Clerk  and  Stenographer 
Librarian. 


FARMERS’  INSTITUTES. 

GEORGE  McKERROW, Superintendent 

HATTIE  V.  STOUT,  ......  Clerk  and  Stenographer 

General  Offices  and  Departments  of  Agricultural  Chemistry,  Animal  Hus- 
bandry, Bacteriology,  Farmers’  Institutes  and  Library,  in  Agricultural  Hall, 
near  University  Hall,  on  Upper  Campus. 

Dairy  Building  and  joint  Horticulture-Physics  Building,  west  end  of  Obser- 
vatory Hill,  adjacent  to  Horticultural  Grounds  and  Experiment  Farm. 
Telephone  to  Station  Office,  Dairy  Building  and  Farm  Office. 


NOXIOUS  WEEDS  OF  WISCONSIN. 


E.  S.  GOFF. 

It  is  one  of  the  self-evident  truths  that  the  grounds  of  neat  and 
painstaking  farmers  and  gardeners  should  not  be  permitted  to  become 
annually  seeded  with  weeds  from  the  lands  of  their  more  slovenly  neigh- 
bors. Every  farmer  of  Wisconsin  should  know  that  the  statute  books  of 
our  state  contain  a law  intended  to  prevent  this  injustice,  and  which 
needs  only  to  be  enforced  to  accomplish  much  good.  This  law  does  not, 
it  is  true,  demand  the  destruction  of  all  pernicious  weeds,  but  it  is 
aimed  at  some  of  the  principal  offenders,  and  if  these  can  be  kept  under 
subjection  by  its  means,  the  damages  from  weeds  on  the  farm  will  be 
materially  reduced. 

The  text  of  the  original  Wisconsin  weed  law  has  been  modified  in 
some  important  respects.  It  seems  pertinent,  therefore,  to  publish  it  in. 
its  amended  form,  in  order  that  the  farmers  of  our  state  may  have  it 
in  a convenient  shape  for  reference.  Experience  has  shown  that  there 
is  liable  to  be  misunderstanding  as  to  just  what  weeds  are  intended 
by  the  names  used  in  the  law,  the  common  names  by  which  these 
plants  are  known  being  sometimes  differently  applied  in  different 
localities.  In  order  to  answer,  so  far  as  possible,  any  questions  of  this 
sort,  illustrations  of  the  plants  specified  in  the  law  are  here  given, 
with  brief  descriptions  of  some  of  their  principal  distinguishing  char- 
acters. And,  finally,  in  order  to  assist,  so  far  as  possible,  in  destroying 
these  and  other  noxious  weeds,  hints  as  to  the  most  economical  and 
satisfactory  methods  of  treatment  are  given. 

The  weed  law,  as  amended  from  time  to  time,  now  reads  substan- 
tially as  follows: 

Section  1.  Every  person  and  corporation  shall  destroy,  upon  all: 
lands  which  he  or  they  shall  own,  occupy  or  control,  all  weeds  known 
as  Canada  thistles  ( Cirsium  arvense),  burdock  ( Lappa  officinalis ), 
white  or  ox-eye  daisy  ( Leucanthemum  vulgare) , snapdragon  or  toad- 
flax ( Linaria  vulgaris),  cocklebur  ( Xanthium  strumarium) , sow  thistle 
( Sonchus  arvensis) , sour  dock  and  yellow  dock  ( Rumex  crispus),  mus- 
tard ( Sinapis  arvensis),  wild  parsnip  ( Thapsium  barbinode) , and  Rus- 
sian thistle  ( Salsola  Kali),  at  such  time  and  in  such  manner  as  shall 
prevent  their  bearing  seed.  In  like  manner  shall  he  or  they  destroy 
any  of  the  above  mentioned  weeds  and  all  other  weeds  standing  or 


4 


Bulletin  No.  7<i 


growing  as  far  as  the  center  of  the  highways,  lanes  or  alleys  adjoining 
the  lands  owned  or  controlled  by  him  or  them. 

Section  2.  If  the  occupant  of  any  such  land  shall  fail  to  destroy  such 
weeds  as  so  required,  after  having  six  days’  notice  in  writing  by  any 
commissioner  of  noxious  weeds,  such  occupant  shall  be  fined  five  dol- 
lars for  the  first  offense  and  ten  dollars  for  each  offense  thereafter. 

Section  3.  Whenever  it  shall  become  necessary  to  serve  notice,  as 
provided  in  section  2 of  this  act,  upon  any  railroad  or  other  corpora- 
tion owning  or  controlling  any  lands  in  any  town,  such  notice,  if  served 
upon  any  agent  of  such  corporation  residing  or  being  in  such  town  shall 
be  deemed  good  and  sufficient  notice,  and  if  no  such  agent  shall  reside 
or  be  in  such  town,  then  such  notice  may  be  served  upon  any  agent  ot' 
such  corporation  who  shall  reside  or  be  in  any  adjoining  town. 

Section  4.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  cha'rman  of  the  board  of  su- 
pervisors of  each  town,  the  president  of  the  village  board  of  any  village, 
and  the  mayor  of  any  city,  to  appoint  some  competent  person  or  per- 
sons, in  their  town,  village  or  city,  to  be  styled  commissioner  of  noxious 
weeds,  who  shall  be  required  to  take  the  same  oath  as  town  officers,  and 
shall  hold  his  or  their  office  for  one  year,  and  until  his  or  their  suc- 
cessors are  appointed  and  qualified.  Where  more  than  one  commis- 
sioner is  appointed  in  any  town,  city  or  village,  they  shall  be  assigned 
separate  and  distinct  districts  or  territories. 

Section  5.  The  commissioner  shall  carefully  inquire  concerning  the 
existence  of  noxious  weeds  in  his  township  or  precinct,  and  in  case  any 
person,  persons  or  corporations  occupying  or  controlling  any  lands 
within  the  state  shall  neglect  to  destroy  any  Canada  thistle,  burdock, 
snap-dragon,  white  or  ox-eye  daisy,  cocklebur,  sow  thistle,  sour  dock 
and  yellow  dock,  mustard,  wild  parsnip  and  Russian  thistle,  growing 
on  any  lands  owned  or  controlled  by  him  or  them,  or  any  highway,  lane 
or  alley  adjoining  such  lands,  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  commissioner 
to  destroy,  or  cause  to  be  destroyed,  all  such  weeds.  He  shall  spend 
as  many  days  as  the  chairman  of  the  town  board,  president  of  the  vil- 
lage or  mayor  of  the  city  may  deem  necessary,  and  for  each  day  so 
spent  shall  receive  two  dollars,  upon  presentation  of  his  account  there- 
for, verified  by  his  oath  and  specifying  by  separate  items  against  each 
piece  of  land,  describing  the  same,  and  the  several  amounts  shall  be 
placed  in  the  next  tax  roll  in  a separate  column,  headed  “for  destruction 
of  weeds,”  as  a tax  against  the  lands  upon  which  such  weeds  were  de- 
stroyed and  be  collected  as  other  taxes. 

Section  6.  When  any  commissioner  shall  destroy  any  noxious  weeds, 
under  the  provisions  of  this  act,  upon  any  lands  owned  or  controlled  by 
any  railroad  corporation,  the  said  commissioner  shall  certify  to  the 
amount  of  money  he  is  entitled  to,  under  the  provisions  of  this  act,  to 
the  board  of  supervisors  of  his  town,  who  shall  transmit  a certified 
copy  of  the  said  certificate  to  the  state  treasurer,  who  shall  include  the 
amount  of  money  in  said  certificate  in  the  amount  to  be  paid  for  license 
by  said  corporation,  as  provided  in  section  1213  of  the  revised  statutes 
of  1878,  and  the  state  treasurer  shall  collect  the  same  from  the  said 
corporation,  as  provided  in  sections  1212  and  1213  of  the  revised  stat- 
utes, and  return  the  said  money  to  the  town  from  which  such  certificate 
was  transmitted. 

Section  6a.  Any  chairman  of  a town  board,  or  any  president  of  a 
village  board,  or  any  mayor  of  any  city,  who  shall  refuse  or  neglect  to 
appoint  one  or  more  weed  commissioners,  as  provided  in  section  4 of 
said  chapter,  within  thirty  days  next  following  his  election,  shall  be 
fined  not  less  than  fifty  dollars,  nor  more  than  one  hundred  dollars  and 
costs,  on  complaint  made  in  writing  by  any  resident  of  the  county  to  a 
justice  of  the  peace,  or  magistrate  in  such  county.  Any  weed  commis- 
sioner, after  taking  his  oath  of  office  who  shall  refuse  or  neglect  to  per- 
form the  duties,  as  prescribed  in  this  chapter,  shall  be  fined  not  less 


Noxious  Weeds  of  Wisconsin. 


5 


than  ten  nor  more  than  twenty-five  dollars  and  costs,  on  complaint 
stated  as  above,  for  each  and  every  such  offense. 

Section  7.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  clerk  of  every  town  board,  at 
the  annual  meeting  of  each  year,  to  read  aloud  to  said  beard  the  whole 
of  this  act,  after  which  the  chairman  of  each  town,  or  the  officer  pre- 
siding at  such  town  meeting,  shall  put  to  the  qualified  voters  present 
at  such  meeting  tne  following  proposition  for  their  decision,  to-wit: 
“Shall  the  superintendent  or  superintendents  of  highways  be  ex-officio 
commissioners  of  noxious  weeds  in  their  respective  read  districts?”  If 
answered  by  the  majority  of  the  voters  present  in  the  affirmative,  the 
chairman  of  such  town  shall  appoint  such  superintendent  or  superin- 
tendents as  commissioners  of  noxious  weeds,  and  no  others;  but  if  a 
majority  of  the  voters  present  shall  reject  the  proposition,  then  the 
chairman  of  such  town  shall  proceed  as  prescribed  in  section  4.  Such 
superintendent  or  superintendents  of  highways  duly  appointed,  shall 
be  ex-officio  commissioners  of  noxious  weeds  in  their  respective  road 
districts,  and  after  taking  the  oath  of  office  shall  be  clothed  with  all 
the  powers,  perform  all  the  duties,  receive  all  the  immunities,  and  be 
subject  to  the  same  penalties  provided  for  in  this  act. 

It  is  to  be  regretted  that  the  weed  law  has  not  been  more  generally 
enforced.  Its  enforcement  seems  to  have  been  very  commonly  neg- 
lected in  cities  as  well  as  in  many  country  districts.  Some  time  ago, 
the  writer  observed  while  walking  the  distance  of  a few  blocks  In  a 
suburb  of  Milwaukee,  all  but  one  of  the  weeds  condemned  in  the  weed 
law  in  a seeding  condition.  New  pests  often  get  their  first  foothold  in 
cities,  where  they  are  introduced  in  the  bedding  of  stock  cars  or  in 
packing  material  and  are  permitted  to  multiply  on  neglected  vacant 
lots  without  restraint.  It  should  be  noted  in  section  €a  of  the  weed  law 
that  any  resident  may  enter  a comp'a'nt  in  writing  to  any  justice  of  the 
peace  or  magistrate  in  his  county  against  any  weed  commissioner 
who  has  been  remiss  in  his  duty,  and  thus  compel  him,  under  penalty, 
to  enforce  the  law. 

It  will  be  observed  that  after  the  English  name  of  each  weed  named 
in  section  1 of  the  weed  law  is  another  name  consisting  of  two  words, 
and  printed  in  italics.  This  is  the  botanical  or  scientific  rame  of  this 
particular  plant.  It  is  necessarily  used  in  this  case,  because  it  is  under 
this  name  that  the  species  is  described  in  works  of  botany,  and  if  any 
doubt  should  arise  as  to  whether  a1  y given  weed  is  or  is  not  condemned 
by  the  law,  the  question  could  at  once  be  settled  by  referring  to  a 
standard  work  on  botany.  The  botanical  rame,  being  printed  in 
Latin,  is  the  same  in  all  languages,  whereas  the  common  name  alone 
would  mean  nothing  definite  outside  of  our  own  country,  and  is  liable 
to  cause  confusion  even  in  different  localities  within  the  same  county. 

It  is  a matter  of  interest  that  all  the  weeds  condemned  in  the  lave 
were  introduced  into  this  country  from  Europe.  There  are,  it  is  true, 
native  species  of  the  cocklebur,  but  Dr.  Gray  believes  that  the  one  that 
has  become  a troublesome  weed,  and  has  very  justly  been  included  in 
our  weed  law,  is  not  native,  but  has  been  naturalized  here.  The  fact 


6 


Bulletin  No.  76. 


that  these  troublesome  weeds  have  invaded  our  country  from  other 
continents,  and,  despite  the  efforts  that  have  been  put  forth  for  their 
destruction,  have  spread  themselves  over  so  many  of  our  farms,  illus- 
trates how  great  is  their  power  to  cope  with  conditions,  and  empha- 
sizes the  importance  of  vigorous  concerted  action  to  keep  them  under 
subjection. 

GENERAL  HINTS  ON  THE  SUPPRESSION  OF  NOXIOUS  WEEDS. 

With  reference  to  their  term  of  life,  weeds  are  readily  divisible  into 
three  classes,  viz.:  annual,  those  that  live  but  one  season;  biennial,  those 
that  live  only  two  seasons:  and  perennial,  those  that  live  an  indefinite 
number  of  seasons.  Annual  weeds  usually  seed  most  abundantly  and 
hence  are  most  widely  distributed  and  appear  in  cultivated  grounds 
in  the  greatest  numbers;  perennial  weeds  are  usually  most  tenacious 
of  life,  and  hence  are  often  most  difficult  to  control. 

Annual  and  biennial  weeds,  since  they  have  a definite  life  period 
and  multiply  almost  exclusively  by  seed,  are  effectually  controlled  by 
preventing  seedage.  In  order  to  surely  accomplish  this,  the  plants 
should  be  destroyed  before  bloom,  as  many  kinds  possess  enough  re- 
serve food  within  themselves  to  mature  their  seeds  sufficiently  for 
germination,  if  cut  while  in  flower. 

Perennial  weeds  often  multiply  from  underground  buds,  as  well  as 
by  seeds.  Since  the  roots  or  underground  stems  whence  these  buds 
grow  are  hidden  beneath  the  soil — sometimes  below  the  plow  line — and 
are  often  very  tenacious  of  life,  weeds  of  this  class  are  frequently  very 
difficult  to  control.  Persistent  prevention  of  leafage,  by  starving  the 
roots,  always  accomplishes  the  end,  but  this  is  sometimes  extremely 
, difficult  to  apply  in  practice,  since  the  buds  often  grow  with  great 
rapidity.  Yet,  as  a whole,  no  better  method  is  known.  Frequent 
plowing  or  thorough  cultivation  of  the  infested  ground  is  usually  the 
most  effectual  means  of  preventing  leafage.  Small  patches  may  be  cov- 
ered deeply  with  straw  or  other  litter.  Persistently  salting  the  weeds 
in  perennial  patches  is  also  sometimes  effectual. 

Certain  very  tenacious  perennial  weeds,  as  the  Canada  thistle  and 
sow  thistle,  when  growing  on  deep,  rich,  moist  soils,  in  which  the 
roots  extend  below  the  plow'  line,  may  often  be  smothered  out  by  seed- 
ing down  the  land  to  grass  at  less  cost  than  they  can  be  subdued  w'ith 
the  plow. 

To  destroy  perennial  weeds,  seed  production  must  be  prevented  and 
the  underground  portion  must  be  killed.  Seed  production  may  be  pre- 
vented by  mowing  when  the  first  flow'er  buds  appear,  the  same  as  with 
annuals  or  biennials.  The  best  methods  for  killing-  the  rootstocks 
vary  considerably  according  to  the  soil,  climate,  character  of  the  differ- 


Noxious  Weeds  of  Wisconsin. 


7 


exit,  weeds,  and  the  size  of  the  patch  or  the  quantity  to  be  killed.  In 
general,  however,  the  following  principles  apply: 

The  rootstocks  may  be  dug  up  and  removed,  a remedy  that  can  be 
practically  applied  only  in  small  areas. 

Salt,  coal  oil,  or  strong  acid  applied  so  as  to  come  in  contact  with 
the  freshly-cut  roots  or  rootstocks  destroys  them  for  some  distance  from 
the  point  of  contact.  Crude  sulphuric  acid  is  probably  the  most  ef- 
fective of  comparatively  inexpensive  materials  that  can  be  used  for  this 
purpose,  but  its  strong  corrosive  properties  render  it  dangerous  to 
handle. 

Most  rootstocks  are  readily  destroyed  by  exposing  them  to  the  direct 
action  of  the  sun  during  the  summer  drought,  or  to  the  direct  action  of 
the  frost  in  winter.  In  this  way  plowing  becomes  effective. 

Any  cultivation  which  merely  breaks  up  the  rootstocks  and  leaves 
them  in  the  ground,  especially  during  wet  weather,  aids  in  their  dis- 
tribution and  multiplication,  and  is  worse  than  useless,  unless  the  culti- 
vation is  continued  so  as  to  prevent  any  growth  above  ground.  Plow- 
ing and  fitting  corn  ground  in  April  and  May,  and  cultivating  at  inter- 
vals until  the  last  of  June,  then  leaving  the  land  uncultivated  during 
the  remainder  of  the  season,  is  one  of  the  best  methods  to  encourage 
the  growth  of  quack-grass,  and  many  other  perennial  weeds. 


The  Canada  Thistle — Cnicus  arvensis,  Tournefort. 

Other  names:  Cursed  thistle,  Cirsium  arvense. 

The  Canada  thistle  is  certainly  one  of  the  most  aggressive  and  tena- 
cious of  weeds.  It  has  attracted  more  attention  and  been  the  subject 
of  more  discussion  than  any  other  weed  that  has  ever  invaded  our 
country,  writh  the  possible  exception  of  quack-grass.  Swamps  and 
forests  are  almost  the  only  grounds  under  vegetation  that  are  not  liable 
to'  intrusion  by  it,  ard  when  once  it  secures  a foothold  it  is  usually 
extremely  difficult  of  eradication. 

Description. — This  plant  differs  in  its  more  slender  habit,  its  nar- 
rower, thinrer,  paler,  more  ^curled  and  deeper-cut  leaves,  less  rigid 
prickles  and  smaller  flower  heads,  from  the  common  or  bull  thistle, 
Cnicus  lanceolatus.  No  ore  who  has  ever  seen  the  two  would  have 
the  least  trouble  in  distinguishing  them.  It  is  much  more  to  be  dreaded 
than  the  latter  species,  as  it  is  fa7*  more  difficult  of  extermination.  Its 
rather  slender  stem  grows  one  to  three  feet  tall,  and  bears  numerous 
purple  flower  heads,  each  of  which  contains  many  individual  flowers. 
Its  seeds  are  provided  with  a very  light,  downy  pappus,  by  means  of 
which  they  are  very  readily  disseminated  by  the  wind.  The  upper 
part  of  a plant  of  the  Canada  thistle  is  shown  in  Fig.  1,  also  a portion  of 


8 


Bulletin  No,  76. 


Noxious  Weeds  of  Wisconsin. 


the  underground  stem  with  its  rootlets,  and  at  the  left  hand  corner  is 
shown  a single  flower  with  its  seed*  and  pappus. 

Fig.  2,  B shows  the  seed  natural  size,  and  A as  it  appears  under  a 
good  hand  lens. 


K 


Fig.  2.— Seeds  of  Canada  thistle,  natural  size  and  enlarged.  (After  Hillman.) 

The  root  of  the  Canada  thistle  is  perennial,  that  is,  it  lives  in  the 
ground  from  year  to  year,  and  it  sends  out  in  all  directions  vigorous 
underground  stems  or  rootstocks.  It  is  owing  to  this  latter  quality 
that  it  is  enabled  to  spread  so  rapidly  and  is  so  difficult  of  extermina- 
tion. These  underground  stems  develop  buds  at  their  joints,  which 
grow  upward,  forming  new  plants.  Thus  a single  plant,  if  undisturbed 
for  two  or  three  years,  is  capable  of  spreading  over  a square  rod  or 
more  of  ground  by  means  of  its  rootstocks  alone.  It  is  also  propagated 
to  a considerable  extent  by  its  seeds,  as  is  attested  by  the  rapidity  with 
which  it  spreads  down  the  valleys  of  streams,  and  the  frequency  with 
which  patches  of  it  appear  about  old  haystacks  and  places  where  hay 
that  contained  its  seeds  has  been  foddered  out  during  winter.  In  New 
York  it  has  been  often  known  to  come  up  thickly  where  forests  have 
been  cleared  off.  Prof.  Bailey  has  observed  that  many  of  the  flowers  of 
the  Canada  thistle  are  imperfect,  and  but  a small  percentage  of  them 
produce  fertile  seeds.  It  may  be  that  fewer  fertile  seeds  are  produced 
in  the  western  than  in  the  eastern  states.  It  is  probable,  at  all  events, 
that  the  seeds  actually  play  a less  important  part  in  the  dissemination 
of  this  plant  than  their  apparent  great  number  and  the  extreme  facility 
with  which  they  appear  to  be  carried  about  by  the  wind  would  indi- 
cate. It  is  not  likely  that  the  downy  pappus  of  this  plant  that  we 
so  often  see  floating  about  in  the  air  in  August,  sometimes  at  a great 
height,  often  bears  with  it  a fertile  seed. 

How  best  destroyed. — In  the  year  1846,  Mr.  Ambrose  Stevens  of  New 
York,  presented  an  essay  before  the  Agricultural  Society  of  that  state 
on  “The  Extirpation  of  the  Canada  Thistle.”  In  this  essay  Mr.  Stevens 


*What  is  commonly  called  the  seed  of  the  Canada  thistle  is  in  botanical 
terminology  an  akenc,  i.  e.,  a single  seed  inclosed  in  a dry  pericarp  that  does  not 
open  at  maturity.  In  this  bulletin  it  is  not  thought  necessary  to  distinguish  be- 
tween akene  and  seed  in  describing  the  plants. 


10 


Bulletin  No.  76. 


gives  the  results  of  careful  experiments  conducted  during  the  years  1841 
to  1845  in  the  destruction  of  this  plant,  and  also  an  abstract  of  nearly 
every  article  on  the  subject  that  had  appeared  in  the  agricultural 
journals  and  published  transactions  of  the  state  up  to  1846,  summing  up 
his  evidence  in  carefully  drawn  conclusions.  Believing  that  the  problem 
of  keeping  this  pest  in  subjection  will  not  differ  materially  in  Wisconsin 
and  New  York,  the  deductions  drawn  by  Mr.  Stevens  are  here  given,  as 
it  has  seemed  to  the  writer  the  best  available  testimony  on  the  subject. 

ABSTRACT  OF  MB.  STEVENS’  EXPERIMENTS. 

The  thistles  experimented  on  occupied  three  kinds  of  soil,  viz.:  1.  A 
strong  clay  loam  with  some  slate  intermixed;  2.  “A  reclaimed  swamp 
with  a shallow  upper  soil  of  vegetable  mould,  alluvial  deposit  and  clay 
resting  on  hardpan”  (the  timber  before  clearing  chiefly  black  ash) ; and 
3.  “A  rich,  alluvial  creek  bottom.” 

The  first  soil  named  was  plowed  nine  inches  deep  in  April,  and  the 
plowing  repeated  monthly  until  September,  when  wheat  was  sown.  The 
thistles  did  not  appear  after  the  third  plowing.  The  season  was  very 
dry. 

On  the  second  soil,  three  plans  were  tried:  1.  “A  plat  was  burned 
over  by  firing  logs  upon  it  until  the  upper  soil  was  heated  through  to  the 
hardpan.”  2.  “Another  plat  was  burned  over  like  the  first,  and  in  ad- 
dition thoroughly  salted.”  3.  “A  plat  was  soaked  down  to  the  hardpan 
three  times  with  strong  brine.”  The  thistles  were  completely  de- 
stroyed in  all  cases. 

On  the  third  soil,  the  roots  of  the  thistle  penetrated  to  the  depth  of 
three  feet,  which  was  down  to  ground  water.  A plat  was  plowed 
deeply  six  times  during  the  five  months  from  April  to  August.  But 
in  September  the  thistles  were  more  vigorous  than  ever.  The  next 
year  this  plat  was  planted  with  corn  about  May  20.  The  corn  was 
plowed  and  hoed  in  June,  July  and  August,  and  hoed  in  September,  but 
in  October  the  thistles  were  more  vigorous  than  at  any  previous  time. 
A second  plat  was  burned  all  over  with  log  heaps.  In  a month  the 
thistles  were  up  through  the  burned  ground  as  vigorous  as  ever.  A 
third  plat  was  burned  over  like  the  second,  and  in  addition  salted 
thoroughly  three  times,  but  in  a month  the  thistles  flourished  as  if  they 
had  not  been  molested. 

The  next  year  the  three  plats  mentioned  above  were  sown  with  red- 
top  grass  seed,  and  wherever  the  grass  became  established  the  thistles 
were  choked  out. 

The  red-top  sward  was  tried  on  upland,  but  failed  to  destroy  the 
thistles.  Timothy  and  clover  were  also  tried  on  the  bottom  lands,  but 
they  likewise 'failed. 


Noxious  Weeds  of  Wisconsin. 


11 


The  above  detailed  experiments  were  repeated  until  1845  with  simi- 
lar results.  In  experiments  made  on  poor,  sandy  loams,  the  thisties 
were  readily  killed  by  plowing.  On  rich,  sandy  loams  they  were  choked 
out  by  sowing  the  land  in  clover. 

From  a careful  study  of  his  own  and  other  experiments,  Mr.  Stevens 
deduced  the  following  conclusions: 

“Whatever  will  effectually  exclude  the  plant  from  the  light  and 
air  will  destroy  it.  This  may  be  done  by  plowing,  in  some  soils,  ana 
in  others  by  a close  grass  sod.  Plowing,  if  repeated  frequently,  in  soils 
where  the  root  does  not  descend  beyond  the  reach  of  the  plowing,  will, 
in  dry  seasons,  always  destroy  the  thistle,  and  often  in  moist  ones.  In 
soils  which  are  light,  deep,  rich,  friable,  and  of  course  permeable  to  the 
air,  and  are  in  some  measure  always  moist,  plowing  will  always  fail. 

“Wherever  a dense  sod  can  be  formed,  the  thistle  may  be  destroyed 
by  seeding.  The  grasses,  wherever  they  are  adapted  to  the  purpose, 
will  be  found  the  easiest,  means  of  destruction;  although  not  so  rapid 
as  plowing,  hoeing,  salting  or  burning,  where  these  latter  are  available. 

“In  all  uplands,  where  the  soil  is  of  a depth  admitting  the  root  to  be 
reached  and  affected  in  its  whole  extent  by  the  plow,  hoe,  fire  or  salt, 
the  thistle  may  be  destroyed  by  these  means,  and  they  will  be  found  the 
most  rapid  ones. 

“In  all  bottom  lands  where  the  root  descends  deep  and  the  soil  per- 
mits access  of  air,  neither  the  plow,  hoe,  fire  nor  salt  will  destroy  the 
thistle;  here  the  grasses  should  be  applied,  and  will  be  found  the  best 
destroyers. 

“Mowing  will  destroy  those  parts  of  the  thistle  which  have  thrown  out 
flowering  stalks,  and  will  not  in  the  least  affect  those  which  nave  non 
Mowing  should  take  place  when  the  plant  is  in  bloom. 

“Whatever  limits  the  thorough  application  of  the  means  of  destruc- 
tion will  proportionately  diminish  success.  Hence  it  will  be  found  diffi- 
cult, in  very  stony  grounds,  ever  to  eradicate  the  thistle;  the  plow 
can  not  effectually  reach  its  roots,  and  such  ground  is  rarely  a good 
grass  bearer.  Salt  and  sheep,  with  the  scythe,  will  be  found  best  for 
stony  grounds.  In  grounds  filled  with  stumps,  where  the  soil  is  rich  and 
will  grow  a dense  sod,  the  grasses  will  be  best,  and  in  such  the  plow 
should  not  be  used,  as  it  will  not  effectually  reach  all  the  roots.  Fences 
that  obstruct  the  application  of  the  plow  or  hoe  should  be  removed. 

“If  it  be  desirable  to  destroy  the  thistles  by  the  grasses,  it  will  be 
found  best  to  make  the  land  rich  by  manure.  This  will  force  the  grass, 
and  enable  it  more  readily,  by  vigorous  growth,  to  Kill  the  plant.  And 
in  the  application  of  all  remedies,  care  should  be  taken  to  reduce  the 
soil,  by  proper  cultivation,  to  a fine  tilth,  that  all  the  seeds  of  the  thistle 
in  the  ground  may  germinate  and  not  lie  dormant.  The  seed  is  very 
hardy,  and  escapes  all  the  ordinary  means  of  reaching  the  plant,  ex- 
cept fire.” 


Bulletin  No.  76. 


1 1 


An  extract  from  a newspaper  article,  (Wisconsin  Farmer,  August  18, 
1893,  p.  5),  written  by  Mr.  J.  S.  Woodward,  a successful  farmer  of 
Lockport,  N.  if.,  is  also  given  here: 

“ Ridding  Land  of  Canada  Thistle. — Get  the  land  well  set  in  clover, 
and  the  richer  the  better.  Let  it  stand  until  just  as  the  thistles  begin 
to  show  bloom,  then  mow  it,  being  sure  to  cut  all  thistles.  It  is  well 
then  to  apply  some  plaster  to  start  a quick  growth  of  clover.  When  tlie 
clover  is  up  a good  growth,  say  at  the  middle  or  last  of  July  or  first  of 
August,  plow  the  field,  and  be  sure  that  it  is  all  plowed.  Don’t  cut  the 
clover,  but  plow  the  whole  ground,  having  a chain  on  plow,  if  necessary,, 
to  put  all  the  grass  under.  Roll  at  once,  and  harrow  so  as  to  cover  all 
the  thistles.  Keep  the  field  well  cultivated  all  the  following  fall.  Every 
time  a thistle  shows  go  over  it  with  some  broad-toothed  cultivator,  hav- 
ing the  teeth  *sharp,  and  in  two  days  after  follow  with  hoe,  cutting  off 
the  head  of  every  last  thistle.  Follow  up  till  late  fall,  then  in  the 
spring  plow  the  field  and  you  will  have  the  best  of  all  fitted  fields  for 
barley  or  oats,  and  if  the  work  is  thorough  I will  give  a dollar  apiece  for 
every  thistle  that  ever  shows  again,  unless  it  comes  from  the  seed.” 

The  Burdock,  Arctium  Lappa,  Linnaeus. 

Other  names:  Burdock,  Great  lappa,  Gobo,  Lappa  officinalis , 

L.  major  L.  edulis,  etc. 

Description. — This  coarse,  mammoth-leaved,  offensive  weed,  with  its 
large  brown  burs  that  have  such  a propensity  for  clinging  to  the 
clothing  and  to  the  coats  of  animals,  is  already  too  familiar  to  the  far- 
mer. In  the  dimensions  of  its  leaves,  and  the  rapidity  of  its  growth,  it 
rivals  the  garden  rhubarb  and  the  largest  varieties  of  tobacco.  The 
seedling  plant  makes  a considerable  development  the  first  season,  stor- 
ing up  at  the  same  time  a large  quantity  of  nutriment  in  its  fleshy  root,, 
preparatory  to  flowering  and  producing  seed  the  next  year.  Early  the 
following  spring,  it  sends  up  a long,  branching  stem  which  bears  in 
cluster  of  individual  flowers.  It  is  these  flower-heads  that  form,  after 
July,  or  later,  a multitude  of  globular  flower-heads,  each  of  which  is  a 
they  have  matured  their  seeds,  the  annoying,  adhesive  burs,  that  so 
readily  attach  themselves  to  the  clothing  and  the  hair  and  wool  of 
animals,  thus  promoting  their  own  dissemination.  Under  favorable 
conditions  the  stem  sometimes  attains  the  height  of  six  feet.  Having 
matured  its  seed  the  whole  plant  perishes  at  the  end  of  the  second 
year. 

In  Fig.  3 is  shown  an  illustration  of  a portion  of  the  stem  of  two 
varieties  of  this  plant  in  flower.  At  1 is  a branch  of  the  small  variety 
(Minor),  and  at  3 one  of  the  more  common  varieties  (Major).  At  2 
an  individual  flower  is  shown  magnified.  Fig  4,  A and  B show  mag- 
nified views  of  the  seed,  and  C shows  the  seed  natural  size. 


3 

Fig. 


3.— 


Portion  of  flower-stalk  of  burdock.  (Cut  from 
Agriculture.) 


Noxious  Weeds  of  Wisconsin. 


U.  S.  Dep’t  of 


14 


Bulletin  No.  76'. 


Though  not  particularly  troublesome  in  cultivated  ground,  the  bur- 
dock intrudes  itself  into  almost  every  waste  place  where  the  ground  is> 
rich  and  where  the  negligence  of  the  owner  permits  it  to  exist.  The; 
seeds  germinate  freely  the  fall  or  spring  following  their  maturity,  and 
the  young  plants  manifest  a surprising  ability  to  cope  with  their  sur- 
roundings. Its  injury  to  crops  is  far  less  than  that  of  the  Canada 
thistle,  but  it  should  not  be  tolerated,  as  it  is  most  unsightly  and  of- 
fensive, and  its  clinging  burs,  besides  being  a source  of  annoyance 
to  man,  are  often  a damage  to  domestic  animals. 


Fig.  4.— Seeds  (akenes)  of  burdock,  enlarged  and  natural  size.  (After  Hillman. > 

The  burdock  is  used  to  some  extent  in  medicine  as  a purifier  of  the 
blood,  and  for  rheumatism.  The  young  shoots,  stripped  of  their  outer 
rind,  have  sometimes  been  used  as  a substitute  for  asparagus.  In 
Japan,  the  root  of  a cultivated  variety  of  the  burdock  is  extensively 
used  for  food  under  the  name  ‘Gobo,”  ranking  third  in  importance 
among  their  vegetables.  Under  favorable  conditions,  it  is  said  to  at- 
tain a foot  in  circumference  and  three  feet  in  length,  and  a single 
specimen  is  sometimes  sold  for  twenty-five  cents.*  The  root  is  gener- 
ally used,  however,  when  but  two  and  one-half  to  three  months  old 
from  the  seed,  in  which  condition,  “although  it  can  not  be  termed  de- 
licious, it  is  certainly  not  a bad  vegetable.”!! 

How  best  destroyed. — Being  a biennial  plant,  the  burdock  is  not  diffi- 
cult of  destruction.  It  does  if  left  to  itself  at  the  end  of  the  second  sea- 
son. The  important  thing  is  to  prevent  it  seeding,  and  thus  keep  it 
from  propagating  its  kind.  During  the  first  year  of  growth,  the  plant 
is  readily  destroyed  by  pulling  it  up  by  the  roots  when  the  ground  is 
very  wet.  The  second  season  it  may  require  repeated  cutting  a short 
distance  below  the  surface  of  the  ground.  But  whatever  method  is- 
adopted,  the  plant  should  never  be  permitted  to  bloom. 


♦Vegetable  Gardening  in  Japan,  K.  Tamari,  Rep.  Mich.  Hort.  Soe.  1886,  136. 
HThe  Vegetable  Garden,  235. 


Noxious  Weeds  of  Wisconsin. 


15 


The  White  ok  Ox-Eye  Daisy,  C nrysanthemum  Leucanthemum,  Linnaeus. 

Other  names:  Daisy,  White  weed,  Leucanthemum  vulgarc. 

It  seems  almost  a pity  that  we  are  compelled  to  condemn  this  at- 
tractive plant  as  a pernicious  weed.  But  such  is  the  case.  Where  tol- 
erated, it  often  intrudes  itself  into  pastures  and  meadow  lands  to  so 
great  an  extent  as  to  crowd  out  more  useful  plants,  and  thus  becomes  a 
source  of  damage. 


A 

Fig.  6.— Seeds  (akenes)  of  ox-eye  daisy, 
Fig.  5. — Oxeye  Daisy.  enlarged  and  natural  size.  (After 

Hillman.) 

The  ox-eye  daisy  has  sometimes,  and  very  appropriately,  been  culti- 
vated in  the  flower  garden.  It  is  a near  relative  to  the  garden  chrysan- 
themum, and,  with  the  care  that  has  been  bestowed  upon  the  latter, 
might  possibly  have  equaled  it  in  attractiveness.  It  has  also  been 
introduced  into  some  localities  as  a forage  plant  for  sheep,  for  which  it 
seems  poorly  adapted,  as  it  is  said  that  the  close  grazing  of  sheep  de- 
stroys it.  It  is  rarely  troublesome,  except  in  meadows  or  pasture  lands, 
and  is  most  prevalent  in  rather  poor  soils. 

Description. — The  ox-eye  daisy  is  a perennial  plant.  Its  stems,  of 
which  several  often  grow  from  one  rootstock,  are  one  to  two  feet 


Bulletin  No.  76. 


10 

long,  are  little  branched  and  are  rather  sparsely  clothed  with  narrow, 
coarsely-toothed  or  gashed  leaves  which  are  broadest  near  their  upper 
end.  The  upper  leaves  are  attached  directly  to  the  stem  with  a clasping 
fringed  base;  the  lower  ones  have  a more  or  less  clearly-defined  petiole 
or  leaf  stalk.  The  stems  are  slightly  downy,  and  are  distinctly  angular. 
Each  stem  and  branch  terminates  in  what  commonly  passes  for  a 
flower,  but  which  is  really  a multitude  of  small  individual  flowers, 
closely  compacted  together,  forming  the  yellow,  convex,  cushion-like 
center  of  the  flower  head.  The  outer  row  of  these  little  flowers,  or 
florets,  as  they  are  called,  are  different  from  the  others,  being  white,  and 
each  one  is  spread  out  flat  so  that  it  appears  like  a petal  to  the  whole 
flower-head.  A plant  of  the  ox-eye  daisy  is  shown  in  Fig.  5.  Fig.  6,  A 
shows  the  seed  enlarged  and  B the  same  natural  size.  Near  the  top, 
at  the  right,  is  shown  one  of  the  individual  florets,  and  at  the  left 
one  of  the  outside  or  ray  florets.  The  ox-eye  daisy  propagates  itself  by 
its  seeds,  of  which  it  produces  immense  numbers,  and  also  by  its  creep- 
ing underground  stems  or  rootstocks. 

Hoio  best  destroyed. — It  is  hardly  practicable  to  exterminate  the  ox- 
eye  daisy  from  grass  land  in  which  it  has  secured  a hold  without  break- 
ing up  the  sod  and  summer-fallowing  the  ground,  or  devoting  it  for  a 
time  to  some  hoed  crop.  Cutting-  the  stems  before  the  flowers  open 
will  prevent  the  seeding,  but  does  not  destroy  the  plant  nor  stop  the 
spreading  of  its  rootstocks. 

✓ 

Snap  Dragon  or  Toadflax,  Linaria  vulgaris,  Miller. 

Other  names:  Butter  and  eggs,  Ransted. 

Mr.  Watson  in  his  annals  of  Philadelphia  states  that  this  plant  was 
introduced  into  that  city  as  a garden  flower  from  Wales  by  a Welsh 
resident  named  Ransted.  (American  Weeds  and  Useful  Plants,  Darling- 
ton, p.  125.)  It  is  also  said  to  have  been  first  introduced  in  Wisconsin 
as  a flower  garden  plant.  But  for  its  aggressive  qualities,  its  profusion 
of  showy  flowers  would  have  maintained  for  it  a popular  place  in  the 
perennial  border,  but  its  disposition  to  monopolize  the  soil  has  caused  it 
to  be  catalogued  with  the  noxious  weeds.  It  has  long  been  common  in 
the  East  and  is  extending  westward,  having  already  invaded  Wisconsin 
in  many  localities. 

The  toadflax  is  perennial,  and  is  propagated  both  by  its  seeds  and  by 
its  creeping  rootstocks.  It  inclines  to  form  a large  patch,  and  so  far  as 
it  extends,  takes  almost  exclusive  possession  of  the  soil,  and  is  rather 
difficult  of  extirpation. 

Description. — The  plant  grows  to  the  height  of  one  to  two,  rarely 
three  feet.  The  leaves  somewhat  resemble  those  of  flax,  being  narrow 


Noxious  Weeds  of  Wisconsin. 


Fig.  7.— Toadflax.  (Cut  from  U.  S.  Dep’t  of  Agriculture.) 


18 


Bulletin  No.  76. 


rather  sharp-pointed,  irregularly  scattered  on  the  stem,  and  very 
numerous.  The  showy,  yellow  flowers  grow  in  a dense  oblong  cluster 
at  the  top  of  the  stem.  These  are  irregular  in  form  having  two  lips 
which  are  pressed  closely  together,  of  which  the  lower  is  bright  orange, 
with  a slender  awl-shaped  protrusion  at  the  base,  called  a spur.  They 
are  followed  by  pods  which  are  divided  into  two  cavities  by  a partition 
across  the  center,  each  of  which  is  filled  with  small  seeds,  that  escape 
through  holes  near  the  top  of  the  pods.  A plant  with  its  head  of 
flowers  is  shown  in  Fig.  7;  1 shows  a single  flower;  2,  a magnified 
longitudinal  section  of  the  same,  and  3,  a matured  seed  pod.  Fig.  8,  A 
shows  the  seed  .much  enlarged;  B the  same  natural  size,  and  C an 
enlarged  section  through  the  center  of  a seed. 


Fig  8. — Seeds  of  toadflax,  enlarged  and  natural  size.  (After  Hillman.) 

How  best  destroyed. — A milder  treatment  than  that  recommended 
for  the  ex-eye  daisy  will  hardly  avail  with  this  plant.  Grubbing  out  the 
roots  may  be  practicable  for  small  areas,  but  where  the  patches  are 
numerous  and  large,  the  summer  fallow  is  the  only  treatment  likely  to 
be  effectual.  Young  plants  could  doubtless  be  rooted  out  by  hand  at 
a time  when  the  ground  is  very  wet. 


Cocklebur  or  Clotbur,  Xantliium  strumarium,  Linnaeus. 

Description. — The  cocklebur  is  a rapidly  growing,  coarse  weed  with 
an  irregularly  branching  stem  that  grows  to  the  height  of  one  to  two 
feet.  The  leaves,  which  are  borne  on  long  leaf  stalks,  are  broadly 
triangular  in  general  outline  and  more  or  less  toothed  and  lobed  oi\ 
the  borders.  There  are  two  kinds  of  flowers  borne  on  separate  heads 
or  clusters  on  the  same  plant.  The  male  or  staminate  flowers  are  pro- 
duced in  roundish  heads  at  the  top  of  the  stem.  After  shedding  their 
pollen,  these  drop  off,  and  the  female  or  pistillate  flowers,  which  are 
in  clusters  of  two  or  three  at  the  base  of  the  male  spike,  enlarge  and 
form  thick,  hard,  oblong  burs  beset  with  stiff  hooked  prickles,  and 
bearing  two  strong  beaks  at  the  upper  end.  These  burs,  like  those 
of  the  burdock,  adhere  to  clothing  and  to  the  coat  of  animals.  The 


Noxious  Weeds  of  Wisconsin. 


19 


upper  portion  of  a plant  of  cocklebur  is  shown  in  Fig.  9.  At  the  top 
of  the  stem  the  heads  of  male,  or  staminate  flowers  are  seen,  and  at  the 
base  of  the  leaves,  those  of  the  female  or  pistillate  flowers. 


Fig.  9.— Cocklebur.  Fig.  10.— Bur  of  the  cocklebur,  with 

section  of  same.  (After  Hill- 
man.) 


At  the  right,  near  the  top  of  the  figure,  is  a staminate  flower  en- 
larged; at  the  left  of  the  base  of  the  main  stem  is  a head  of  pistillate 
flowers,  showing  the  bur-like  covering  with  its  hooked  prickles,  and  at 
the  top,  the  protruding  styles;  at  the  left  is  shown  the  same  when  older, 
and  at  the  right  the  same  cut  through  lengthwise.  Fig.  10,  A shows 
another  view  of  a bur,  and  B a section  of  the  same  showing  the  two 
embryos.  Both  A and  B are  natural  size.  Each  bur,  when  mature, 
incloses  two  seeds,  one  of  which  may  germinate  the  first  year,  and  the 
other  may  lie  dormant  until  a later  time. 

It  has  been  said  that  the  plant  is  poisonous  to  cattle  but  this  is 
probably  a mistake.  It  is  at  least  known  that  cattle  sometimes  eat 
sparingly  of  it  without  serious  results. 

The  cocklebur  is  common  in  barnyards,  along  roadsides,  in  waste 
places  and  cultivated  grounds.  There  are  several  other  species,  all  of 
which  are  less  troublesome  to  the  farmer  than  the  X.  strumarium. 

How  best  destroyed. — As  the  root  of  the  cocklebur  is  not  creeping, 
and  does  not  live  in  the  ground  over  winter,  clean  culture  with  some 
hoed  crop,  or  seeding  to  clover  or  meadow  grass,  with  frequent  mow- 
ing, will  keep  it  under  subjection.  It  should  be  carefully  prevented 


20 


Bulletin  No.  76. 


from  seeding,  not  only  in  cultivated  grounds,  but  in  waste  places  as 
well,  and  this  is  the  only  means  that  will  prevent  its  becoming  trouble- 
some. It  is  often  necessary  to  go  through  corn  and  stubble  fields  in 
Aug-ust  or  September  for  this  purpose.  Fortunately,  nature  helps  us 
to  curb  this  noxious  weed  by  making  it  the  host  plant  for  several  para- 
sitic fungi. 


The  Sow  Thistle,  Sonchus  arvensis,  Linnaeus. 

Other  names:  Field  sow  thistle,  Perennial  sow  thistle. 

This  plant  must  be  considered  the  successful  rival  of  the  Canada 
thistle  in  its  power  of  multiplication,  and  in  the  tenacity  of  its  hold 
upon  the  soil.  Indeed  some  farmers  who  have  contended  with  both  of 
these  enemies  have  pronounced  the  sow  thistle  the  more  unmanageable 
of  the  two. 

The  sow  thistle  is  less  widely  introduced  in  our  state  as  yet,  than 
the  Canada  thistle;  but  it  has  gained  entrance  into  several  of  the 
eastern  and  a few  of  the  central  counties,  and  it  is  doubtless  present 
in  some  districts  where  it  has  not  yet  been  identified,  for  it  appears 
to  be  less  generally  known  among  the  farmers  than  the  Canada  thistle. 
On  this  account,  especial  pains  are  here  taken  to  illustrate  the  plant 
so  well  that  all  who  have  this  Bulletin  may  be  able  to  settle  any  doubts 
in  regard  to  it. 

Description. — The  plant  of  the  sow  thistle  is  softer  and  less  rigid  than 
that  of  either  the  Canada  thistle  or  bull  thistle.  The  leaves  are  thinner 
and  smoother,  and  while  having  prickles  on  their  borders,  are  so  soft 
and  flabby  that  they  may  be  handled  with  impunity,  the  prickles,  offer- 
ing no  resistance.  They  are  deeply  cut  and  gashed,  and  considerably 
curled,  but  less  so  than  those  of  the  Canada  thistle.  The  stem,  which 
is  free  from  prickles,  grows  one  to  two  feet  tall,  is  hollow*,  rather  dis- 
tinctly angular,  and  emits  a milky  juice  when  cut.  The  flowers,  which 
are  produced  in  large  heads  at  the  top  of  the  stem,  are  bright  yellow. 
The  plant  is  perennial,  and  like  the  Canada  thistle,  propagates  from 
underground  buds,  as  well  as  by  seed.  Two  other  plants  have  been 
frequently  mistaken  for  the  sow  thistle  specified  in  the  weed  law. 
One  of  these  is  a species  of  wild  lettuce,  Lactuca  scariola,  Linnseus,  of 
which  a specimen  is  shown  in  Fig*.  36,  p.  51.  The  other  is  an  annual 
species  of  sow  thistle,  Sonchus  oleraceus,  which  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  11. 
The  latter  is  rather  common  in  certain  localities  in  our  state,  but  is  by 
no  means  a troublesome  w*eed,  since  it  does  not  propagate  from  its 
roots.  At  Fig.  12  is  shown  an  herbarium  specimen  of  the  perennial 
sow  thistle, — the  one  specified  in  the  weed  law.  Fig.  13,  A shows  the 
seed  of  the  perennial  sow  thistle,  enlarged;  B shows  the  same,  natural 
size. 


Noxious  Weeds  of  Wisconsin , 


21 


fi&IPt VJU.L.BEI-. 

Fig.  11.— Annual  sow  thistle  (Sonchus  oleraceous)— not  the  one  meant  ii^  the 
weed  law,  but  much  like  it  in  appearance.  (Cut  from  U.  S.  Dep  t ot 
Agriculture.) 


22 


Bulletin  No.  76. 


Fig.  12.  Perennial  sow  thistle — the  one  meant  in  the  weed  law.  (From  an  her- 
barium specimen.) 


A 

Fig.  13.— Seeds  (akenes)  of  sow  thistle,  enlarged  and  natural  size.  (After  Hill- 
man. 


Noxious  Weeds  of  Wisconsin. 


23 


Fig.  14.— Slioyving  liow  young  plants  of  the  sow  thistle  multiply  from  under- 
ground stems. 


Fig.  15.— Showing  how  young  piants  of  the  sow  thistle  appear  on  the  surface  of 
the  ground  in  fall  and  spring. 


24 


Bulletin  No.  76. 


By  comparing  the  wild  lettuce  with  either  of  the  other  plants,  a con* 
spicuous  difference  appears  in  the  size  of  the  flower  heads,  those  of  the 
wild  lettuce  being  decidedly  smaller  than  in  the  others.  The  leaves 
of  the  wild  lettuce  are  also  less  notched  and  prickly  on  the  edges.  The 
two  species  of  sow  thistle  resemble  each  other  more,  but  any  doubts  re- 
garding any  one  of  the  three  plants  may  readily  be  settled  by  carefully 
digging  up  or  washing  out  the  roots  and  observing  if  the  plant  multi- 
plies by  sending  up  suckers,  as  shown  in  Fig.  14.  If  it  does,  it  is  the 
sow  thistle  intended  in  the  weed  law,  otherwise  it  is  not. 

A young  plant  of  the  sow  thistle,  as  it  appears  on  the  surface  of 
the  ground  in  spring  or  autumn,  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  15. 

How  best  destroyed. — A milder  treatment  than  that  recommended  for 
the  Canada  thistle  would  certainly  not  suffice  for  this  plant.  I am  not 
informed  if  it  may  be  smothered  out  on  rich,  moist  soil,  by  close  seed- 
ing, but  I do  know  that  a summer  fallow  intended  to  subdue  it  must 
be  made  extremely  thorough,  and  then  it  does  not  always  avail. 


Sour  Dock,  Rumex  crispus,  Linnaeus. 

Other  names:  Yellow  dock,  Curled  dock,  Narrow  dock,  Curled  rumex. 

Like  the  burdock,  this  plant  is  a coarse  and  homely  intruder  into- 
waste  grounds.  Its  roots  have  some  reputed  medicinal  virtues,  and  its- 
young  leaves  are  said  to  make  excellent  greens;  but  its  room  is  tar 
preferable  to  its  company,  and  it  should  be  persistently  hunted  out  and 
destroyed. 

Description. — The  sour  dock  is  a rank,  coarse;  deep-rooting  perennial 
weed.  The  rather  slender,  somewhat  grooved,  branching  stem  grows 
to  the  height  of  three  or  four  feet,  and  in  common  with  the  branches 
terminates  in  a long,  somewhat  plume-like,  compound  raceme  of  green- 
ish flowers,  which  are  followed  by  numerous  angular  brown  seeds, 
shaped  somewhat  like  a kernel  of  buckwheat.  The  rather  long  and  nar- 
row, sharp  pointed  leaves  have  distinct  vein  markings,  and  are  strongly 
wavy-curled  on  the  borders.  They  are  borne  on  rather  long  leaf-stalks, 
and  where  each  of  these  clasps  the  stem  a branch  starts  out.  The  plant 
has  a long,  spindle-shaped,  yellow  tap  root.  A specimen  is  shown  in 
Fig.  16,  and  a portion  of  the  flower-head  drawn  to  a larger  scale  is 
shown  at  Fig.  17.  Fig.  18,  A shows  a seed  (akene)  enlarged;  B shows 
the  same  and  two  matured  flowers,  natural  sizp.  The  latter  have  a 
peculiar  seed-like  excrescense,  shown  enlarged  at  D.  C shows  a cross 
section  of  A. 

Another  species  of  dock  resembling  this  has  blunt-pointed  and  less 
curled  leaves,  and  still  another  has  thickish,  paler  green  leaves  which 
are  scarcely  curled  at  all  on  the  borders.  All  of  these  species  are  useless 
weeds  and  should  be  destroyed. 


Noxious  Weeds  of  Wisconsin. 


25 


Fig.  16.— Yellow  dock. 


Bulletin  No.  76. 


26 


Noxious  Weeds  of  Wisconsin. 


27 


How  best  destroyed. — Perhaps  the  most  effectual  method  of  destroy- 
ing the  yellow  dock  is  to  root  it  out  by  hand  at  times  when  the  soil  is 
very  wet.  By  clasping  the  stem  just  at  the  surface  of  the  ground  and 
.giving  it  a slight  twist  and  a vigorous  pull  at  the  same  time,  the  root 
will  usually  come  out  almost  entire.  As  the  plants  are  not  often  very 
numerous,  this  method  of  destruction  will  seldom  prove  expensive.  The 
more  common  method  of  cutting  off  the  stems  with  the  scythe  or  hoe 
•does  not  destroy  the  root,  and  even  the  cultivator  and  plow  are  seldom 
wholly  effectual  unless  supplemented  by  the  hand. 


Fig.  18.— Seeds  (akenes)  of  yellow  dock,  enlarged  and  natural  size.  (After  Hill- 
man.) 

Wild  Mustard,  Brassica  Sinapistrum,  Boissier. 

Other  names:  Charlock,  English  charlock,  Kerlock,  Kellock,  Sinapis 

arvensis. 

This  plant  is  very  properly  included  in  the  weed  law,  because  its 
seeds  diminish  the  market  value  of  grain,  and  because  it  is  readily 
kept  in  subjection  by  the  exercise  of  a little  care.  Some  localities  in 
•our  state  are  badly  infested  with  it,  while  others  are  free,  but  how- 
ever much  it  may  prevail  in  any  tocality  its  extirpation  from  grain 
fields  should  be  rigidly  insisted  upon.  It  is  usually  most  troublesome 
on  lands  bordering  streams  that  frequently  overflow  their  banks,  and 
thus  promote  the  scattering  of  the  seed. 

Description. — The  wild  mustard  is  a coarse,  rough,  annual  plant, 
resembling  in  general  appearance  the  garden  radish,  with  the  exception 
that  it  has  a more  irregular  and  branching  root.  The  stem  and  branches, 
which  are  sparsely  clothed  with  leaves,  terminate  in  clusters  of 
yellow  flowers,  of  which  the  lower  ones  are  first  to  open,  the  stem  in 
the  meanwhile  continuing  to  lengthen,  forming  a long,  leafless  raceme, 
with  knotted  pods  towards  the  base,  open  flowers  toward  the  summit, 
and  a cluster  of  unopened  flower  buds  at  the  apex.  The  seeds  resemble 
those  of  the  cabbage,  and  have  a harsh,  biting  taste.  A portion  of  a 
plant  of  the  wild  mustard  is  shown  in  Pig.  19,  and  another  portion  of  a 
plant,  drawn  to  a larger  scale,  is  shown  in  Fig.  20. 


28 


Bulletin  No.  76. 


L 4Vva<il"i? 

Gah4  -9  14^ 


Fig.  19.— The  wild  mustard.  An  individual  flower  and  a seed-pod  about  natural 
size  appear  at  the  left,  and  at  the  lower  left-hand  corner  is  shown  a 
flower  slightly  enlarged. 


Noxious  Weeds  of  Wisconsin , 


iT^owdl  ad. 

Fig.  20.— Flower  and  seed-pods  of  the  wild  mustard,  slightly  enlarged.  (Cut 
from  U.  S.  Dep’t  of  Agriculture./ 


30 


Bulletin  No.  76. 


How  best  destroyed. — Go  through  grain  fields  and  other  areas  in- 
fested with  wild  mustard,  and  pull  out  the  plants  while  they  are 
in  bloom,  and  hence  easily  seen.  Not  one  should  be  permitted  to 
remain.  The  labor  this  involves  is  not  so  great  as  one  might  infer  who 
has  not  tried  it.  No  grain  should  be  sown  that  contains  the  seeds  of 
wild  mustard  when  this  can  be  avoided. 


The  Wild  Parsnip,  Pastinaea  sativa*  Linnaeus. 

The  wild  parsnip  is  the  wild  form  of  the  common  garden  parsnip,, 
and  is  hence  readily  recognized  by  all  who  are  familiar  with  the  latter. 
The  accompanying  illustration,  Fig.  21,  is  from  a plant  taken  from  a 
meadow,  and  of  which  the  root  leaves  had  perished.  Fig.  22,  A shows- 
an  outer-side  view,  and  B an  inner-side  view  of  a seed  or  carpel,  en- 
larged; C,  the  same,  natural  size.  The  wild  parsnip  is  chiefly  trouble* 
some  in  rich,  moist  meadows  and  pastures,  in  which  it  is  often  ex- 
tremely difficult  to  eradicate  by  the  hoe  or  scythe,  though  it  readily 
succumbs  to  proper  treatment. 

How  best  destroyed. — The  plant  is  biennial,  forming  its  root  leaves; 
the  first  season  and  its  flower  stalk  the  second,  and  is  chiefly  propagated 
by  its  seed.  Perhaps  the  best  method  of  destroying  the  young  plants; 
is  to  pull  them  out  at  a time  when  the  soil  is  saturated  with  water 
and  the  roots  may  hence  be  drawn  out  nearly  entire.  Cutting  off  the- 
young  plants  with  the  hoe  tends  rather  to  multiply  than  to  kill  them,, 
as  the  roots  usually  send  up  several  shoots  where  the  one  was  de- 
stroyed. If  the  root  is  cut  off  three  or  four  inches  below  the  surface, 
however,  the  plant  will  generally  perish.  Cutting  the  flower  stalk  of 
the  second  year  plants  before  the  seed  is  old  enough  to  mature  will  pre- 
vent multiplication  by  the  seed,  and  as  the  parent  plant  has  run  its; 
course  it  will  soon  perish. 


♦This'  is  unquestionably  the  plant  intended  in  the  state  weed  law,  though  a; 
different  botanical  name  is  there  given  to  it. 


Noxious  Weeds  of  Wisconsin, 


31 


Fig.  21.— Plant  of  wild  parsnip  from  meadow,  about  one-fifth  natural  size. 


Fig.  22.— Seeds  (carpels)  of  wild  parsnip,  enlarged  and  natural  size.  (After  Hill- 
man.) 


32 


Bulletin  No.  76. 


The  Russian  Thistle,  Salsola  kali,  variety  tragus,  De  Candolle. 

Other  names:  Russian  cactus,  Saltwort,  Tartar  weed,  Hector  weed. 

This  weed  formed  .the  subject  of  our  Station  Bulletin  No.  37,  hence 
many  of  our  farmers  have  already  learned  of  its  arrival  within  our 
borders.  Because  it  is  generally  believed  that  this  weed  is  especially 
to  be  dreaded,  the  cuts  of  it,  with  a description  and  the  best  means  of 
preventing  it  gaining  a hold  among  us  are  here  republished. 

The  half-tone  picture  of  a plant  of  the  Russian  thistle  (Fig.  23),  was 
taken  from  a specimen  found  by  Mr.  L.  S.  Cheney,  instructor  In  botany 
in  the  University  of  Wisconsin,  about  one  mile  from  the  city  of  Madi- 
son on  the  right-of-way  of  one  of  our  railroads.  It  is  along  railroads 
and  highways  that  this  weed  is  most  likely  to  advance,  hence  these 
places  should  be  most  carefully  watched  for  its  appearance.  To  what 
extent  it  already  exists  among  us  cannot  be  definitely  stated,  but  it  is 
known  to  have  been  introduced  some  years  since,  and  is  certainly  pres- 
ent in  several  counties  of  our  state. 

Description  and  characteristics .* — The  Russian  thistle  is  an  annual 
plant,  coming  each  year  from  the  seed.  It  grows  from  a single,  small, 
light-colored  root  less  than  half  an  inch  in  diameter  and  6 to  12  inches 
long  to  a height  of  6 inches  to  3 feet,  branching  profusely,  and  when 
not  crowded  often  forms  a dense,  brush-like  plant  2 to  6 feet  in  diame- 
ter and  one-half  to  two-thirds  as  high.  When  young  it  is  a very  inno- 
cent looking  plant,  tender  and  juicy  throughout,  with  small,  narrow, 
downy,  green  leaves.  When  the  dry  weather  comes  in  August  this  Inno- 
cent disguise  disappears,  the  tender,  downy  leaves  wither  and  fall,  and 
the  plant  increases  rapidly  in  size,  sending  out  hard,  stiff  branches. 
Instead  of  leaves  these  branches  bear  at  intervals  of  half  an  inch  or 
less  three  sharp  spines,  which  harden,  but  do  not  grow  dull  as  the 
plant  increases  in  age  and  ugliness.  The  spines  are  one-fourth  to  one- 
half  inch  long.  At  the  base  of  each  cluster  of  spines  is  a papery  flower 
about  one-eighth  of  an  inch  In  diameter.  If  this  be  taken  out  and 
carefully  pulled  to  pieces  a small,  pulpy,  green  body,  coiled  up  and 
appearing  like  a minute,  green  snail-shell  will  be  found.  This  is  the 
seed.  As  the  seed  ripens  it  becomes  hard  and  of  a rather  dull-gray  color. 
At  the  earliest  frost  the  plants  change  in  color  from  dark  green  to  crim- 
son or  almost  magenta,  especially  on  the  most  exposed  parts.  When  the 
ground  becomes  frozen  and  the  November  winds  blow  across  the  prairie 
the  small  root  is  broken  or  loosened  and  pulled  out.  The  dense,  yet 
light  growth  and  circular  or  hemispherical  form  of  the  plant  fit  it  most 
perfectly  to  be  carried  by  the  wind.  It  goes  rolling  across  the  country 
at  racing  speed,  scattering  seeds  at  every  bound. 


♦This  article  is  abridged  from  our  Bulletin  No.  37,  which  is  mainly  a reprint 
of  Farmers’  Bulletin  No.  10,  issued  by  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  and 
written  by  Mr.  L.  S.  Dewey,  assistant  botanist. 


Fig.  23.— Russian  thistle.  The  above  plant,  which  was  fully  three  feet  in  diameter,  was  found  near  Madison,  Wis. 


34 


Bulletin  No.  76. 


Fig.  24.— Branch  from  Russian  thistle,  showing  appearance  of  plant  when  seeds 
are  mature;  a,  branch  from  a young  plant,  showing  the  appearance 
before  the  dry  season;  b.  mature  seed  enlarged  five  times.  (Cut  trom 
U.  S.  Dep’t  of  Agriculture.) 


Noxious  Weeds  of  Wisconsin. 


35 


The  saltwort  or  Russian  thistle  appears  more  like  the  common 
“tumbleweed”  ( Amarantus  albus  L.)  than  any  other  plant  in  the  North- 
west. It  may  be  readily  distinguished  from  the  tumbleweed  by  the 
sharp  spines  in  clusters  of  three  each,  the  absence  of  flat  leaves,  denser 
growth,  darker  color,  and  by  the  red  color  in  the  fall. 

Russian  thistles  grow  best  on  high  and  dry  land,  where  they  are  not 
too  much  crowded  by  other  plants.  They  are  seldom  seen  in  sloughs  or 
low  land  and  make  no  progress  in  the  native  prairie  nor  in  meadows 
or  pastures,  except  where  the  sod  has  been  broken  by  cattle.  They  are 
less  numerous  and  robust  in  wet  seasons  than  in  dry  ones. 

How  best  destroyed. — Plow  in  August  or  early  September,  before  the 
Russian  thistles  have  grown  large  and  stiff,  and  before  they  have  gone 
to  seed,  using  care  that  all  weeds  are  well  turned  under.  If  the  season 
be  long  and  weeds  come  through  the  furrow  it  may  be  necessary  to 
harrow  the  land  before  winter.  Burn  over  stubble  fields  as  soon  as 
possible  after  harvest.  Cut  the  stubble  with  a mowing  machine  if  the 
fire  does  not  burn  everything  clean  without  cutting. 

Cutting  the  stubble  and  thistles  before  the  latter  have  gone  to  seed 
will  help,  but  it  is  not  thoroughly  effective  without  fire,  as  the  thistles 
will  send  out  branches  below  where  the  mowing  machine  cuts  them. 

If  the  weeds  have  been  neglected  and  have  grown  large  and  rigid,  as 
they  do  by  the  middle  of  September,  especially  on  neglected  barren  fal- 
low or  spring  plowed  breaking,  they  may  be  raked  into  windrows  and 
burned.  The  old-fashioned  revolving  hay  rake  or  any  rake  made  strong 
so  as  to  pull  the  weeds,  and  especially  good  at  clearing  itself  in  dump- 
ing, will  answer  the  purpose.  An  ordinary  wheel  hay  rake  with  a 
set  of  strong  teeth  has  been  used  successfully.  This  method  Is  to  be 
re'commended  only  as  a last  resort,  for  by  the  last  of  September  some 
of  the  seeds  will  be  ripe  enough  to  shell  out  and  will  escape  being 
burned  with  the  plants.  If  left  until  October,  when  many  of  the  plants 
are  certain  to  be  fully  ripe  and  dry,  the  land  where  they  are  growing 
will  be  well  seedeu  any  way;  but  raking  together  and  burning  the  weeds 
will  prevent  their  being  blown  across  neighboring  fields  during  the 
winter.  Of  course  care  should  be  taken  to  do  this  work  when  there  is 
little  wind,  for  a burning-  Russian  thistle  before  the  wind  may  jump 
any  fire-break  and  carry  both  seeds  and  fire. 

Barren  fallowing  does  very  well  if  kept  barren  by  thorough  cultiva- 
tion. It  gives  little  benefit  to  the  land,  however.  A much  better  method 
is  to  sow  clover,  millet  or  rye,  pasture  it  and  plow  it  under  green. 
This  will  be  beneficial  to  the  land,  especially  if  a comparatively  large 
portion  of  clover  is  used,  and  the  weeds  will  be  choked  out.  Millet  and 
oats  combined  may  be  grown  and  cut  for  hay.  This  crop  will  choke  out 
nearly  all  the  weeds,  and  the  few  that  do  grow  will  be  too  slender  to 
form  tumbleweeds. 


F.  MULLER 


Fig.  25. — Branch  of  Russian  thistle,  showing  appearance  before  flowering  and  be- 
fore the  spiny  branchlets  have  elongated;  a,  spines  enlarged;  6,  young 
grain  with  the  covering  removed,  enlarged  about  seven  times;  c, 
blossom  removed  from  the  axil  and  viewed  from  below,  enlarged 
about  four  times;  d , section  of  fruiting  calyx,  side  view;  e,  same, 
seen  from  above.  (Cut  from  U.  S.  Dep’t  of  Agriculture.) 


Noxious  Weeds  of  Wisconsin. 


37 


Corn,  potatoes,  beets,  or  any  cultivated  crop,  well  taken  care  of,  will 
in  two  years  rid  the  land  of  not  only  Russian  thistles,  but  nearly  all 
other  weeds. 

Sheep  are  very  fond  of  the  Russian  thistle  until  it  becomes  too  coarse 
and  woody.  By  pasturing  sheep  on  the  young  plants  they  may  be 
kept  down  and  the  only  valuable  quality  the  plant  has  may  be  utilized. 

In  the  fields  where  the  weeds  are  thick,  drag  with  an  iron  harrow, 
hitching  the  team  on  by  a long  chain.  As  soon  as  the  harrow  is  full 
of  weeds  set  fire  to  them  and  keep  dragging  and  burning.  This  scheme, 
although  apparently  somewhat  chimerical,  has  actually  been  tried  with 
success. 

If  the  Russian  thistle  is  to  be  kept  out  of  the  cultivated  fields  it  must 
be  exterminated  along  roadsides,  railroad  grades,  fire  breaks,  waste 
land  where  the  sod  has  been  broken,  and,  in  fact,  in  all  accidental  places 
where  it  may  have  obtained  a foothold. 

The  ordinary  road  machines  may  be  used  to  advantage  along  the 
roadsides,  the  scraper  being  set  so  as  to  take  as  thin  a layer  of  earth  as 
possible  and  throw  weeds  and  all  in  the  middle  of  the  track.  A single 
trip  each  way  with  the  road  machine  would  be  sufficient  in  nearly  all 
places  to  take  the  weeds  between  the  beaten  track  and  the  prairie  grass, 
so  that  15  to  20  miles  a day  could  be  easily  cleaned.  If  this  work  be 
done  in  August,  before  the  Russian  thistles  become  too  large  and  stiff, 
the  work  of  the  road  scraper  will  be  sufficient.  Going  over  with  a 
heavy  roller,  however,  would  not  only  improve  the  road,  but  would 
crush  the  weeds  so  that  no  occasional  mature  plant  would  be  blown 
away.  If  the  work  is  put  off  until  September  the  weeds  should  be 
raked  together  and  burned. 

On  fire  breaks,  railroad  grades,  and  odd  places,  these  and  other 
noxious  weeds  may  be  killed  by  a judicious  use  of  the  mowing  machine, 
scythe,  hoe,  rake  and  fire. 

Special  Recommendations. 

Place  a Russian  thistle  in  each  school  house,  so  that  the  pupils  may 
become  familiar  with  it,  and  teach  them  to  kill  it  wherever  they  find  it. 

Permit  no  Russian  thistle  to  go  to  seed.  The  plant  is  an  annual;  the 
seeds  are  evidently  short-lived;  hence  if  no  plants  are  permitted  to 
go  to  seed  for  two  years,  the  weed  will  in  all  probability  be  extermi- 
nated. 

Let  each  farmer  first  keep  down  all  the  weeds  on  his  own  farm  and 
then  insist  that  his  neighbors  do  likewise. 

Be  careful  that  all  seed  sown  be  as  pure  and  clean  as  the  modern 
fanning-mill  can  make  it.  Use  especial  care  in  regard  to  flaxseed  and 
millet,  or  any  of  the  smaller  and  lighter  seeds. 

Fig.  26,  A shows  a top  view  of  a matured  seed;  B,  a dried  flower  as 


38 


Bulletin  No.  76. 


viewed  edgewise;  C shows  A and  B natural  size;  D and  E show  the 
embryo  (interior  of  A)  enlarged — D the  lower  and  E the  upper  side. 
(After  Hillman.) 


Fig.  26. — Seeds  and  dried  flower  of  Russian  thistle,  enlarged  and  natural  size. 

(After  Hillman.) 


Noxious  Weeds  not  Mentioned  in  the  Weed  Law. 


The  foregoing  includes  all  of  the  weeds  mentioned  in  our  state  weed 
law.  There  are,  however,  several  plants  that  are  becoming  sufficiently 
troublesome  in  different  parts  of  the  state  to  render  concerted  efforts 
for  their  destruction  extremely  desirable.  The  weed  law  attempts  to 
give  protection  only  by  preventing  seedage.  But  many  of  our  most  seri- 
ous weeds  multiply  far  more  from  roots  or  underground  stems  than 
from  seeds.  While  the  weed  commissioners  have  no  power  to  enforce 
the  destruction  of  the  weeds  mentioned  hereafter,  it  seems  desirable 
to  call  attention  to  them  here,  and  to  earnestly  recommend  that  the 
same  care  be  taken  to  prevent  the  dissemination  of  their  seeds  as  is 
required  for  those  enumerated  in  the  law. 


Quack  Grass,  Agropyrum  repens,  Beauvois. 


Other  names:  Couch  grass,  Quitch  grass,  Quick  grass,  Wheat  grass,  Dog 
grass,  Tommy  grass,  Triticum  repens. 

Not  because  it  is  new  in  Wisconsin,  but  because  its  destruction  de- 
mands eternal  vigilance,  we  begin  our  second  division  with  this  well 
known  intruder.  Quack  grass  has  some  excellent  qualities  as  a fodder 
plant,  and  is  said  to  surpass  timothy  in  nutritive  value,  but  its  disposi- 
tion to  monopolize  and  retain  possession  of  the  soil  render  it  a most 
malignant  enemy  to  rotative  cropping.  The  peculiarity  that  renders 
quack  grass  so  difficult  to  destroy  is  its  method  of  propagation.  It  puts 
out  vigorous  underground  stems,  which  root  and  send  up  new  stems  at 
their  joints.  These  underground  stems  often  display  their  aggressive 
power  by  growing  through  potatoes  or  bits  of  wood  that  chance  to  lie  in 
their  path.  By  interveaving,  they  form  a stiff  sod  that  often  severely 


Noxious  Weeds  of  Wisconsin. 


39 


40 


Bulletin  No.  76. 


tries  the  muscles  of  the  plowman’s  team.  Usually  branches  do  not  come 
from  every  joint,  but  if  the  stems  are  broken  or  cut  in  pieces,  as  with  a 
plow,  hoe  or  harrow,  each  piece  sends  |up  a stem  and  leaves  from  any 
joint  it  may  have,  and  becomes  a distinct  plant.  A large  amount  or 
nourishment  is  stored  up  in  the  form  of  starch,  which  makes  the  under- 
ground stems  very  nutritive  and  furnishes  food  for  growth.  The  new 
plants  formed  by  cutting  up  the  old  ones  grow  with  great  vigor,  and  so 
form  many  weeds  in  the  place  of  one.  The  subterranean  portions  are 
eaten  by  stock  when  accessible  to  them.  Horses  and  cows  are  fond  of 
them;  hogs  root  industriously  for  them  and  give  efficient  help  in  their 
extermination. 


Fig.  28.— Young  plant  of  quack  grass  showing  manner  of  growth  of  underground, 

stems — A.  A. 


The  excellent  illustration  of  quack  grass  shown  at  Fig.  27  renders 
further  description  unnecessary.  Fig.  28  shows  the  manner  of  growth 
of  the  underground  stems  at  AA. 

How  best  destroyed. — The  summer  fallow  is  probably  the  most  satis- 
factory method  of  destroying  quack  grass  on  any  large  scale.  Turn  the 
sod  under  in  spring  and  plow  again  as  often  as  any  amount  of  grass 
appears  above  ground,  until  September,  when  rye  or  wheat  may  be 


Noxious  Weeds  of  Wisconsin. 


41 


sown  if  desired.  It  is  best  to  remove  fences  and  other  obstructions  to- 
the  plow,  that  make  a harboring  place  for  the  tenacious  underground 
stems. 

Small  patches  may  be  destroyed  by  covering  the  ground  deeply  with 
straw  or  other  litter,  or  by  devoting  the  ground  to  some  crop  that  re- 
quires clean  culture,  as  cabbage,  cauliflower  or  celery,  provided  the 
required  clean  culture  is  faithfully  given.  Patches  of  quack  grass 
should  never  be  cross  plowed  or  cross  cultivated  in  tilling  the  field  that 
contains  them,  as  this  is  one  of  the  most  effective  means  of  spreading 
the  underground  stems  to  new  locations. 


Fig.  29.— Wild  carrot  plant.  (Dewey,  Farmers’  Bull.  28,  Div.  of  Bot.,  U.  S.  Dep’t 

of  Agriculture.) 

The  Wild  Carrot,  Daucus  carota,  Linnaeus. 

The  wild  carrot  is  one  of  the  most  aggressive  weeds  in  the  eastern 
states,  and  is  rapidly  spreading  westward.  How  far  it  has  become 
disseminated  in  Wisconsin,  I do  not  know,  but  it  is  certainly  present  in 
our  state,  and  farmers  should  be  informed  as  to  its  pernicious  tenclen- 


42 


Bulletin  No.  76. 


cies.  It  thrives  in  nearly  all  soils  and  is  disseminated  rapidly  by  its 
numerous  seeds. 

Description. — This  is  the  garden  carrot  run  wild,  and  hence  it  needs 
little  description.  The  leaves  are,  however,  much  smaller  and  fewer 
in  number  than  in  the  cultivated  carrot  and  the  root  is  small  and 
branching.  Fig.  29  shows  the  wild  carrot  plant  with  the  seed  magni- 
fied at  c,  and  natural  size  at  d.  See  also  Fig.  30.  The  wild  carrot  is 
commonly  biennial,  though  it  sometimes  matures  its  seed  the  first  sea- 
son. It  flowers  from  June  to  September,  and  the  seeds  enclosed  in  their 
hard,  spiny  coat  are  readily  attached  to  the  coats  of  animals  and  are 
often  widely  scattered  in  this  way,  or  they  often  remain  on  the  plant 
until  winter  and  are  then  blown  about  on  the  surface  of  the  snow. 


A 


Fig.  30.— Seeds  (carpels)  of  wild  carrot,  enlarged  and  natural  size.  (After  Hill- 
man.) 

How  best  destroyed. — Mowing  the  plants  as  often  as  the  flower-stalk 
appears  will  eventually  destroy  them,  and  will  also  prevent  their  seed- 
ing. The  first  mowing  often  seems  to  increase  the  number  of  plants, 
but  as  the  root  is  biennial  it  cannot  long  survive.  If  cut  off  with  the 
spud  some  distance  below  the  surface  of  the  ground  the  plant  usually 
dies  at  once.  Pulling  the  plants  by  hand,  while  the  ground  is  wet,  is 
one  of  the  surest  methods  of  destruction.  Sheep  aid  in  keeping  them 
in  subjection.  The  plant  cannot  endure  thorough  cultivation  and 
hence  is  rarely  troublesome  in  well  tilled  land. 


Chicory,  Cichorium  intybus,  Linnaeus. 

The  chicory  is  a native  of  Europe,  but  has  become  naturalized  in 
this  country  and  is  classed  as  a weed  in  some  sections  of  our  state.  It 
is  extensively  cultivated  in  certain  parts  of  Europe,  and  to  a less  ex- 
tent in  our  country,  and  the  various  parts  of  the  plant  serve  a variety 
of  economic  uses. 

Description. — The  chicory  belongs  to  the  same  botanical  family  as  the 
hawkweeds,  the  wild  and  cultivated  lettuces  and  the  dandelion.  It  is  a 
perennial  plant  and  resembles  the  dandelion  in  having  its  lower  leaves 
deeply  cut,  with  pointed  lobes,  and  in  its  bitter,  milky  juice.  The 


Noxious  Weeds  of  Wisconsin . 


43 


stem  grows  from  1 to  6 feet  tall  and  bears  brilliant,  blue  (sometimes 
pink  or.  almost  white)  flowers,  which  are  crowded  together  in  little 
groups  of  2,  3 or  more,  and  which  stud  the  straggling,  nearly  leafless 
branches  to  wnich  they  are  attached  by  very  short  stalks.  The  leaves 
of  the  upper  stem  and  branches  are  less  cut  and  much  smaller  than 
those  lower  down.  The  flowers  are  open  chiefly  in  the  early  morning, 


SFIig.  Sl.-^Plant  of  chicory,  about  one-tenth  natural  size.  (Kains,  Bull.  19,  Div. 
of  Bot.,  U.  S.  Dep’t  of  Agr.) 

abut  in  cloudy  weather  they  may  continue  open  for  several  hours.  As 
in  all  plants  of  this  family,  what  we  commonly  call  the  flowers  are 
Teally  a combination  of  many  small  flowers  (florets)  upon  a common 
Teceptacle.  Each  floret  bears  one  of  the  showy  petal-like  parts,  which 
in  flowera  of  this  class  are  called  rays.  Fig.  31  shows  a chicory  plant 


44 


Bulletin  No.  76'. 


about  one-tenth  natural  size.  Fig.  32  shows  chicory  flowers  and  seed. 
A shows  heads  of  flowers,  front  view,  with  buds  on  twig;  b,  head  of 
flowers,  side  view;  c,  single  flower;  d,  seed  (akene) ; e,  section  of  same. 

The  long,  spindle-shaped  tap-root,  with  its  single  or  double  head,  is 
of  a whitish-yellow  or  grayish-yellow  color,  and  but  for  its  white  juice 
might  easily  be  mistaken  for  the  root  of  a parsnip. 


Fig.  32.— Chicory  flowers  and  seed;  a,  heads  of  flowers,  front  view;  b,  head  of 
flowers,  side  view;  c,  single  flower;  d,  seed  (akene);  e,  section  of 
same.  (Kains,  Bull.  No.  19,  Div.  of  Bot.,  U.  S.  Dep’t  of  Agr.) 

How  best  destroyed. — The  chicory  plant  is  not  likely  to  become  a 
serious  pest  except  in  grass  land  that  cannot  conveniently  be  broken 
up.  It  does  not  endure  much  cultivation,  but  makes  its  way  success- 
fully in  sod  grounds  where  it  is  difficult  to  eradicate.  The  roots  put 
out  adventitious  buds  to  the  depth  of  two  or  three  inches  and  cutting 
off  the  crown  at  a less  depth  than  this  serves  to  multiply  the  plant 
rather  than  to  exterminate  it.  In  permanent  grass  land,  the  young 
plants  may  be  pulled  by  hand,  or  the  older  roots  may  be  cut  off  three 
or  four  inches  below  the  surface  with  the  weeding  spud. 


Noxious  Weeds  of  Wisconsin. 


45 


B A 

Fig.  32A.— Seeds  (akenes)  of  chicory,  enlarged  and  natural  size.  (After  Hillman.) 


Bindweed,  Convolvulus  arvensis,  Linnseus. 

Other  names:  Field  bindweed,  Morning  glory  (incorrectly). 

Description. — This  is  a twining  or  creeping  plant  with  a perennial 
root  and  an  annual  stem.  The  leaves  are  oblong,  arrow-shaped,  with 
pointed  lobes  at  the  base. 

The  white  or  reddish-tinted,  funnel-shaped  flowers  are  about  an  inch 
long  and  open  mostly  in  the  morning,  like  those  of  the  morning  glory 
(Ipomoea) , with  which  this  plant  is  often  confused.  They  are  borne 
one  in  a place,  the  flower  stem  growing  out  at  the  axil  of  a leaf.  The 
plant  is  a rapid  grower,  and  propagates  chiefly  by  means  of  its  fleshy 
underground  stems  like  the  Canada  thistle.  The  wonderful  adaptabil- 
ity of  this  plant  to  multiply  independently  of  its  seeds  appears  from 
the  accompanying  illustration  (Fig.  33).  This  clearly  shows  that  the 
underground  stems  put  forth  vigorous  buds  from  w'hich  shoots  grow 
upward  to  the  surface,  and  that  some  of  the  main  underground  stems 
extend  horizontally  several  inches  below  the  plow  line,  which  easily 
explains  the  failure  of  the  plow  to  subdue  this  plant. 

How  oest  destroyed. — This  is  a most  troublesome  weed  where  it  be- 
comes established.  It  does  not  spread  rapidly  when  left  to  itself,  but 
it  is  extremely  difficult  to  destroy,  and  small  patches  of  it  in  cultivated 
ground  are  liable  to  be  extensively  scattered  by  the  cultivating  tools. 
Perhaps  the  best  treatment  for  small  patches  is  to  cover  the  infested 
ground  a foot  or  more  deep  with  straw,  marsh  hay  or  other  litter,  leav- 
ing the  same  on  until  it  decays.  Pasturing  the  ground  largely  keeps 
the  plant  from  spreading,  but  rarely  kills  it.  Where  it  is  established 
in  ground  that  must  be  .cultivated,  nothing  but  the  most  thorough  til- 
lage will  suffice  to  keep  it  in  bounds  or  destroy  it. 

A law-suit  recently  occurred  in  Columbia  county,  Wis.,  in  which  the 
plaintiff  recovered  heavy  damages  because  a farm  which  he  had  pur- 
chased under  the  claim  that  it  was  free  from  noxious  weeds  was  found 
badly  infested  with  this  plant. 


Bulletin  No.  76. 


40 


Another  species  of  bindweed,  Convolvulus  cepium  (Hedge  bindweed), 
has  more  extensively  twining  stfems,  and  larger  flowers,  of  which  the 
calyx  is  enclosed  in  two  rather  conspicuous  leafy  bracts.  This  species 
is  also  troublesome,  especially  by  twining  about  the  stalks  of  corn  and 
other  crops.  It  is  more  commonly  found  on  rather  low  ground,  and 
while  perhaps  less  tenacious  than  the  preceding,  is  quite  difficult  to 
subdue  where  it  has  gained  a foothold. 


Fig.  33.— Plant  of  bindweed  showing  underground  stems  at  AA.  One  seventh 

natural  size. 


Horse  Nettle,  Solanum  carolinense,  Linnaeus. 

This  plant  is  native  to  the  southeastern  states,  but  has  found  its  way 
to  most  of  the  states  east  of  the  Missouri  river,  though  it  does  not 
spread  very  rapidly.  Samples  of  it  have  several  times  been  sent  to  our 
Station  for  name,  which  shows  it  to  be  present  in  our  state.  Where 
it  has  once  obtained  a foothold,  it  is  one  of  the  most  difficult  weeds  to 
get  rid  of.  The  plant  is  botanically  related  to  the  potato,  and  its  flowers 
resemble  those  of  the  potato  in  their  form  and  colors.  They  are  fol- 
lowed by  small,  yellow  fruits  which  are  also  suggestive  of  potato  fruits. 
The  plant  is  not  eaten  by  any  kind  of  farm  stock.  It  is  6 to  20  inches 
high,  loosely  branched  and  rough,  with  short,  stiff  hairs  which  appear 
star-shaped  under  the  lens,  and  it  is  armed  with  conspicuous  yellow 
prickles.  The  obiong  leaves  are  irregularly  lobed  and  suggest  those  of 


Noxious  Weeds  of  Wisconsin , 


47 


Fig.  34—  Branch  of  horse  nettle  showing  leaf,  flower  and  fruit.  (After  Pammel.) 


48 


Bulletin  No.  76. 


the  white  oak.  The  plant  is  reproduced  from  seeds  and  also  by  slen- 
der perennial  rootstocks.  Fig.  34  shows  a branch  of  the  horse  nettle, 
with  its  flowers  and  fruit. 

How  best  destroyed. — Ordinary  cultivation  has  little  effect  in  de- 
stroying this  plant  and  often  tends  to  spread  rather  than  to  subdue  it. 
It  is  more  or  less  troublesome  in  nearly  all  crops  and  soils,  but  is  worse 
on  loose  or  sandy  lands  that  are  easily  penetrated  by  its  long  root- 
stocks. 

Seed  production  is  easily  prevented  by  mowing  the  plants  early.  But 
the  rootstocks,  from  which  the  multiplication  mostly  proceeds,  are  far 
more  difficult  to  subdue.  The  methods  already  recommended  for  the 
Canada  thistle  are  applicable  here.  Oats,  barley  or  millet  sown  thickly 
on  well-tilled  soil  will  weaken  the  rootstocks,  preventing  much  growth 
•above  ground.  Immediately  after  these  crops  are  harvested,  the  land 
may  be  plowed  and  then  harrowed  frequently  until  time  for  sowing 
winter  wheat  or  rye.  This  will  induce  the  germination  of  weed  seeds 
and  expose  some  rootstocks  of  the  horse  nettle  to  be  killed  by  the  sun. 
The  rye  may  be  plowed  under  in  spring  as  a green  manure  and  fol- 
lowed with  a hoed  crop,  which,  if  well  cultivated,  will  clear  out  most 
of  the  remaining  weeds.  The  plowshare  used  in  these  operations  should 
be  kept  sharp,  so  as  to  cut  a clean  furrow,  otherwise  the  rootstocks  are 
likely  to  be  dragged  out  and  scattered  about  the  field. 


Buffalo  Bur,  Solarium,  rostratum,  Dunal. 

This  plant  resembles  in  several  respects  the  horse  nettle,  but  it  is 
•annual,  and  hence  rather  less  to  be  feared  as  a weed.  It  is  native  of 
the  western  plains  but  has  found  its  way  eastward  across  the  Missis- 
sippi and  has  been  several  times  sent  in  to  our  Station  from  our  own 
state. 

The  spines  of  the  buffalo  bur  are  stouter  and  more  numerous  than 
those  of  the  horse  nettle  and  its  flowers  are  yellow.  Instead  of  the 
yellow  berries  of  the  horse  nettle  we  have  here  spiny  burs,  somewhat 
resembling  those  of  the  burdock  at  first,  but  developing  at  maturity 
into  nearly  spherical,  prickly  balls,  filled  with  black,  irregular  seeds. 
Fig.  35  shows  the  plant  in  bloom;  b is  a flower,  natural  size;  c is  the 
seed  magnified,  and  d the  same,  natural  size.  These  burs  are  readily 
scattered  by  passing  animals.  The  plant  has  a lighter,  more  bushy 
form  than  the  horse  nettle,  and  is  often  blown  about  as  a tumbleweed 
in  the  prairie  region. 

The  buffalo  bur  is  easily  held  in  check  by  preventing  seedage.  The 
seeds  are  not  produced  very  freely  and  ripen  after  the  hurry  of  the 
harvest  season  is  over. 


Noxious  Weeds  of  Wisconsin. 


49 


Fig.  35.— Plant  of  buffalo  bur,  reduced.  (Dewey,  Farmers’  Bull.  28,  Div.  of  Bot., 

U.  S.  Dep’t  of  Agr.) 


Prickly  Lettuce,  Lactuca  Scariola,  Linnaeus. 

Other  names:  Wild  lettuce.  Milk  thistle,  English  thistle,  Compass  plant. 

This  plant  is  intruding  itself  into  waste  grounds  all  over  Southern 
Wisconsin,  and  it  is  sometimes  troublesome  in  meadows  and  perma- 
nent pastures.  It  is  an  annual,  and  multiplies  only  by  seed,  but  it 

seeds  very  freely  and  the  young  plants  are  so  robust  that  it  spreads 
very  rapidly  where  permitted  to  do  so.  It  has  often  been  mistaken  for 
the  sow  thistle  and  sometimes  for  the  Russian  thistle. 

The  prickly  lettuce  is  closely  related  to  the  common  garden  lettuce, 
which  it  resembles  in  the  seed  bearing  stage.  (Fig.  36a.)  The  stem 
is  smooth  with  the  exception  of  a few  scattered  prickles,  grows  2 to  5 

is  smooth  with  the  exception  of  a few  scattered  prickles,  grows  2 to  5 

feet  high,  bearing  a few  lateral  branches  and  a large  open  panicle  of 


Bulletin  No.  7 ti. 


50 

few  are  commonly  open  at  a time.  The  plant  begins  to  bloom  in  July 
and  produces  a few  blossoms  each  morning  thereafter  until  killed  by 
frost.  As  the  seeds  mature,  the  fine  white  hairs  attached  to  them 
spread  out,  forming  a white,  gauzy  ball  of  down  like  that  of  the  dande- 
lion, but  smaller  and  less  dense.  An  average  plant  has  been  estimated 
to  bear  more  tnan  8,000  seeds.  Fig.  36  shows  a plant  of  the  prickly 
lettuce,  and  Fig.  37  shows  the  same,  with  a leaf  drawn  separately  at  b„ 
and  a seed  (akene)  magnified  at  c. 


Fig.  36.— Plant  of  prickly  lettuce. 

How  lest  destroyed. — Repeatedly  mowing  the  plants  as  they  come' 
into  bloom,  or  earlier,  will  eventually  subdue  them.  Thorough  culti- 
vation with  a hoed  crop,  by  means  of  which  the  seed  in  the  soil  may  be ; 


Noxious  Weeds  of  Wisconsin. 


51 


induced  to  germinate,  will  be  found  most  effective.  The  first  plowing 
should  be  shallow,  so  as  not  to  bury  the  seeds  too  deep.  Under  no  cir- 
cumstances should  the  mature  seed-bearing  plants  be  plowed  under,  as 
that  would  infest  the  soil  with  seeds  buried  at  different  depths  to  be 
brought  under  conditions  favorable  for  germination  at  intervals  for 
several  years.  Mature  plants  should  be  mowed  and  burned  before 
plowing.  The  seed  appears  as  an  impurity  in  clover-,  millet-,  and  the 
heavier  grass  seeds,  and  the  plant  is  doubtless  most  frequently  intro- 
duced by  this  means.  As  the  seed  may  be  carried  a long  distance  by 
the  wind,  the  plants  must  be  cleared  out  of  fence  rows,  waste  land  and 
roadsides. 


Fig.  37.— Plant  of  prickly  lettuce.  (Dewey,  Farmers’  Bull.  28,  Div.  of  Bot.,  U.  S. 

Dep’t  of  Agr.) 

Sheep  and  sometimes  cattle  will  eat  the  young  prickly  lettuce  and  in 
some  localities  their  services  have  been  found  very  effective  m keeping 
it  down,  especially  in  recently  cleared  land  where  thorough  cultivation 
is  impossible. 


52 


Bullet  in  No.  76. 


Long-Leaved  Plantain,  Plantago  lanceolata,  Linnaeus. 

Other  names:  Rib  grass,  Ripple  grass,  English  plantain,  Buckhorn 
plantain,  Lanceolate  plantago. 

This  plant  bears  considerable  resemblance  to  the  common  plaintain, 
from  which  it  differs  in  its  much  longer  and  narrower,  slightly  hairy 
leaves,  and  shorter  and  thicker  seed  spikes.  It  is  perennial  and  is  in- 


clined to  be  particularly  abundant  in  upland  meadows,  clover  fields 
and  poorly  kept  lawns.  It  is  especially  objectionable  in  red-clover 
fields  intended  to  be  cut  for  seed,  since  the  seeds  mature  with  those  of 
the  clover  and  are  of  so  nearly  the  same  size  and  specific  gravity  with 


them  that  the  two  cannot  be  readily  separated,  hence  the  market  value 
of  the  red-clover  seed  is  greatly  diminished.  Fig.  38  shows  a vigorous 
plant  of  the  long-leaved  plantain,  and  Fig.  39  shows  seeds  of  the  same, 
enlarged  at  a,  showing  both  sides;  natural  size  at  b,  and  in  cross  sec- 
tion at  c. 


Noxious  Weeds  of  Wisconsin. 


53 


How  best  destroyed. — The  plants  can  doubtless  be  destroyed  by  cut- 
ting the  root  off  several  inches  below  the  surface  of  the  ground  and 
pulling  out  the  part  cut  off.  They  cannot  endure  good  cultivation  and 
on  rich  soils  they  can  probably  be  smothered  out  by  a close  June  grass 
sod. 

Note. — The  cuts  for  the  illustrations  marked  “After  Hillman”  are 
from  Bulletin  No.  38  of  the  Nevada  Experiment  Station,  and  are  from 
original  drawings  from  Prof.  F.  H.  Hillman,  botanist. 

Farmers’  Bulletin  No.  28,  by  L.  H.  Dewey,  has  been  freely  used  in 
preparing  the  text  for  a part  of  this  bulletin. 


INDEX  OF  WEEDS. 

PAGE. 

Canada  Thistle 7 

Burdock  12 

White  or  Ox-Ej'-e  Daisy  15 

Snap  Dragon  or  Toadflax 16 

Cocklebur  or  Clotbur  18 

Sow  Thistle  20 

Sour  Dock  24 

Wild  Mustard 27 

Wild  Parsnip 30 

Russian  Thistle  32 

Quack  Grass 38 

Wild  Carrot  41 

Chicory  42 

Bindweed  or  Morning  Glory 45 

Horse  Nettle  46 

Buffalo  Bur  48 

Prickly  Lettuce  49 


Wla.  Bull.  No.  77. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN. 


Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


BULLETIN  NO.  77. 


EFFECTS  OF  THE  FEBRUARY  FREEZE  OF  1899  UPON 
NURSERIES  AND  FRUIT  PLANTATIONS  IN  THE 
NORTHWEST. 


MADISON , WISCONSIN,  AUGUST,  18 99. 


0T‘TA«  Bulletins  and  Annual  Reports  of  this  Station  are  sent  free  to  all 
residents  of  this  State  upon  request. 


Democrat  Printing  Company,  State  Printer,  Madison  Wis. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN 


AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 


BOARD  OF  REGENTS; 

STATE  SUPERINTENDENT  of  PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION,  EX-OFFICIO. 
PRESIDENT  of  the  UNIVERSITY,  ex-officio. 

State-at-large,  JOHN  JOHNSTON,  Milwaukee. 

State-at-large,  WILLIAM  F.  VILAS,  Madison. 

First  District,  OGDEN  H.  FETHERS,  Janesville. 

Second  District,  B.  J.  STEVENS,  Madison. 

Third  District,  JOHN  E.  MORGAN,  Spring  Green. 

Fourth  District,  GEORGE  H.  NOYES,  Milwaukee. 

Fifth  District,  JOHN  R.  RIESS,  Sheboygan. 

Sixth  District,  C.  A.  GALLOWAY,  Fond  du  Lac. 

Seventh  District,  BYRON  A.  BUFFINGTON,  Eau  Claire. 

Eighth  District,  ORLANDO  E.  CLARK,  Appleton. 

Ninth  District,  J.  A.  VAN  CLEVE,  Marinette. 

Tenth  District,  J.  H.  STOUT,  Menomonie. 

Officers  of  the  Board  of  Regents.  ' 

JOHN  JOHNSTON,  President.  I STATE  TREASURER,  Ex-Officio  Treasure*. 
GEORGE  H.  NOYES,  Vice-President.  | E.  F.  RILEY,  Madison,  Secretary. 


Agricultural  Committee. 

Regents  CLARK,  STOUT,  FETHERS,  RIESS,  MORGAN  and  PRESIDENT  ADAMS. 


OFFICERS  OF  THE  STATION* 

THE  PRESIDENT  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY. 

W.  A.  HENRY,  ----------  Director 

S M.  BABCOCK,  ---------  Chief  Chemist 

F.  H.  KING,  - - ...  ....  Physicist 


E.  S.  GOFF,  - 
W.  L.  CARLYLE, 

F.  W.  WOLL, 

H.  L.  RUSSELL, 

E.  H.  FARRINGTON. 
J.  A.  JEFFERY,  - 
J.  W.  DECKER, 
ALFRED  VIVIAN, 
FRED  CRANEFIELD 
LESLIE  H.  ADAMS, 
IDA  HERFURTH, 
EFFIE  M.  CLOSE, 


► - - Horticulturist 

- - Animal  Husbandry 

Chemist 
Bacteriologist 
Dairy  Husbandry 
Assistant  Physicist 
- Dairying 
- Assistant  Chemist 
- Assistant  in  Horticulture 
Farm  Superintendent 

- Clerk  and  Stenographer 

Librarian 


FARMERS'  INSTITUTES. 

GEORGE  McKERROW,  --------  Superintendent 

HATTIE  V.  STOUT,  ......  Clerk  and  Stenographer 

General  Offices  and  Departments  of  Agricultural  Chemistry,  Animal  Hus- 
bandry, Bacteriology,  Farmers’  Institutes  and  Library,  in  Agricultural  Hall, 
near  University  Hall,  on  Upper  Campus. 

Dairy  Building  and  joint  Horticulture-Physics  Building,  west  end  of  Obser- 
vatory Hill,  adjacent  to  Horticultural  Grounds  and  Experiment  Farm. 
Telephone  to  Station  Office,  Dairy  Building  and  Farm  Office. 


EFFECTS  OF  THE  FEBRUARY  FREEZE  OF  1899  UPON 
NURSERIES  AND  FRUIT  PLANTATIONS  IN 
THE  NORTHWEST. 


E.  S.  GOFF. 


The  early  days  of  February,  1899,  will  be  memorable  in  the  part  or 
the’  United  States  lying  east  of  the  Rocky  mountains  from  the  severe 
and  protracted  cold  wave  that  swept  over  our  country  from  north  to 
south. 

At  the  time  of  this  cold  wave  a large  part  of  the  section  commonly 
known  as  “the  northwest”  was  without  the  usual  winter  snow  cover- 
ing, in  consequence  of  which  the  ground  froze  to  a depth  never  before 
experienced  in  many  localities.  The  effects  of  the  severe  cold  upon 
fruit  trees  in  this  snowless  section  were  less  apparent  than  might  have 
been  expected  up  to  the  time  when  the  frost  left  the  ground  in  April. 
But  when  nurserymen  commenced  their  spring  operations,  many  liv- 
ing in  the  section  that  was  without  snow  during  February  were  sorely 
disappointed  to  discover  that  the  roots  of  their  trees  had  been  dam- 
aged to  a degree  nearly  or  quite  unprecedented.  In  some  nurseries 
and  young  orchards  scarcely  a fruit  tree  could  be  found  that  had  living 
roots,  and  hundreds  of  acres  of  land  that  a year  ago  were  covered  with 
promising  nursery  stock  have  been  cleared  off  and  planted  with  other 
crops. 

Of  course  the  effects  of  the  cold  were  not  limited  to  nurseries  or 
young  orchards.  Individual  trees  of  almost  all  species,  and  of  nearly 
all  ages  have  perished,  and  some  bearing  orchards  have  been  severely 
damaged.  The  effects  of  the  cold  upon  different  trees  have  been  vari- 
ous and  interesting.  In  many  cases  the  damage  seemed  confined  to 
the  roots.  Such  trees  opened  their  buds  and  often  bloomed  nearly  in 
the  normal  manner.  But  with  the  first  drying  weather  the  leaves 
drooped  and  began  to  shrivel,  and  soon  only  a few  leaves  at  the  top 
of  the  branches  remained  intact,  and  these  too  were  starved  in  due 
time.  Fig.  1 shows  such  an  apple  tree  as  it  appeared  the  first  week  in 
July  in  our  Station  orchard.  In  other  . cases  the  buds  were  evidently 
injured  by  the  cold,  while  the  roots  had  suffered  to  a less  degree.  Such 
trees  appeared  dead,  while  others  of  the  same  species  were  putting 


4 


Bulletin  No.  77. 


forth  leaves,  but  one  to  three  weeks  later  their  buds  opened,  and  at  pres- 
ent (July  15)  many  such  trees  seem  to  have  nearly  recovered  their 
vigor,  though  some  were  so  late  in  starting  that  their  leaves  have 
scarcely  yet  attained  their  normal  size.  Still  other  trees  seem  to  have 
been  injured  in  both  roots  and  buds,  as  was  indicated  by  a very  tardy 
opening  of  the  buds,  and  the  failure  to  open  of  many  of  the  buds  in  all 
parts  of  the  tree.  Such  a tree  appears  in  Fig.  2.  From  observations 
made  in  our  Station  orchard,  it  seems  probable  that  the  period  of  sum- 
mer growth  in  fruit  trees  has  been  considerably  shorter  than  usual 
this  season,  owing  to  the  enfeebled  condition  of  the  roots. 


i wM 


Fig.  1.  Root-killed  apple  tree  in  orchard  of  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station. 
This  tree  had  been  planted  five  years.  Note  the  leaves  still  alive  at  the  top  of 
the  shoots,  showing  that  the  terminal  buds  were  uninjured.  Photograph  taken 
early  in  July. 


Effects  of  the  February  Freeze  of  1809. 


5 


In  order  to  gather  as  much  information  as  possible  regarding  the  ef- 
fects of  the  past  winter  upon  fruit  trees  and  nursery  stock  in  various 
parts  of  the  northwest,  a circular  letter  asking  a number  of  questions 
was  mailed  to  a large  number  of  fruit  growers  and  nurserymen  in  Wis- 
consin, Minnesota,  Iowa,  the  Dakotas  and  Manitoba.  This  circular  let- 
ter elicited  something  over  a hundred  replies,  from  which  the  facts 
given  in  the  following  pages  were  collated.  It  is  of  course  remembered 
that  data  of  temperature  contributed  by  non-professional  observers,’ 
and  taken  from  thermometers  of  varying  reliability,  or  sometimes  from 
hearsay  cannot  be  regarded  as  strictly  accurate,  but  the  inaccuracies 
will  not,  on  the  average,  be  sufficient  to  destroy  their  value  for  the  pres- 
ent purpose. 


Fig.  2.  Soft  maple  tree  facer  dasycarpum ) of  which  the  buds  (and  perhaps  the 
roots  also)  were  injured  by  the  winter.  This  tree  was  very  late  in  putting 
out  leaves.  Photograph  taken  about  Aug.  1st. 


The  effects  of  extreme  temperatures  upon  fruit  trees  and  plants. 
The  lowest  temperature  reported  by  any  correspondent  was  -52°.  Un- 
fortunately, the  writer  of  this  report  forgot  to  sign  his  name,  but  it  is 


6 


Bulletin  No.  77. 


supposed  to  have  come  from  Mr.  Patmore,  a nurseryman  of  Brandon, 
Manitoba.  The  ground  in  the  vicinity  where  the  letter  was  written 
was  well  protected  by  snow  (though  the  snow  was  less  than  usual), 
and  the  damage  to  the  fruit  grown  there,  in  consideration  of  the  ex- 
treme cold,  was  remarkably  slight,  ifuchess  apple  and  Pride  of  Min- 
neapolis, Martha,  Transcendent  and  Siberian  crabs  escaped  with  very 
little  injury;  also  Aitkin  and  several  other  improved  native  plums. 
Forest  Garden,  De  Soto  and  Wyant  plums  opened  their  usual  number 
of  blossoms. 

The  author  of  the  letter  writes  regarding  the  reason  for  the  little 
damage  to  trees  and  shrubs,  “I  am  of  the  opinion  that  the  reason  stock 
wintered  so  well  this  year,  with  the  lowest  temperature  and  least  snow 
for  many  years,  is  owing  to  the  heavy  rainfall  of  last  fall  which  enabled 
trees  and  plants  to  enter  the  winter  well  nourished.” 

Minus  fifty  degrees  was  reported  by  Mr.  John  Coldwell  of  Yirden, 
Manitoba.  The  ground  in  this  section  was  protected  by  six  inches  of 
snow.  Transcendent  crab  was  unhurt;  Duchess  apple  had  last  year’s 
growth  killed  back  three-fourths.  Flower-buds  of  native  plums  were 
uninjured. 

Minus  fifty  degrees  was  also  reported  by  Mr.  A.  P.  Stevenson  of  Nel- 
son, Manitoba.  The  soil  in  that  vicinity  is  clay  loam,  nearly  level  and 
was  protected  by  two  to  twelve  inches  of  snow.  Russian  apples  are  re- 
ported wnolly  uninjured;  Patten,  Okabena  and  Peerless  lost  two  inches 
of  terminal  growth.  Roots  were  uninjured.  Wyant,  Rockford,  Lued- 
loff’s  Long  Red,  Rollingstone  and  Newton  Egg  plum  were  uninjured, 
and  bloomed  freely  as  usual.  Cheney  plum  did  not  bloom.  Turner, 
Sarah,  Kenyon  and  Loudon  raspberries,  though  unprotected,  escaped 
harm;  black  raspberries  escaped  where  protected. 

At  Sparta,  Wisconsin,  the  lowest  temperature  was  variously  reported 
at  from  -50°  to  -60°,  but  no  systematic  record  seems  to  have  been  kept. 
The  ground  was  protected  with  snow  all  winter.  The  young  wood  of 
nursery  trees  was  considerably  injured,  the  terminal  buds  being  gen- 
erally killed,  and  the  wood  much  stained  for  some  distance  back.  Roots 
were  uninjured.  Small  fruits,  where  protected,  were  little  injured;  un- 
protected raspberries  and  blackberries  were  badly  damaged. 

Minus  forty-five  degrees  was  reported  by  Mr.  A.  D.  Barnes,  of  Wau- 
paca, Wisconsin,  and  Mr.  O.  L.  Gregg,  of  Austin,  Minnesota.  Both 
these  localities  were  protected  by  snow.  Mr.  Barnes  reports  nursery 
stock  badly  injured  in  top,  but  not  at  all  in  root.  Early  Richmond 
and  English  Morello  cherry  and  Wolf,  Weaver  and  Forest  Garden 
plums  blossomed  freely  as  usual  the  past  spring.  Raspberries  and 
blackberries  were  damaged  about  75  per  cent.  Mr.  Gregg  reports  but 
little  injury  to  orchards  and  nurseries,  or  to  raspberries  and  black- 


Effects  of  the  February  Freeze  of  1899. 


7 


berries,  and  that  De  Soto  and  Wolf  plums  and  Early  Richmond  and 
Wragg  cherries  opened  their  usual  number  of  blossoms. 

It  is  remarkable  that  none  of  the  correspondents  that  have  reported 
damage  from  root-killing  note  a lower  temperature  than  -36°,  while 
several  report  serious  damage  from  this  cause  with  a temperature  not 
lower  than  -30°.  Mr.  M.  J.  Wragg,  of  Waukee,  Iowa,  reports  nursery 
trees  badly  root-killed  and  orchard  trees  bursted  badly  in  trunk,  with 
the  lowest  temperature  only  -24°.  Mr.  C.  R.  Powell,  of  Sterling,  111., 
reports  4 year  old  apple  trees  root-killed,  with  a minimum  tempera- 
ture of  -23°,  and  the  Midland  Nursery  Co.,  of  Des  Moines,  Iowa,  with 
the  same  minimum  temperature  report  nursery  trees  badly  root-killed. 
These  facts  are  doubtless  explained  by  the  covering  of  snow  that  pre- 
vailed in  all  the  sections  that  reported  more  than  36°  below  zero. 

Thirty-four  correspondents  stated  distinctly  that  the  ground  in  their 
vicinity  was  covered  to  a greater  or  less  depth  with  snow  during  the 
severe  weather  of  February.  Of  these,  20  reported  that  the  injury  wras 
chiefly  in  the  tops,  6 stating  expressly  that  there  was  no  root  injury. 
Three  reported  injury  in  both  roots  and  tops.  One  reported  that  ap- 
ples were  more  injured  in  the  roots,  but  that  cherries  and  plums  were 
injured  more  in  the  top. 

The  following  are  extracts  from  the  correspondence: 

(Minimum  temperature  -45°;  six  inches  to  two  feet  of  snow.)  Not 
a particle  of  injury  in  the  root  but  very  bad  in  top.”  A.  D.  B.,  Wau- 
paca, Wis. 

(Minimum  temperature  -35°;  ground  just  covered  writh  snow  where 
not  drifted.)  “One-year  apples  were  root-killed,  others  not  injured.” 
S.  D.  R.,  Winnebago  City,  Minn. 

(Minimum  temperature  -38°. ) “Well  protected  with  snow  most  of 
winter  and  very  heavy  in  February.  Have  not  seen  an  injured  root, 
even  in  yearlings.”  A.  J.  P.,  W.  Salem,  Wis. 

(Reported  -60°. ) “Snow  came  in  November  and  did  not  leave  till 
April  10.  Damage  all  in  the  top — failed  to  find  any  injury  in  root.” 
Z.  K.  J.,  Sparta,  Wis. 

Fifty-seven  correspondents  stated  distinctly  that  the  ground  in  their 
vicinity  was  destitute  of  snow  during  the  severe  February  weather. 
Of  these  43  stated  that  the  principal  damage  to  nursery  and  orchard 
trees  was  in  the  root,  while  only  3 thought  the  damage  greater  in  the 
tops  than  in  the  roots.  One  thought  it  about  equal  in  roots  and  tops. 

We  may  infer  from  the  above  statements,  that  the  extensive  damage 
to  the  roots  of  nursery  trees  the  past  winter  was  largely  due  to  a lack 
of  the  snow  blanket.  That  it  was  not  due  to  the  cold  alone,  is  shown 
by  the  fact  reported  by  several  correspondents  that  the  top  appeared 
to  be  in  perfect  condition  while  the  roots  were  wholly  dead.  Dryness 
of  the  soil  doubtless  aggravated  the  damage  in  many  cases. 


8 


Bulletin  No.  77. 


The  injury  to  nurseries.  One  of  the  questions  asked  in  our  circu- 
lar letter  was  “What  varieties  in  the  nursery  seemed  least  affected,  and 
what  ones  seemed  most  affected?” 

The  answers  to  these  questions  were  tabulated  and  varieties  named 
by  more  than  one  correspondent  are  given  in  the  table  below,  with  the 
number  of  correspondents  that  rated  each  variety  “least”  or  “most”  af- 
fected. For  example,  the  Oldenburgh  was  placed  among  those  least  af- 
fected by  21  correspondents,  and  among  those  most  affected  by  two 
other  correspondents.  The  net  number  of  ratings  given  each  variety 
is  printed  in  bold  face  type  in  the  right  hand  columns.  The  list  is 
limited  to  the  apple  and  crab.  Of  course  all  the  correspondents  did  not 
report  upon  the  same  varieties,  and  the  separating  of  many  different 
groups  into  two  classes  by  as  many  different  men  makes  the  compari- 
son somewhat  arbitrary,  but  as  in  the  composite  photograph  the  most 
striking  features  are  brought  out,  while  the  others  are  eliminated,  so 
in  this  comparison,  the  varieties  that  were  most  emphatically  hardy  or 
tender  will  distinctly  appear.  The  hardiness  of  the  different  varieties 
in  the  nursery  as  judged  by  the  reports  is  therefore}  somewhat  in  the 
order  in  which  the  names  are  arranged  in  the  table.  The  number  of 
votes  cast,  however,  is  an  indication,  not  so  much  of  the  comparative 
hardiness,  as  'of  the  comparative  extent  of  planting  of  the  different 
varieties. 


Variety. 

Times 
reported 
among  the 
“ Least  in- 
jured.” 

Times 
reported 
among  the 
“ Most  in- 
jured.” 

Oldenburgh  (Duchess) 

21 

2 

Hibernal 

14 

Wealthy 

14 

2 

Virginia  Crab 

7 

Whitney  No . 20  

9 

Charlamoff 

4 

Longfield  

5 

1 

Wolf  River 

6 

1 

(rid eon  

3 

Tetofslci  

3 

Pleven ne 

2 

TTyslop  

2 

Martha  

2 

Ppfftr  

2 

Repla  Kislaja 

2 

Salome 

2 

Transcendent 

1 2 

Net  Verdict. 


Least 

injured. 


Most 

injured. 


19 

14 

12 

7 

9 

4 

4 

5 
3 
3 


2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 


Effects  of  the  February  Freeze  of  1899. 


9 


Variety. 

Times 
reported 
among  the 
“ Least  in- 
jux-ed.” 

Times 
reported 
among  the 
“ Most  in- 
jured.” 

Net  V 

Least 

injured." 

ERDICT. 

Most 

injured. 

2 

2 

3 

2 

1 

4 

3 

1 

Yellow  Transparent 

4 

3 

1 

Willow  Twig 

2 

2 

2 

3 

1 

Northwestern  Greening 

2 

3 

1 

Tallman’s  Sweet 

2 

3 

1 

Ben  Davis 

3 

5 

2 

Kaump 

3 

5 

2 

Melinda 

1 

3 

% 

McMahan 

3 

2 

Peerless 

2 

2 

Pewaukee 

1 

3 

Okaberm  

3 

3 

Wal  bridge 

3 

3 

Haas 

1 

4 

3 

Grimes  Golden 

4 

4 

U tter 

1 

6 

5 

Johnathan  

2 

7 

5 

Note. — “Patten’s  Greening  ” was  reported  by  3 correspondents  as  among  the  least 
injured,  and  “ Patten  ” was  reported  by  2 as  among  the  most  injured.  As  it  was  not 
known  whether  or  not  these  are  synonymous  these  could  not  bo  classified  with  the  list. 


Beside  the  varieties  tabulated  above,  the  following  were  reported  by 
one  correspondent  each  as  among  the  least  injured:  Alexander, 
Beecher’s  Sweet,  Bellflower,  Benoni,  Berlin,  Bismark,  Blackwood, 
Blushed  Calville,  Bryan,  English  Pippin,  Fall  Orange,  Gano,  Gipsy 
Girl,  Holt,  Iowa  Blush,  Juicy  Burr,  Kluviskoe,  Lily,  Mammoth  Black 
Twig,  Missouri  Pippin,  No.  252,  Aport,  Ostrakoff  4 M,  Oxford  Orange, 
Pigeon,  Quaker  Beauty,  Red  Astrachan,  Romna,  Romna  4 M,  Rose, 
Russian  Gravenstein,  Silken  Leaf,  Tonka,  Winesap,  Winsted  Pippin, 
Winter  Banana,  Yellow  Arcade,  Yellow  Siberian  Crab,  Yellow  Sweet. 

Ostrakoff  was  reported  by  one  correspondent  among  the  least  injured, 
and  by  one  other  as  among  the  most  injured. 

The  following  were  reported  by  one  correspondent  each  as  among 
the  most  injured:  Anisim,  Benoni,  Breskovka,  Fall  Orange,  “Janet,” 
Minkler,  Plumb’s  Cider,  Rambo,  Rawle’s  Janet,  Red  Bietigheimer, 
Maiden  Blush,  “Repka,”  Rome  Beauty,  Smith’s  Cider,  Smokehouse, 


10 


Bulletin  No.  77. 


Striped  Winter,  Twenty  Ounce,  White  Pippin,  Willow,  Wisconsin  Rus- 
set. 

Comparative  injury  suffered  by  varieties  in  the  orchard.  “What  va- 
rieties in  the  orchard  seemed  least  affected  and  what  ones  seemed  most 
affected?”  The  answers  to  these  questions  appear  in  the  following  ta- 
ble, tabulated  as  for  the  preceding  question: 


Variety. 

Times  re- 
ported 
“Least 
injured.” 

Times  re- 
ported 
“Most 
injured.” 

Net  Result. 

Least 

injured. 

Most 

injured. 

23 

2 

21 

Oldenburgh  (Duchess) 

21 

2 

19 

9 

1 

8 

8 

3 

5 

6 

G 

5 

5 

4 

4 

3 

3 

Kaump 

3 

3 

Patten’s  Greening 

2 

2 

Gidnon  

2 

2 

Ppt.pr  

2 

2 

Virginia  Grab 

2 

2 

Martha  Crab 

2 

2 

lVi  n.  Malian 

4 

3 

1 

Northwestern  Greening  .. . 

5 

4 

/ 

1 

Maiden  Blush 

2 

1 

1 

Roman  Stem' 

3 

2 

1 

Fameuse 

5 

5 

Janet  

1 

2 

1 

Grimes  Golden  . . 

1 

2 

1 

1 

Cole’s  Quince  . . . 

2 

2 

Lowell 

2 

Salome  

2 

2 

Scott’s  Winter  .... 

2 

2 

TJ  tter 

1 

3 

2 

Jonathan’ 

1 

4 

3 

Haas 

4 

9 

5 

Walbridge  . . . 

1 

6 

5 

Ben  Davis 

2 

10 

8 

Effects  of  the  February  Freeze  of  1899. 


11 


In  addition  to  the  above,  the  following  were  named  by  one  corres- 
pondent as  among  the  “least  affected:”  Anisette,  Antonovka,  Avista, 
Beecher’s  Sweet,  Benoni,  Berlin,  Bismark,  Blue  Pearmain,  Blush  Cal- 
ville,  Christmas,  Colvert,  Early  Strawberry,  Eureka,  Fall  Orange,  Gen- 
netan,  Gilbert,  Golden  Russet,  Iowa  Beauty,  Juicy  Bur,  Limber  Twig, 
Mallet,  Milwaukee,  Minnesota,  Orange,  Oxford  Orange,  Peck’s  Pleasant, 
Peerless,  Pride  of  Minneapolis,  Pigeon,  Recumbent,  Red  Astrachan, 
Russian  Green,  Saint  Lawrence,  Silken  Leaf,  Striped  Anis,  Sweet  Rus- 
set, Switzer,  Tallman’s  Sweet,  Tonka,  Willow  Leaf,  Winesap,  Yellow 
Sweet. 

The  following  were  placed  in  the  “least  affected”  list  by  one  corre- 
spondent, and  in  the  “most  affected”  list  by  another:  Allen’s  Choice, 
Black  Anette,  Okabena,  Red  June,  Tetofski,  Windsor  Chief. 

The  following  were  placed  in  the  “most  affected”  list  by  a single  cor- 
respondent: Alexander,  Autumn  Strawberry,  Early  Harvest,  Fall 

Sweet,  Fall  Winesap,  Minkler,  No.  361,  “Patten’s,”  Perry  Russett,  Pe- 
waukee,  Rawle’s  Janet,  Repka  Malenka,  Sheriff,  Summer  Sweet,  Sweet 
June,  Transcendent,  Twenty  Ounce. 

Several  correspondents  expressed  the  opinion  that  variety  counted 
for  little  when  the  damage  from  the  winter  was  through  root-killing. 
But  the  tabulated  reports  indicate  otherwise.  It  is  interesting  to  ob- 
serve that  in  the  main  the  varieties  that  have  come  to  be  generally  rec- 
ognized as  especially  hardy,  almost  without  exception  appear  near  the 
head  of  both  of  the  preceding  lists. 

It  appears  that  the  varieties  that  are  hardiest  in  the  nursery  are  not 
necessarily  hardiest  in  the  orchard,  but  as  a rule,  the  coincidence  Is 
quite  close. 

The  superior  hardiness  of  oral ')  roots.  Eight  correspondents  that  re- 
ported serious  damage  from  root-killing  stated  that  the  crabs  were  less 
injured  than  the  common  apple.  This  clearly  indicates  that  the  roots 
of  the  crab  are  hardier  than  those  of  the  apple,  and  at  once  raises  the 
question  if  crab  seedlings  would  not  be  preferable  to  those  of  the  com- 
mon apple  for  root-and  crown-  grafting  and  for  budding  in  the  North- 
west. The  experiment  does  not  seem  to  have  been  extensively  tried, 
though  top-grafting  on  crab  stocks  has  long  been  advocated  by  several 
of  the  leading  northwestern  fruit  growers.  Of  course  only  the  more 
rapid-growing  crab  seedlings  should  be  used,  as  the  weaker-growing 
ones  would  probably  tend  to  dwarf  the  apple  trees  worked  upon  them. 
It  is  probable  that  seedlings  of  rapid-growing  crab  varieties  like  the 
Virginia  would  average  as  vigorous  as  do  seedlings  of  the  ordinary  ap- 
ple, as  the  seeds  of  the  latter  are  commonly  saved.  The  crabs  are  very 
prolific,  and  the  nurseryman  could  easily  grow  and  save  his  own  seed. 
The  subject  is  commended  to  the  attention  of  nurserymen  in  the 
Northwest. 


12 


Bulletin  No.  77. 


The  plum  ancl  cherry.  The  past  winter  gave  further  opportunity  to 
observe  something  of  the  amount  of  cold  the  flower-buds  of  these  fruits 
are  able  to  endure,  from  which  it  is  clear  that  the  opinions  that  some 
have  had  on  this  subject  are  erroneous.  Besides  the  facts  already 
given  in  our  reports  from  Manitoba,  the  following  data  are  of  interest: 

The  flower-buds  of  the  Wragg,  “Richmond”  and  “Morello”  cherries 
were  reported  killed  at  Le  Mars,  la.,  with  a minimum  of  -38°.  The 
Early  Richmond  cherry  bloomed  full  at  Ripon,  Wis.,  with  the  same 
minimum  temperature.  As  per  another  report,  Sklanka,  Early  Rich- 
mond, Early  Morello  and  King’s  Morello  bloomed  at  Ripon,  Wis.,  with 
a temperature  of  -35°  to  -40°.  Dye  House,  Early  Richmond,  Montmor- 
ency, English  Morello,  Wragg,  Belle  de  Choisey  and  Red  Muscatel 
bloomed  well  and  promised  a good  crop  at  Adel,  la.,  with  a minimum 
temperature  of  -36°,  and  with  no  snow.  The  Wragg  cherry  bloomed 
well  at  Fostoria,  la.,  with  a minimum  temperature  of  -38°. 

The  Early  Richmond  and  English  Morello  cherries  are  reported  to 
have  bloomed  as  full  as  usual  at  Waupaca,  Wis.,  with  a minimum  tem- 
perature of  -45°.  Early  Richmond  and  Wragg  cherries  bloomed  full 
at  Austin,  Minn.,  with  a minimum  temperature  of  -45°. 

At  our  Experiment  Station,  with  a minimum  temperature  of  -27^°, 
the  blossom  buds  of  most  of  our  cherries  were  found  to  have  suffered 
material  injury,  the  amount  of  injury  differing-  greatly  in  different 
varieties,  as  appears  from  the  following  table.  In  this  investigation, 
which  was  made  early  in  April,  one  hundred  flower-buds  of  each  va- 
riety were  dissected  transversely  with  a razor,  .and  examined  under  a 
simple  microscope.  The  number  of  live  and  of  dead  embryo  flowers  in 
each  flower-bud  was  then  noted  separately,  and  from  the  aggregate 
numbers  the  per  cent,  of  live  buds  was  computed. 


Variety. 

Per  cent,  of 
live  flower 
buds. 

! 

Variety. 

Per  cent  of 
live  flower 
buds. 

Baender 

60.24- 

Large  Morello 

98.5+ 

Bessarabian 

5.7+ 

Late  Morello 

98.3+ 

Brussels  Braune  

42.2+ 

Lutovka 

27.6+ 

Double  Natte 

53.  + 

Orel  No.  23 

87.6+ 

Dye  TTonsn 

97.3+ 

Orel  No.  27 

■ 27.6+ 

Karly  (-rriotte 

79.2+ 

Ostheim  

94.9+ 

Oeorge  (rl ass 

56 . 5+ 

Shadow  Amarelle 

97  5+ 

(rriotte  dn  Nord 

45.4+ 

Sklanka 

70.5+ 

King’s  Amarelle 

'SS  6+ 

Strause  Weischell 

41.4+ 

Effects  of  the  February  Freeze  of  1899. 


13 


One  each  of  our  two  trees  of  Baender,  Bessarabian,  Brussels  Braune 
and  Sklanka  have  since  perished  from  root-killing,  showing  clearly 
that,  under  certain  conditions,  the  flower-buds  may  endure  more  than 
the  roots.  During  the  winter  of  1896-7,'  with  a minimum  temperature 
of  only  -23°,  the  flower-buds  of  many  of  the  above  cherries  were  de- 
stroyed. The  summer  previous  the  trees  were  in  sod,  and  the  weather 
a portion  of  the  time  w;as  very  dry. 

Regarding  the  European  plum,  it  is  reported  that  the  Shipper’s  Pride, 
Egg,  Prince  of  Wales,  German  Prune  and  Italian  Prune  bloomed  well 
after  having  passed  through  a temperature  of  -38°  at  Le  Mars,  la.,  and 
“Green  Gage”  plum  and  a “large  purple  seedling”  having  endured  -30° 
to  -35°  at  Columbus  City,  la.,  was  reported  “perfect  in  tree  and  fruit 
crop.”  Very  few  of  the  European  plum  trees  at  our  Experiment  Sta- 
tion bloomed  well  the  past  spring,  and  some  of  the  trees  were  root- 
killed,  though  our  minimum  temperature  was  only  -27^°,  and  practi- 
cally all  of  the  flower-buds  on  these  plums  were  killed  in  the  winter 
of  1896-7  with  a minimum  temperature  of  -23° 

The  Japanese  plums  appear  to  have  suffered  more  as  a rule  than  the 
European.  The  Chicasaw  plums  appear  to  have  suffered  nearly  as 
much  as  the  European,  but  the  Americana  class  have  vindicated  their 
claims  to  perfect  hardiness,  so  far  as  their  flower-buds  are  concerned. 
The  young  trees,  however,  while  they  have  perhaps  endured  better  than 
those  of  any  other  fruit,  have  not  been  wholly  exempt  from  root-killing. 

From  the  data  furnished  in  this  bulletin,  it  seems  probable  that  the 
condition  of  the  tree  has  very  much  to  do  with  the  degree  of  cold  the 
flower-buds  of  the  plum  and  cherry  can  endure,  and  that  any  at- 
tempt to  prescribe  a definite  degree  of  cold  as  the  limit  of  their  endur- 
ance is  futile. 

Several  nurserymen  have  reported  that  the  cherry  worked  on  Ma- 
haleb  stock  has  withstood  the  winter  better  than  when  worked  on  Maz- 
zard, — an  important  fact  since  the  latter  has  by  some  been  considered 
the  hardier  of  the  two. 

T he  raspberry  and  blackberry.  Our  correspondence  elicited  some 
data  regarding  the  amount  of  cold  the  canes  of  the  raspberry  and 
blackberry  are  able  to  epdure,  and  how  far  protection  is  capable  of  re- 
ducing damage  from  winter-killing;  also  as  to  the  comparative  hardi- 
ness of  different  varieties. 

Among  the  red  raspberries,  Loudon,  Marlboro  and  Golden  Queen  en- 
dured without  protection  a temperature  of  -30°  to  -35°  at  Bay  Settle- 
ment, Wis.;  Marlboro  endured  -35°  at  Sturgeon  Bay,  Wis.;  Loudon  and 
Turner  were  reported  uninjured  at  Janesville  with  -35°,  with  a belt  of 
trees  80  rods  to  the  nortlrwest;  Loudon  was  reported  unhurt  by  two 
persons  at  West  Salem  with  -38°  to  -45°,  also  at  Rose  Creek,  Minn., 
with  -39°  -43°,  partly  sheltered  by  grove  on  north  and  west;  Turner 


14 


Bulletin  No.  77. 


escaped  harm  with  -38°,  with  no  snow  in  the  coldest  weather,  at  Sar- 
geant  Bluffs,  la.  All  of  these  were  unprotected  except  by  snow  in  some 
oases,  and  by  groves  as  stated.  The  Loudon  seems  to  have  endured  the 
conditions  better  than  most  other  red  varieties.  The  report  from  Mr. 
Nelson  of  Manitoba  that  several  red  raspberries  endured  -50°  without 
protection  is  highly  interesting.  , 

Of  blackcaps,  the  Older  was  reported  by  several  correspondents  as 
having  endured  better  than  other  varieties.  A few  of  these  statements 
are  quoted: 

“Raspberries  complete  loss,  except  Older.”  (-32°)  R.  R.  & Son,  Car- 
roll,  la. 

“Older  and  Gregg,  side  by  side;  the  first  escaped  while  the  Gregg  suf- 
fered so  much  I dug  them  out.”  (-22  -30°,  with  no  snow.  Soil  black 
prairie  over  clay)  F.  L.  P.,  Kussuth,  la. 

“Older  raspberry  came  through  nearly  all  right;  Gregg,  Palmer  and’ 
Kansas  injured,  Cuthbert  killed  to  ground;  Miller  Red,  Loudon  and 
Thompson’s  Prolific  all  right.”  (-23°,  with  no  snow.)  C.  R.  P.,  Ster- 
ling, 111. 

“Gregg  seriously  hurt,  Older  not  much”  (-28°)  M.  K.,  Carroll,  la. 

“We  have  on  our  ground  five  different  plats  of  the  Older  raspberry, 
perfectly  unprotected,  and  all  came  through  in  fine  shape.”  (-30°,  with 
no  snow  during  the  coldest  weather.)  S.  S.  G.  & Sons,  Sac  City.,  Ia. 

“I  have  two  acres  of  Older  raspberry  that  look  well,  and  promise  a 
full  crop;  four  acres  of  Gregg  will  give  about  one-third  of  a crop.” 
(-26°,  ground  nearly  bare  in  February.)  G.  G.  R.,  Council  Bluffs,  Ia. 

The  Older  unprotected  except  by  snow  was  reported  uninjured  at 
Lake  Park,  Minn.,  with  -42°. 

The  blackberry  suffered  extremely  in  sections  where  the  ground  was 
bare  during  the  severe  weather,  and  twenty-five  correspondents  reported 
it  a total  loss.  Protection  with  earth  did  not  always  save  it  under 
these  conditions.  In  parts  of  southern  Wisconsin  the. loss  of  blackber- 
ries was  almost  complete.  Mr.  Henry  Tarrant  of  Janesville  wrote:  “I 
know  of  no  plantation  of  blackberries,  either  protected  or  unprotected, 
but  what  was  killed.”  At  Ripon,  however,  where  the  ground  was  cov- 
ered with  a little  snow  all  winter,  some  blackberries  were  reported  all 
right,  despite  a temperature  of  -43°.  At  West  Salem,  on  the  other 
hand,  with  more  snow  than  was  present  at  Ripon,  and  with  no  colder 
weather,  they  were  reported  destroyed.  The  Snyder  blackberry  demon- 
strated its  superior  hardiness  in  many  cases. 

It  will  be  very  unwise  to  conclude  that  because  many  unprotected 
plantations  of  the  raspberry  escaped  serious  harm  the  past  winter,  that 
protection  is  therefore  unprofitable  in  Wisconsin  in  the  ordinary  season. 
The  damage  from  winter-killing  of  this  fruit  the  past  winter  may  have 
been  reduced  by  the  fact  that  there  were  no  “breakups”  during  the 
winter,  and  that  the  weather  continued  cold  until  April. 


Effects  of  the  February  Freeze  of  1899. 


15 


Four  correspondents  from  the  snowless  area  reported  that  the  roots 
of  peach  trees  were  less  injured  than  the  tops,  which  indicates  that  the 
roots  of  the  peach  may  be  relatively  more  hardy  than  those  of  the  apple. 

The  grape  has  suffered  very  seriously  from  root-killing  throughout 
the  snowless  region,  and,  unlike  the  raspberry,  no  individual  varieties 
seem  to  have  endured  the  conditions  better  than  others.  Many  vine- 
yards appear  to  have  been  nearly  ruined. 

Some  statements  incidentally  made  by  correspondents  are  worthy  of 
quotation,  as  they  suggest  important  truths. 

“The  only  place  in  my  nursery  that  the  trees  came  through  all  sound 
in  root  is  where  large  drifts  of  snow  lay  on  through  the  warm  weather 
in  January.  * * * I have  lately  found  that_the  trees  that  root  deep, 

and  that  have  been  set  deep,  are  the  ones  that  have  come  through  the 
winter  in  the  best  shape;  and  that  nursery  stock  in  the  nursery  rows 
has  suffered  the  most  because,  not  having  been  reset,  the  roots  are  nearer 
the  surface.  I am  now  quite  sure  when  it  has  been  thoroughly  investi- 
gated that  the  conclusion  will  be  that  the  tree  that  sends  its  roots  down 
has  come  through  in  better  shape  than  the  one  that  roots  near  the  sur- 
face.” C.  W.  C.,  Sac  City,  la. 

“Nearly  all  nurseries  that  I know  of  here  lost  nearly  all  apple  trees 
in  one,  two  and  three  years  stock;  even  seven  foot  trees  of  the  Duchess 
and  Hibernal  are  killed.  A neighbor  nursery  had  four-year  Wealthy  In 
neglected  rows  grown  to  weeds  and  grass  that  are  nearly  all  well  leaved 
out,  while  near  by,  the  three-year  trees,  well  cultivated  and  ground  bare, 
were  all  killed.  Many  of  the  crabs  in  the  nursery  are  uninjured.” 
(Minimum  temperature  -37°. ) H.  L.  F.,  Washta,  la. 

“Trees  suffered  the  worst  where  the  ground  was  bare;  where  covered 
with  mulch,  trees  are  all  right.”  S.  S.  G.  & Sons,  Sac  City,  la. 

“The  plum  on  native  stocks  suffered  less  than  that  on  Marianna  or 
Myrabolan.  Cherry  on  Mazzard  stocks  were  killed  in  root  the  worst.” 
G.  D.  T.,  Des  Moines,  la. 

“’Strawberries  50  per  cent,  dead,  probably  caused  by  dry  freezing,  as 
those  parts  of  field  covered  by  early  snow,  which  melted  and  entered 
the  ground  are  all  right:”  (No  snow  in  coldest  weather.)  R.  N. 
McC.,  Sergeant  Bluff,  la. 

“Snyder  blackberry,  exposed  on  South,  are  dead,  root  and  branch;  on 
north  slope,  and  protected  on  south  and  west  by  grove,  60  per  cent,  now 
in  bloom.”  (Minimum  temperature  -30°,  no  snow.)  W.  F.  S.,  Car- 
roll,  la. 

“Variety  cut  no  figure,  it  was  all  in  location;  fruits  protected  strongly 
on  north  and  west  did  not  suffer  so  seriously  as  those  exposed  to  north- 
west wind.”  J.  G.  B.,  Des  Moines,  Iowa. 


16 


Bulletin  No.  77. 

“The  lazy  man’s  trees  and  plants  are  in  fair  condition,  but  well  culti- 
vated are  alike  more  or  less  injured.”  M.  Bros.,  Crescent,  la. 

“Peaches,  blackberries  and  raspberries  on  the  north  side  of  the  grove 
suffered  less  than  on  the  south  side,  which  I attribute  to  the  fact  that 
the  south  side  thawed  and  froze  several  times,  while  the  north  side  re- 
mained frozen.  On  the  south  side  my  currants  and  berries  were  pushed 
up  out  of  the  ground  two  or  three  inches  where  they  were  on  a flat  lo- 
cation.” J.  H.  C.  Chariton,  la. 

Whether  or  not  the  absence  of  the  snow  blanket  coupled  with  the  un- 
usually cold  weather,  is  sufficient  to  fully  explain  the  extensive  de- 
struction of  roots,  it  is  impossible  to  say  positively.  The  assumed  dry 
condition  of  the  soil  has  been  frequently  offered  in  explanation,  but 
there  is  lack  of  positive  evidence  that  the  soil  was  drier  during  the  past 
winter  than  it  had  been  during  several  previous  winters  when  no  root- 
killing occurred.  The  rainfall  at  Madison  during  September,  October 
and  November  of  1898  was  7.28  inches  which  is  but  about  % inch  less 
than  the  average  for  23  years  prior  to  1896.  The  precipitation  during  De- 
cember and  January  was,  however,  only  .37  inch  which  is  much  below  the 
normal.  The  number  of  cisterns  that  became  dry  during  the  winter  in 
Madison  was  much  larger  than  usual.  It  does  not,  however,  follow 
that  the  soil  was  drier  than  it  had  often  been  before  during  the  winter 
months. 

Mr.  Geo.  J.  Kellogg,  of  Lake  Mills,  has  endeavored  to  ascertain  if  an 
equal  amount  of  root  destruction  has  occurred  before  in  Wisconsin 
since  the  settlement  of  the  state.  His  conclusion  is  in  the  negative. 
Root-killing  has  been  serious  in  certain  localities  before,  but  never  over 
so  wide  an  area  as  during  the  past  winter. 

SUGGESTED  TEACHINGS. 

A snow  covering  for  the  nursery  in  winter  may  prove  invaluable. 
While  we  are  unable  to  influence  the  fall  of  snow,  we  may  determine  to 
some  extent  its  distribution  and  the  time  that  it  shall  remain  on  the 
land.  By  planting  our  nurseries  as  far  as  practicable  on  north  slopes, 
and  by  interspersing  our  nursery  blocks  with  evergreen  wind-breaks  ex- 
tending east  and  west,  the  retention  of  snow  on  the  land  may  be  con- 
siderably promoted. 

A litter  covering  is  next  in  value  to  a snow  covering.  While  we  can- 
not advocate  slovenly  culture,  a cover  crop  for  winter  in  the  orchard 
and  nursery  is  unquestionably  a wise  provision.  Keep  the  ground  free 
from  weeds  and  well  cultivated  until  July  15  or  August  1,  then  sow  oats 
or  buckwheat,  or  if  the  soil  needs  enriching  with  nitrogen,  sow  peas, 
vetches  or  mammoth  clover.  The  latter  is  advisable  only  in  wet  sea- 
sons, .and  in  orchards,  as  it  would  commonly  need  to  be  plowed  up  the 


Effects  of  the  February  Freeze  of  1899. 


17 


following  spring.  If  mice  are  feared  in  winter,  sow  corn  that  has  been 
soaked  in  a solution  of  strychnine  on  the  ground  late  in  autumn. 

Graft  only  on  hardy  stocks.  Had  the  crab  been  generally  used  for 
root  grafting  the  apple  in  the  northwest,  the  loss  from  root-killing 
would  probably  have  been  reduced  at  least  one-half.  Work  the  plum  on 
Americana  seedlings  and  the  cherry  on  Mahaleb  stock  rather  than  Maz- 
zard,  until  we  can  find  a satisfactory  stock  more  hardy  than  either. 

The  roots  of  the  blackberry  are  especially  tender,  hence  all  precau- 
tions should  be  taken  to  preserve  snow  on  the  groupd  where  this  crop 
.is  planted.  An  earth  protection  may  save  the  tops,  but  it  will  not  alone 
save  the  roots  in  winters  like  the  past.  A covering  of  straw  or  other 
litter  would  be  a wise  precaution  for  open  winters. 

In  conclusion,  I take  pleasure  in  acknowledging  my  indebtedness  to 


the  following  persons  wl|p  have 
without  which  this  bulletin  would 

E.  C.  Alsmeyer,  Cottage  Grove,  Wis. 

H.  N.  Antisdale,  Fostoria,  Ia. 

J.  Q.  Arnold,  Marcus,  la. 

L.  S.  Axtell,  Honey  Creek,  la. 

Geo.  S.  Bacon,  Des  Moines,  la. 

A.  D.  Barnes,  Waupaca,  Wis. 

M.  G.  Beals,  Otto,  la. 

C.  D.  Bent,  Columbus  City,  la. 

Bents  & Upton,  Cresco,  la. 

J.  G.  Berry  hill,  Des  Moines,  la. 

G.  Bishard,  Valley  Junction.  Ia. 

W.  M.  Bomberger,  Huron,  Ia. 

J.  M.  Bonnell,  Ripon,  Wis. 

Josiak  Buffett,  Dixon,  111. 

S.  R.  Buffom,  Lake  Park,  Ia. 

A.  S.  Caulkins,  Storm  Lake,  Ia. 

John  H.  Clark,  Chariton,  Ia. 

G.  A.  C.  Clarke,  Le  Mars,  Ia. 

Frank  Cleeremans,  Bay  Settlement,  Wis 
L.  A.  Clemons,  Storm  Lake,  Ia. 

John  Coldwell,  Virden,  Man. 

H.  R.  Cotta,  Freeport,  111. 

J.  V.  Cotta,  Nursery,  111. 

C.  W.  Conner,  Sac  City,  Ia. 

Prof.  John  Craig.  Ames,  Ia. 

H.  J.  Cushman,  Marcus,  Ia. 

Dawson  & Strever,  Larrabee,  Ia. 

F.  C.  Edwards,  Fort  Atkinson,  Wis. 

J.  H.  M.  Edwards  & Son,  Logan,  Ia. 

J.  M.  Edwards  & Son,  Fort  Atkinson, 
Wis. 

W.  B.  Emmons,  Rock  Falls,  111. 

H.  L.  Felter,  Washta,  Ia. 


kindly  contributed  the  information 
have  been  impossible. 

Z.  Iv.  Jewett  & Co.,  Sparta,  Wis. 

A.  W.  Keays,  Elk  River,  Minn. 

L.  G.  Kellogg,  Ripon,  Wis. 

M.  Kimble,  Carroll,  Ia. 

Geo.  J.  Kellogg  & Sons,  Janesville,  Wis. 
Frank  Kroll,  Ripon,  Wis. 

Ernest  Kumbier,  Pickett,  Wis. 

Laigh  & Christensen,  Fairmount,  Minn. 

B.  F.  Longley,  Des  Moines,  Ia. 

T.  F.  Luckenbill,  Huron,  ia. 

C.  E.  May,  Kingsley,  Ia. 

H.  L.  May,  Columbus  City,  Ia. 

Robt.  X.  McCoy,  Sergeant  Bluffs,  Ia. 
Meneray  Bros.,  Crescent,  Ia. 

H.  Meyers,  Mediapplis,  Ia. 

D.  S.  Michael,  Logan,  Ia. 

Midland  Nursery  Co.,  Des  Moines,  Ia. 

P.  J.  Moran,  Crescent,  Ia. 

R.  S.  Paine,  Chariton,  Ia. 

A.  J.  Philips,  West  Salem,  Wis. 

F.  K.  Phoenix,  Delavan,  Wis. 

F.  L.  Pierce,  Kussuth,  Ia. 

C.  R.  Powell,  Sterling,  111. 

B.  A.  Ralph,  Fort  Atkinson,  Wis. 

Elmer  Reeves,  Waverly,  Ia. 

G.  G.  Rice,  Council  Bluffs,  la. 

S.  D.  Richardson  & Son,  Winnebago  City, 

Minn. 

A.  Ries  & Son,  Carroll,  Ia. 

A.  C.  Russell,  Oakville^  Ia. 

D.  P.  Sackett,  Fairmont,  Minn. 

J.  H.  Seaver,  Darien,  Ia. 

R.  B.  Shepard,  Delavan,  Wis. 


18 


Bulletin  No.  77. 


Jno.  C.  Ferris,  Hampton,  la. 

P.  W.  Flanders,  Elkhorn,  Wis. 

L.  M.  Garner,  Le  Mars,  la. 

J.  W.  Gatten,  Carroll,  la. 

R.  O.  Goodrich,  Ripon,  Wis. 

M.  J.  Graham,  Adel,  la. 

Wesley  Greene,  Des  Moines,  la. 

L.  M.  Gregg,  Austin,  Minn. 

J.  S.  Griffin  & Sons,  Sac  City,  la. 

Groom  Bros.,  Storm  Lake,  la. 

C.  W.  Gurney,  Yankton,  S.  D. 

J.  L.  Hartwell,  Dixon,  111. 

A.  L.  Hatch,  Sturgeon' Bay,  Wis. 

W.  C.  Haviland,  Fort  Dodge,  la. 

E.  L.  Hayden,  Oakville,  la. 

M.  E.  Hinkley,  Marcus,  la. 

Chas.  Hix-schinger,  Baraboo,  Wis. 

Mrs.  W.  A.  Houghton,  West  Salem,  Wis. 
W.  T.  Innis,  Ripon,  Wis. 

Jens  A.  Jensen,  Rose  Creek,  Minn. 
Jewell  Nursery  Co.,  Lake  City,  Minn. 


B.  H.  Smith,  Green  Bay,  Wis. 

H.  B.  Smith,  Odebalt,  la. 

Jno.  Spi-y,  Fort  Atkinson,  Wis. 

B.  E.  St  John,  Fairmont,  Minn. 

W.  F.  Steigei’walt,  Cari’oll,  la. 

C.  Steinman,  Mapleton,  la. 

A.  P.  Stevenson,  Nelson,  Man. 

I.  N.  Stone,  Sioux  City,  la. 

Henry  Tai-rant,  Janesville,  Wis. 

H.  A.  Terry,  Crescent,  la. 

Geo.  D.  Thomas,  Des  Moines,  la. 
Jas.  R.  Throckmorton,  Derby,  la. 

C.  Tinus,  Douceman,  Wis. 

C.  H.  Van  Worner,  Wast  Salem,  Wis. 
H.  D.  Weavei%  Boone,  la. 

Frank  Wernli,  Le  Mars,  la. 

F.  L.  White,  Des  Moines,  la. 

Alex  Woo^  Council  Bluffs,  la. 

M.  J.  Wragg,  Waukee,  la. 

Joseph  Wright,  Delavan,  Wis. 


In  addition  to  the  above  names,  three  correspondents  from  Iowa  and 
one  each  from  Minnesota  and  Manitoba  forgot  to  sign  their  name. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN 


Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


BULLETIN  NO. 


THE  HISTORY  OF  A TUBERCULOUS  HERD  OF  COWS. 


MADISON,  WISCONSIN,  AUGUST,  1899. 


13 W~The  Bulletins  and  Annual  Reports  of  this  Station  are  sent  free  to  all 
residents  of  this  State  upon  request. 


Note. — Bulletin  No.  77,  entitled  “ Effects  of  the  February  Freeze  of  1899  upon  Nurser- 
ies and  Fruit  Plantations  in  the  Northwest,”  was  not  sent  to  the  full  mailing  list. 
Copies  of  this  bulletin  will  be  sent  upon  request,  so  long  as  the  supply  on  hand  holds  out. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN 


AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 


BOARD  OF  REGENTS. 

STATE  SUPERINTENDENT  of  PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION,  BX-OFFICIO. 
PRESIDENT  of  the  UNIVERSITY,  ex-officio. 

State-at-large,  JOHN  JOHNSTON,  Milwaukee. 

State-at-large,  WILLIAM  F.  VILAS,  Madison. 

First  District,  OGDEN  H.  FETHERS,  Janesville. 

Second  District,  B.  J.  STEVENS,  Madison. 

Third  District,  JOHN  E.  MORGAN,  Spring  Green. 

Fourth  District,  GEORGE  H.  NOYES,  Milwaukee. 

Fifth  District,  JOHN  R.  RIESS,  Sheboygan. 

Sixth  District,  C.  A.  GALLOWAY,  Fond  du  Lac. 

Seventh  District,  BYRON  A.  BUFFINGTON,  Eau  Claire. 

Eighth  District,  ORLANDO  E.  CLARK,  Appleton. 

Ninth  District,  J.  A.  VAN  CLEVE,  Marinette. 

Tenth  District,  J.  H.  STOUT,  Menomonie. 

Officers  of  the  Board  of  Regents. 

JOHN  JOHNSTON,  President.  I STATE  TREASURER,  Ex-Officio  Treasurer. 

GEORGE  H NOYES,  Vice-President,  j E.  F.  RILEY,  Madison,  Secretary. 


Agricultural  Committee. 

Regents  CLARK,  STOUT,  FETHERS,  RIESS,  MORGAN  and  PRESIDENT  ADAMS. 


OFFICERS  OF  THE  STATION; 

THE  PRESIDENT  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY. 


W.  A.  HENRY,  ----------  Director 

S.  M BABCOCK,  -------  - Chief  Chemist 

F.  H.  KING,  - ...  ....  Physicist 

E.  S.  GOFF,  Horticulturist 

W.  L.  CARLYLE,  animal  Husbandry 

F.  W,  WOLL,  Chemist 

H.  L.  RUSSELL,  . Bacteriologist 

E.  H.  FARRINGTON.  -....--  Dairy  Husbandry 
J.  A.  JEFFERY,  - - - - - - Assistant  Physicist 

J,  W.  DECKER,  - Dairying 

ALFRED  VIVIAN,  - - - - - - - - Assistant  Chemist 

E.  G.  HASTINGS,  ------  Assistant  Bacteriologist 

FRED  CRANEFIELD  ------  Assistant  in  Horticulture 

A.  G.  HOPKINS,  ....  Instructor  in  Veterinary  Science 

LESLIE  H.  ADAMS,  -------  Farm  Superintendent 

IDA  HERFURTH,  -------  Clerk  and  Stenographer 

EFFIE  M.  CLOSE,  ........  Librarian 


FARMERS'  INSTITUTES. 

GEORGE  McKERROW,  --------  Superintendent 

HATTIE  V.  STOUT,  ......  Clerk  and  Stenographer 


General  Offices  and  Departments  of  Agricultural  Chemistry,  Animal  Hus- 
bandry, Bacteriology,  Farmers’  Institutes  and  Library,  in  Agricultural  Hall, 
near  University  Hall,  on  Upper  Campus. 

Dairy  Building  and  joint  Horticulture-Physics  Building,  west  end  <of  Obser- 
vatory Hill,  adjacent  to  Horticultural  Grounds  and  Experiment  Farm. 

Telephone  to  Station  Office,  Dairy  Building  and  Farm  Office. 


THE  HISTORY  OF  A TUBERCULOUS  HERD  OF  COWS. 


H.  L.  RUSSELL. 

A TOO  FREQUENT  EXPERIENCE. 

Eight  years  ago  a thrifty  farmer  in  one  of  our  eastern  counties  de- 
cided that  he  could  have  better  cows  than  those  which  he  then  possessed. 
When  he  reached  this  decision,  he  did  not  sell  all  that  he  had,  and  buy 
new  ones  to  take  the  place  of  the  old  herd,  but  he  purchased  a few  pure 
bred  animals  that  he  had  reason  to  believe  were  better  milk-producers 
than  those  which  he  originally  possessed.  With  this  influx  of  new 
blood,  he  started  as  thousands  of  dairymen  have  done  to  “build  up”  a 
herd  by  gradual  selection  of  the  best  animals. 

When  ihe'purchase  of  these  animals  was  made,  he  paid  for  registered 
cows,  and  thought  that  this  was  to  close  the  bargain ; but,  unfortunately, 
such  was  not  the  case.  With  these  pure  bred  cows,  he  introduced  into 
his  herd,  a microbe,  which,  later,  was  to  increase  and  spread  through- 
out his  herd  to  such  an  extent  as  to  seriously  threaten  the  success  of 
his  whole  enterprise.  The  germ  in  question  was  that  of  tuberculosis, 
and  undoubtedly,  some  of  these  animals  had  in  a latent  form,  the  seeds 
of  this  disease  in  their  systems,  as  later  they  were  the  first  to  succumb. 

At  the  time  of  purchase  it  was  practically  impossible  for  this  buyer 
to  determine  whether  any  of  his  herd  was  affected  or  not,  for  the  diag- 
nosis of  this  disease  in  the  beginning  stages  was  then  confined  to  merely 
a physical  examination,  and  even  the  most  thorough  expert  could  not  be 
sure  of  its  presence  in  the  earlier  stages.  If  this  breeder  were  to  repeat 
this  experience  at  the  present  time,  it  would  be  a comparatively  easy 
matter  for  him  to  determine  by  means  of  the  tuberculin  test  whether 
any  of  his  animals  were  affected  with  this  disease  or  not. 

This  test  can  be  so  easily  applied,  and  especially  in  the  earlier  stages 
of  the  disease  is  so  much  more  reliable  than  any  other  method  of  diag- 
nosis that  no  one  should  run  the  risk  of  buying  tuberculosis  when  they 
bring  new  cattle  into  their  herds.  The  use  of  this  test  is  , however,  not 
so  widespread  as  yet,  but  that  one  must  generally  insist  on  a “tuberculin 
certificate,”  if  they  are  to  secure  its  advantages.  Breeders  will  not  be 
in  a hurry  to  test  their  herds,  if  prospective  purchasers  do  not  insist  on 
“tuberculosis-free”  animals.  Indifference  and  failure  to  recognize  its 
value  are  the  main  reasons  why  the  test  has  not  already  been  more 
widely  employed  that  it  has. 


4 


Bulletin  No.  78. 


HISTORY  OF  THE  OUTBREAK  OF  THE  DISEASE. 

When  this  pure  bred  stock  was  first  bought,  it  was  kept  apart  from  the 
balance  of  the  herd,  but  in  1894,  three  years  later,  the  herd  was  re- 
divided on  the  basis  of  age,  all  young  animals  being  kept  together  on 
one  side  of  the  barn,  while  the  mature  animals  were  stabled  on  the 
other.  The  history  of  the  herd  for  a time  presented  no  unusual  feature. 
The  more  promising  calves  were  raised,  and  so  the  herd  was  gradually 
improved. 

In  1895  some  of  the  pure  bred  cows  began  to  fail,  and  in  that  and  the 
following  year,  two  of  them  died  of  what  later  was  determined  to  be 
tuberculosis.  The  owner  at  this  time  was  ignorant  of  the  true  nature 
of  the  malady,  as  the  slow  wasting  away  of  the  animals  had  not  espe- 
cially impressed  him.  When  the  true  character  of  the  disease  was  de- 
termined by  a post-mortem  examination,  a tuberculin  test  of  the  entire 
herd  was  at  once  made,  under  the  auspices  of  the  Experiment  Station, 
and  the  surprising  fact  established  that  with  three  exceptions  (13  out 
of  16), all  of  the  mature  animals  in  the  herd  reacted.  In  addition  to  this 
three  head  of  young  stock  also  responded  to  the  test. 

THE  CONTAGIOUSNESS  OF  THE  DISEASE. 

The  contagiousness  of  the  disease  is  evident  in  this  history  if  one 
can  rely  on  circumstantial  evidence.  Of  course  it  cannot  be  positively 
asserted  that  the  trouble  was  introduced  into  the  herd  with  the  purchase 
of  the  pure  bred  stock,  but  this  theory  is  in  accord  with  the  most  facts. 
No  disease  of  this  character  had  ever  been  noted  in  the  herd  before,  and 
when  it  did  occur,  it  attacked  the  pure  bred  animals  first,  and  subse- 
quently, those  which  had  been  most  in  contact  with  these.  Supposing 
that  some  of  the  original  cows  were  infected  with  the  disease  at  time 
of  purchase,  it  is  probable  that  the  malady  was  disseminated  among  the 
mature  animals  from  1894  to  1896. 

In  this  brief  space  of  time,  the  outbreak  had  spread  so  that  nearly 
every  mature  animal  of  the  herd  was  more  or  less  involved.  All  of  this 
had  happened  practically  unbeknown  to  the  owner.  Could  there  be  a 
more  striking  example  of  the  insidiousness  of  the  malady  than  this? 
Does  it  not  show  to  the  breeder  and  the  dairyman  that  the  appearance 
of  an  animal  is  no  sure  index  of  its  actual  condition?  The  recognition 
of  this  fact  alone  should  lead  cattle  owners  to  use  the  test  for  their  own 
protection.  When  the  true  state  of  the  herd  was  recognized,  what  was 
to  be  done? 


COURSE  TO  BE  PURSUED. 

Here  was  a herd  with  every  breeding  animal  except  two  tainted  with 
tuberculosis.  According  to  the  strict  letter  of  the  law,  every  one  of 


History  of  a Tuberculous  Herd  of  Coirs. 


5 


these  animals  should  be  killed.  From  a legal  point  of  view,  in  this 
state,  and  in  many  others,  it  makes  no  difference  as  to  the  extent  of  the 
disease  in  the  animal.  Before  the  law  all  reacting  animals  are  classed 
alike,  and  condemned  to  die.  The  manifest  injustice  of  such  a method 
of  procedure  is  apparent  at  once  to  any  one  who  is  familiar  with  the 
course  of  the  disease  in  the  animal.  In  the  strict  sense  of  the  word,  all 
animals  that  react  to  the  tuberculin  test  are  affected  with  tuberculosis, 
but  as  Theobald  Smith  has  so  well  pointed  out,  many  animals  that  re- 
act are  not  diseased  in  the  ordinary  acceptation  of  the  term.  They  may 
be  called  infected,  as  he  says,  but  generally,  they  are  not  dangerous, 
so  far  as  disease  dissemination  to  either  man  or  beast  is  concerned. 

Animals  affected  in  the  earlier  stages,  but  kept  under  favorable  hy- 
gienic conditions  will  frequently  live  for  years  without  the  disease  mak- 
ing any  apparent  headway  in  their  systems.  The  progeny  of  such  ani- 
mals is  scarcely  more  apt  to  have  tuberculosis  at  birth  than  that  of  non- 
reacting mothers.  If  such  calves  are  removed  from  an  infected  at- 
mosphere, placed  under  good  hygienic  surroundings,  and  fed- on  tubercle- 
free  food,  they  will  not  show  any  taint  of  this  disease. 


Fig.  1.—  A bunch  of  tuberculous  cows. 

Were  it  not  for  the  tuberculin  test,  frequently  the  presence  of  the 
disease  would  hardly  ever  be  recognized  in  animals  of  this  cla^s.  This 
point  receives  striking  confirmation,  if  one  will  note,  as  shown  in  fig.  1. 
the  appearance  of  some  of  the  cows  that  have  been  tuberculous  for 
several  years.  To  destroy  such,  in  order  to  eradicate  the  malady,  often 
wipes  out  of  existence  not  only  large  money  values,  but  what  is  of  far 
more  importance,  it  may  needlessly  destroy  the  labor  of  years  spent  in 
careful  and  selected  breeding. 

Let  us  suppose  that  a breeder  has  been  engaged  for  years  in  building 
up  a strain  that  is  noted  for  several  points  of  excellence  in  some  one  di- 
rection. Kill  the  herd  on  which  these  years  of  labor  have  been  put,  and 
you  destroy  the  actual  capital  involved  in  the  animals  in  question,  but 
the  potential  values  that  are  lost  are  much  greater,  for  money  alone 
cannot  replace  these  in  any  way. 


6 


Bulletin  No.  78. 


So  long  as  the  disease  was  considered  as  absolutely  incurable,  so  long 
as  it  was  believed  that  the  only  way  in  which  it  could  be  effectively 
stamped  out  was  by  slaughtering  all  animals  that  reacted  at  all,  this 
method  of  wholesale  slaughter  was  justifiable  in  a sense,  because  it  is 
the  part  of  wisdom  to  be  on  the  safe  side  in  matters  pertaining  to  public 
welfare.  When,  however,  it  was  definitely  shown  that  a reaction  to  the 
tuberculin  test  did  not  necessarily  mean  that  the  dairy  products  from 
such  an  animal  were  dangerous  to  human  health;  that  it  might  be  per- 
fectly safe,  under  certain  conditions  to  keep  such  an  animal  itself  in  the 
herd  for  even  years,  then  the  need  of  compulsory  slaughter  of  every  re- 
acting animal  became  less  evident. 

With  the  increased  knowledge  that  has  come  from  a more  thorough 
study  of  the  course  of  the  disease  in  the  bovine  race,  new  methods  of 
treatment  have  gradually  been  evolved.  These  have  differed  slightly 
in  different  countries,  owing  to  the  variation  in  conditions,  but  the  same 
general  principle  is  operative  in  the  various  methods  that  are  now  being 
inaugurated. 


CONTROL  OF  TUBERCULOSIS  BY  QUARANTINE. 

The  principles  of  this  method  are  briefly  these:  — 

Separate  at  time  of  test,  all  reacting  from  non-reacting  animals,  keep- 
ing them  practically  as  two  independent  herds.  Breed  these  reacting 
animals  under  careful  conditions,  separating  the  calves  at  birth  from 
their  mothers,  feeding  them  on  thoroughly  pasteurized  milk  of  reacting 
cows  (or  milk  from  non-reacting  animals.)  All  healthy  cows,  and 
calves  from  both  affected  and  healthy  sections  should  be  kept  in 
quarters  known  to  be  free  from  tubercular  contagion.  The  disposition 
of  the  product  of  the  reacting  herd  may  be  varied  to  suit  the  exigencies 
of  the  occasion,  but  in  any  case  it  should  be  treated  by  pasteurizing  so 
as  to  render  it  innocuous. 

Believing  that  it  was  possible  in  this  case  to  restore  the  herd  to  a per- 
fectly healthy  condition,  and  that  it  could  be  done  with  less  expense, 
where  the  above  plan  was  followed,  than  it  would  be  to  kill  all  the  ani- 
mals that  reacted  and  fill  their  places  with  other  stock,  this  method  was 
proposed  to  the  owner  and  adopted  by  him. 

ARRANGEMENT  OF  THE  HERD. 

The  herd  had  been  stabled  in  a basement  barn  of  the  usual  type  in 
which  the  ventilation  was  only  fair.  The  animals  were  kept  in 
stanchions,  and  were  watered  generally  out  of  doors  in  a large  tank,  al- 
though there  was  a pipe  inside  from  which  water  could  be  drawn  in 
pails  and  given  to  the  cows.  A silo  communicated  with  the  stable  at 
the  end  of  the  barn.  The  fodder  was  distributed  to  the  cattle  on  either 
side  of  a central  aisle. 


History  of  a Tuberculous  Herd  of  Coivs. 


7 


The  conditions  were  such  as  might  be  found  on  hundreds  of  farms 
throughout  Wisconsin.  No  other  building  was  available  in  which  either 
the  healthy  or  the  affected  part  of  the  herd  could  be  kept,  and  it  was 
therefore  necessary  to  arrange  quarters  in  the  original  stable  in  some 
way,  so  as  to  prevent  contact  of  one  section  of  the  herd  with  another. 


Fig.  2.— Ground-plan  of  bam,  showing  arrangement  of  herd. 


This  was  done  by  throwing  a partition  made  of  single  thickness  of 
boards  across  the  stable  as  shown  in  fig.  2.  The  two  sections 
of  the  herd  were  pastured  in  separate  paddocks  and  watered 
in  different  tanks.  It  was  of  course  somewhat  hazardous  to 
allow  direct  passage  between  the  two  compartments,  and  also 
to  bring  the  food  for  the  healthy  section  through  the  room  oc- 
cupied by  the  diseased  stock,  but  such  an  arrangement  under  the  cir- 
cumstances was  the  only  practicable  one  that  could  be  instituted. 


DISINFECTION  OF  THE  BARN. 

Before  the  rebuilding  of  the  herd  was  begun,  it  was  necessary  to 
thoroughly  disinfect  the  whole  stable, — a process  that  generally  presents 
considerable  difficulty  on  account  of  the  character  of  the  space  to  be 
treated.  The  bacillus  of  consumption  usually  finds  its  way  into  the  air 
from  the  breaking  down  of  the  tissues  of  the  affected  lungs  or  glands. 
The  cow  does  not  expectorate,  but  at  the  same  time,  the  disintegrated  tis- 
sue, in  which  the  tubercle  bacilli  are  abundant  is  thrown  out  from  the 
lungs,  and  in  this  way  gains  access  to  the  air.  Here  it  soon  dries,  and  like 
any  dust  particle,  may  be  easily  set  in  motion  by  a slight  air  current,  and 
so  disseminated  throughout  the  air  of  the  stable.  The  inevitable  re- 
sult is  that  a barn  occupied  by  tuberculous  animals  for  any  length  of 
time  is  almost  sure  to  contain  the  seeds  of  this  disease  on  its  walls  and 
ceilings,  but  more  particularly,  in  the  mangers  and  stalls  that  have 
been  occupied  by  the  affected  animals  as  here  the  contagious  matter  is 
more  frequently  deposited.  One  may  conscientiously  kill  all  reacting  an- 
imals in  their  efforts  to  get  rid  of  the  disease,  but  if  the  barn  in  which 


Bulletin  A o.  78. 


g 

they  have  been  kept  is  not  thoroughly  purged  from  all  infectious  matter, 
the  introduction  of  a new  herd,  even  though  it  passes  satisfactorily  the 
tuberculin  test,  is  almost  sure  to  acquire  the  disease  from  the  inhalation 
of  the  dried  bacilli  in  the  dust. 

In  disinfecting  the  barn,  all  litter  and  loose  material  was  first  cleaned 
out  so  as  to  give  better  penetration  to  the  disinfectant.  Then  the 
stalls  and  mangers  were  thoroughly  washed  with  a hot  solution  of  lye, 
the  walls  and  ceilings  being  treated  with  a coat  of  milk  of 
lime  (a  thin  whitewash  made  from  freshly  slaked  lime).  There 
are  other  agents  than  these  that  might  have  been  ap- 
plied ; indeed  some  that  are  more  frequently  recommended.  In 
the  disinfection  of  a tight  room  or  closed  space,  two  methods  are 
available.  One  where  a disinfecting  gas  is  liberated  that  permeates  the 
entire  space;  the  other  where  a liquid  disinfectant  is  brought  directly 
in  contact  with  the  surface  to  be  treated.  The  first  method  is  only 
applicable  where  the  space  can  be  closed  tightly.  In  a barn  or  stable, 
this  method  is  generally  of  no  service  because  the  cracks  and  crevices 
are  so  numerous  as  to  render  it  difficult  to  confine  the  gas.  The  direct 
application  of  a liquid  is  much  more  certain  to  be  effective.  Of  the 
various  substances  that  can  be  used,  corrosive  sublimate  in  the  propor- 
tion of  1 oz.  of  the  crystals  to  15  gallons  of  water  is  often  recommended. 
The  addition  of  a few  ounces  of  common  salt  intensifies  its  disinfecting 
power.  This  liquid  should  be  mixed  in  wooden  barrels  or  pails  as  it 
will  corrode  metals. 

Crude  carbolic  acid  is  often  used.  The  effectiveness  of  this  agent  may 
be  greatly  increased  by  mixing  it  with  an  equal  volume  of  sulfuric  acid. 
Care  should  be  taken  in  pouring  the  sulfuric  into  the  carbolic  acid  as  a 
large  amount  of  heat  is  quickly  liberated  by  mixing  these  agents.  This 
mixture  should  be  diluted  about  twenty  times  (6  ounces  of  carbol-sul- 
furic  acid  to  one  gallon  of  water). 

HISTORY  OF  THE  TUBERCULIN  TEST  OF  THIS  HERD. 

First  tuberculin  test.  The  first  test  was  applied  January  2,  1896.  The 
results  of  this  examination  showed  that  thirteen  out  of  sixteen  mature 
animals  responded,  and  that  three  yearlings  were  also  affected.  At  this 
time  two  animals  showed  marked  physical  symptoms  of  the  disease,  and 
these  were  slaughtered,  as  it  was  thought  unwise  to  leave  them  even  In 
the  affected  herd.  On  January  10  the  herd  was  divided  into  the  two  sec- 
tions, and  from  that  time  to  the  present,  these  divisions  have  been 
handled  as  two  separate  herds. 

Second  tuberculin  test.  To  make  sure  that  no  animals  were  left  in  the 
healthy  section  that  might  have  the  disease  in  the  earliest  stages,  a 
second  test  was  applied  on  May  12,  1896.  The  results  of  this  test  were 
identical  with  the  first.  Five  calves  had  been  dropped  in  the  interim, 
four  of  these  coming  from  the  tuberculous  section.  These  had  been 


9 


History  of  a Tuberculous  Herd  of  Cores. 

separated  at  birth  and  fed  on  boiled  milk,  and  at  this  test  showed  no 
reaction  in  any  case.  The  majority  of  the  bull  calves  coming  from 
grade  mothers  were  not  raised  but  were  sold  for  veal.  At  the  time  of 
the  second  examination  the  general  appearance  of  the  herd  had 
materially  improved  when  compared  with  its  condition  in  the  winter, 
although  all  animals  that  originally  responded  to  the  test  did  so  on  the 
second  application. 

Third  tuberculin  test.  The  third  test  was  not  made  until  nearly  a 
year  afterward,  April  26,  1897.  The  results  of  this  test  were  equally 
satisfactory.  No  new  case  of  the  disease  had  developed  in  any  instance, 
and  every  calf  from  the  tuberculous  section  as  well  as  the  other  showed 
entire  freedom  from  the  disease.  In  a couple  of  the  old  cows,  the 
disease  had  made  such  progress  that  it  was  evident  that  they  were  on 
the  decline,  and  these  were  killed.  The  herd  continued  to  increase  in 
numbers,  and  in  January,  1898,  had  reached  such  proportions  that  it  be- 
came necessary  to  dispose  of  some  of  the  animals  on  account  of  insuffi- 
cient stable  room. 

PURCHASE  OF  AFFECTED  ANIMALS  BY  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 

Inasmuch  as  the  herd  had  now  been  under  close  observation  for 
about  two  years,  it  was  deemed  expedient  to  purchase  as  many  of  the 
tuberculous  section  as  possible,  in  order  that  the  course  of  the  disease 
in  these  might  be  watched  to  its  ultimate  conclusion. 

Although  the  question  of  bovine  tuberculosis  has  been  quite 
thoroughly  investigated  for  a considerable  number  of  years,  still  there 
is  lacking  in  a large  measure,  data  as  to  the  exact  period  of  incubation 
of  the  disease  in  the  animal,  and  also  as  to  the  possibility  of  recovery. 
At  this  time  there  were  ten  tuberculous  cows  left  in  the  herd.  Of  these 
the  Experiment  Station  purchased  six,  the  owner  promising  to  keep  the 
remainder,  which  were  registered  stock,  under  the  same  conditions  as 
before. 

The  six  infected  cows  were  isolated  on  one  of  the  university  farms, 
where  they  were  kept  in  an  ordinary  stable  which  had  rather  poor  ven- 
tilation. 

Fourth  partial  tuberculin  test.  The  continued  testing  of  the  entire  herd 
having  failed  to  show  any  further  spread  of  the  disease,  it  was  deemed 
unnecessary  to  make  the  tests  of  the  whole  herd  so  frequently,  so  that 
during  1898,  testing  was  confined  to  the  yoi^ng  stock.  During  this 
period,  two  more  of  the  original  herd  of  tuberculous  animals  succumbed 
to  the  ravages  of  the  disease.  Natural  death  was  not  allowed  to  occur, 
but  they  were  killed  when  they  began  to  show  unmistakable  signs  of  de- 
cline. 

Fifth  tuberculin  test.  In  February,  1899,  a final  round-up  test  of  the 
entire  herd  was  again  made  as  the  increase  in  progeny  again  necessi- 
tated the  sale  of  some  of  the  stock.  This  test  gave  the  same  general  re- 
sults as  before,  there  being  no  increase  in  the  disease  whatever. 


10 


Bulletin  No.  78. 


SUMMARY  OF  TIIE  TESTS. 

In  order  to  present  the  actual  figures  showing  the  rate  of  herd  in- 
crease, the  results  of  the  different  tuberculin  tests  are  summarized  in 
the  following  table.  These  figures  include  the  status  of  the  herd  at  the 
different  testing  periods,  but  do  not  take  into  consideration  the  young 
calves  which  were  not  raised. 


Table  I.— Record  of  repjeated  tuberculin  tests  made  on  a herd  in 
which  the  progeny  of  reacting  animals  wets  separated  from 
dams  at  birth . 


Date  of  tist. 

No.  of  Animals  Ad- 
judged bx  Test  as 

No.  of  Animals  in 

Healthy. 

1 

Affected . 

Healthy  sec- 
tion reacting 
to  subsequent 
tests. 

Affected  sec- 
tion not  re- 
acting to  sub- 
sequent tests. 

January,  1896 

18 

16 

May,  1896 ; 

21 

14 

0 

0 

April,  1897 

30 

13 

0 

0 

February,  1899  

64 

7 

0 

0 

The  relation  of  the  progeny  of  the  tuberculous  animals  to  that  section 
is  brought  out  more  forcibly  in  the  following  diagram,  in  which  the  re- 
acting animals  are  represented  by  the  shaded  area,  the  healthy  stock  by 
the  unshaded  portions.  The  complete  check  given  to  the  spread  of  the 
disease  is  shown  by  the  perfectly  healthy  progeny  that  descended  from 
the  non-reacting  branch  of  the  herd.  The  success  of  the  method,  how- 
ever, is  to  be  noted  in  the  graphical  representation  of  the  originally 
tuberculous  section.  The  number  of  diseased  animals  has  been  steadily 
lessened  by  the  continued  progress  of  the  disease,  but  the  young  in  all 
cases  have  stood  the  test,  showing  that  the  disease  is  contracted  after 
birth  rather  than  inherited  from  the  affected  dam.  This  relationship  is 
shown  more  clearly  in  fig.  4,  in  which  the  entire  history  of  every 
animal  in  the  herd  is  delineated.  The  originally  affected  animals  are 
shown  by  the  red  lines,  the  healthy  by  the  black.  The  broken  line  repre- 
sents in  all  cases,  the  male  sex,  the  continuous  solid  line,  the  female. 
The  fact  that  since  this  experiment  was  begun,  every  calf  born  in  the 
herd  has  been  free  from  tuberculosis  is  brought  out  forcibly  by  the  black 
lines  coming  off  from  the  red  lines  in  the  different  years.  In  the  major- 
ity of  cases  where  bull  calves  were  dropped,  they  were  disposed  of  as 
veal,  and  this  fact  is  shown  by  changing  the  heavy  line  to  a “hollow”  or 
double  line.  It  is  of  course  possible  that  these  animals  might  have 
acquired  tuberculosis  later,  but  the  fact  that  they  wrere  born  free  from 


method  of  immediate  slavghter  been  followed. 


History  of  a Tuberculous  Herd  of  Cores. 


n 


the  disease,  and  remained  so  for  several  months  before  the  test  was  made, 
indicates  that  it  is  possible  to  raise  a healthy  calf  from  an  affected 
mother  in  the  great  majority  of  cases. 


ACTUAL 

CONDITION  OF  HERD  AT 
TIMES  OF  DIFFERENT  TESTS 


Date  Tuberculous  section 
inoc.  and  its joroejeny 

Healthy  section 
and  itsjDroyenL] 

i Ian. 9 6 

18  1 n FHTFj 

Reacting 

Mau’96.  14 

’ ^ ! I — 1 h |-i  , 1 1 

-J 

1 iealthy  1 1 

Apr.QZ  1 M 

19  1 

nec07  i i3 

23  1 

Feb.’99  27  F7T 

37 

Fig.  3. 


In  no  case  did  any  of  the  animals  originally  pronounced  tuberculous 
ever  fail  to  react  in  any  of  the  subsequent  tests.  This  fact  is  somewhat 
peculiar,  as  it  oTen  happens  that  the  continued  introduction  of  tuber- 
culin results  in  a failure  to  respond  in  some  cases.  Even  where  no 
response  occurs,  one  cannot  be  sure  that  a cure  is  effected,  for  the  oft  re- 
pealed injections- of  tuberculin  decreases  the  susceptibility  of  the  system 
to  the  agent  used. 

COUKSE  OF  THE  DISEASE  IN  THE  INDIVIDUAL  ANIMAL. 

One  of  the  striking  facts  that  has  been  noted  in  these  investigations 
is  the  way  in  which  the  disease  seems  to  progress  in  the  individual 
animal.  Aside  from  the  five  original  cows  which  were  bought,  the  pre- 
sumption is  strongly  in  favor  of  the  theory  that  the  other  animals  ac- 
quired the  disease  subsequent  to  1894.  By  1896  two  of  the  original  cows 
had  died.  Of  the  sixteen  affected  when  the  first  test  was  made,  several 
were  killed  for  demonstration  purposes.  In  1896  and  1897  four  had  to 
be  destroyed  on  account  of  the  progress  of  the  disease;  in  1898,  two 
more  broke  down,  and  so  far  in  1899  still  one  more  has  succumbed. 
Fig  5 shows  the  appearance  of  one  that  was  failing  fast  when  she 


Bulletin  No.  78. 


U 

was  killed.  The  seven  of  the  original  sixteen  that  now  remain  are  ap- 
parently healthy  and  aside  from  a very  slight  cough,  show  no  visible 
symptom  of  the  disease.  The  photographs  of  some  of  them  attest  this 
fact.  In  these  cases  the  disease  has  persisted  for  nearly  four  years 
to  our  knowledge,  and  probably  for  a period  of  one  to  two  years  longer. 


Fig.  5. — A tuberculous  cow  in  the  later  stages  of  the  disease.  Two  months  before  this 
picture  was  taken,  this  cow  was  pparently  as  healthy  as  any  of  the  herd. 


Fig.  6.—  A tuberculous  grade  Guernsey.  One  of  the  best  producers  in  the  herd. 


History  of  a Tuberculous  Herd  of  Coivs. 


13 


In  these  cases  ihe  animals  now  eat  well,  show  no  tendency  toward  wast- 
ing away,  and  so  far  as  an  ordinary  examination  might  go  are  ap- 
parently sound.  How  long  they  will  remain  so  is  one  of  the  problems 
which  we  propose  to  solve  by  keeping  them  until  they  die  or  recover. 

If  it  is  possible  to  keep  a reacting  animal  under  ordinarily  good  condi- 
tions for  a period  of  several  years,  then  it  is  possible  to  build  up  a 
healthy  herd  on  a diseased  foundation. 


Fig.  7.— An  apparently  healthy  but  reacting  cow  that  has  had  tuberculosis  about  five 

years . 

It  is  noteworthy  in  those  cases  in  which  the  disease  has  gained  the 
ascendency  over  the  animal  that  the  decline  has  generally  been  rapid 
toward  the  last.  The  animal  has  maintained  herself  in  good  condition 
until  some  set  of  causes  has  thrown  her  from  a chronic  latent  tubercu- 
losis into  an  acute  stage.  The  intense  cold  of  last  winter  hastened  this 
change  in  one  case;  in  two  other  instances  the  inciting  cause  was  evi- 
dently the  strain  of  calving.  A fact  of  great  practical  value  is  that  the 
diseased  condition  generally  remained  comparatively  quiescent  for  a 
number  of  years,  the  resisting  powers  of  the  body  being  able  to  hold  the 
disease  germ  in  check;  then  a sudden  turn  for  the  worse  occurred, 
generally  as  a result  of  some  external  inciting  cause. 

POSSIBLE  DISTRIBUTION  OF  DISEASE  BY  THE  HERD. 

The  milk  of  this  herd  of  cows  has  been  submitted  to  frequent  exami- 
nations in  order  to  determine  the  possible  presence  of  the  disease  germ, 
but  so  far,  we  have  always  failed  to  find  tubercle  bacilli,  although 
generally,  they  have  been  detected  in  control  examinations  where  small 
quantities  of  tuberculous  sputum  have  been  added  to  the  milk  as  a check 
upon  the  accuracy  of  the  methods  of  examination. 


14 


Bulletin  No.  78. 


Moreover,  feeding  experiments  have  also  been  carried  out  with  this 
herd  to  determine  whether  these  animals  were  able  to  impart  the  disease 
to  others.  Calves  from  tuberculous  mothers  as  well  as  progeny  from 
non-reacting  animals  have  been  allowed  to  suckle  several  of  the  re- 
acting animals;  also  healthy  young  cattle  have  been  kept  in  contact 
with  the  affected  herd  in  stable  and  pasture  to  see  if  they  would  acquire 
the  disease  by  ingestion  or  inhalation.  In  no  case,  however,  has  the 
disease  been  contracted  by  any  animal  either  where  cohabitation  or 
suckling  was  allowed.  This  signifies  that  where  the  disease  is  not 
generalized,  even  though  the  animals  may  have  reacted  for  some  years 
that  the  danger  of  propagation  was  but  slight,  and  therefore,  such  ani- 
mals should  not  be  regarded  as  positively  dangerous,  but  only  potenti- 
ally so,  inasmuch  as  the  disease  may  possibly  develop  to  such  an  extent 
as  to  become  a source  of  danger  to  those  about  them. 

As  a precautionary  measure  from  the  standpoint  of  public  health,  the 
milk  of  such  animals  should  doubtless  be  treated  so  as  to  deprive  it  of 
any  possible  infectious  properties.  This  can  readily  be  done  by 
pasteurizing  it  at  a temperature  ranging  from  140°  to  155°  F.  or  even 
higher,  for  a period  of  40  minutes,  or  less,  depending  upon  the  heat  em- 
ployed. Such  a treatment  does  not  impair  the  milk  for  direct  consump- 
tion or  for  butter,  although  the  use  of  the  higher  pasteurizing  limit  will 
render  it  less  suitable  for  cheese  purposes. 

That  this  method  of  handling  tuberculosis  is  practical,  and  in  many 
cases  desirable,  this  experience  as  well  as  that  of  others  abund- 
antly verifies.  Certain  it  is,  that  such  a method  looks  at  the  ques- 
tion from  a broader  point  of  view  than  where  the  reacting  animal  is 
immediately  sacrificed,  regardless  of  all  conditions.  The  method  of 
eradication  by  immediate  slaughter  approaches  the  question  from  a 
single  view  point;  the  other  procedure  recognizes  a bad  condition,  but 
instead  of  throwing  up  the  whole  matter,  and  beginning  at  the  foun- 
dation again,  it  attempts  to  save  time  and  values  by  using  the  dis- 
credited herd  as  a foundation  on  which  a perfectly  healthy  progeny  can 
be  raised.  Then  the  original  herd  can  be  sacrificed,  after  its  good  qual- 
ities are  perpetuated  in  the  progeny. 

The  one  method  is  apt  to  array  the  owner  against  the  health  official, 
representing  the  public  weal;  for,  in  the  owner’s  judgment,  immediate 
slaughter  is  hardly  justifiable,  unless  the  state  stands  ready  to  fully 
compensate  him  for  his  loss,  which  policy  would  be  repudiated  by  any 
commonwealth  on  account  of  its  excessive  cost.  The  other  method  uni- 
fies the  two  interested  parties,  the  owner  and  the  guardian  of  public 
health,  bceause  it  points  a way  to  the  dairyman  or  breeder  that  enables 
him  to  eradicate  the  disease  with  a minimum  loss  while  at  the  same 
time,  the  possibility  of  disease  dissemination  by  milk  and  meat  can  be 
safely  controlled. 

The  data  Here  detailed  is  of  considerable  interest  on  account  of  the 


History  of  a Tuberculous  Herd  of  Cows. 


10 


length  of  time  that  has  been  covered  and  the  thoroughly  successful  results 
that  have  been  reached  under  ordinary  conditions.  Their  value  is  some- 
what enhanced  by  the  fact  that  the  experiments  have  been  carried  on, 
not  under  ideal  conditions,  but  in  the  same  environment  in  which  the 
disease  was  contracted.  It  shows  therefore  that  the  effect  of  unfavor- 
able surroundings  of  the  animal  can  be  minimized,  if  the  tubercle  organ- 
ism is  positively  excluded  from  the  same.  The  partial  failure  that  is 
frequently  to  be  noted  where  this  method  has  been  tried  is  generally 
traceable  to  imperfect  disinfection  of  barns  or  incomplete  separation  of 
herds. 


RESULTS  COMPARED  WITH  WORK  OF  OTHERS. 

The  method  here  followed  has  come  to  be  known  as  the  Danish 
method,  because  under  the  energetic  leadership  of  Prof.  Bang,  the  gov- 
ernment veterinarian,  it  has  been  thoroughly  tried  in  Denmark.  Bang’s 
numerous  experiments  indicate  that  the  disease  can  be  “weeded  out”  in 
a practical  manner.  At  tie  present  time  the  Danish  law  is  such  that 
the  government  supplies  the  tuberculin  and  makes  the  test  gratis,  pro- 
vided the  owner  will  separate  his  herd  on  the  basis  of  the  results  of  the 
test.  The  sale  of  reacting  animals  is  prohibited  except  for  immediate 
slaughter,  which  must  be  done  under  authorized  veterinary  control,  the 
meat  being  used  under  certain  restrictions,  if  not  wholly  condemned. 
Owing  to  the  extensive  spread  of  the  disease  among  Danish  cattle,  all 
skim  milk  returned  to  the  farm  must  be  heated  to  a temperature  that 
will  surely  destroy  the  tubercle  bacilli.  Since  the  introduction  of  this 
regulation,  the  percentage  of  the  disease  in  calves  has  fallen  from  15.5 
per  cent,  in  1895  to  10.6  per  cent,  in  the  years  1896  to  1898. 

The  results  of  Bang’s  tests  were  recently  presented  to  the  Congress 
for  the  Study  of  Tuberculosis  (Paris,  1898).  In  the  case  of  twenty-three 
herds  here  reported,  none  were  so  successfully  controlled  as  in  the 
instance  here  detailed.  In  every  herd  in  which  he  tried  this  method,  a 
varying  number  of  animals  were  found  that  reacted  positively  to  subse- 
quent tests.  These  partial  failures,  amounting  in  all  cases  to  about  12 
per  cent.,  he  attributes  to  carelessness  in  maintaining  complete  separa- 
tion of  reacting  from  healthy  herds. 

This  same  general  treatment  has  also  been  followed  in  Norway  and 
Sweden  with  good  results.  The  Royal  Commission  of  Great  Britain  ap- 
pointed to  thoroughly  investigate  this  question  recommended  a similar 
course.  The  opinion  of  students  of  this  question  is  that  this  method 
offers  a more  rational  method  of  treatment  t£an  that  of  immediate 
slaughter,  and  therefore,  our  laws  should  be  so  modified  as  to  permit  its 
being  used  under  such  supervision  as  experience  shows  necessary,  for 
no  one  would  claim  that  the  interests  of  public  health  would  be  main- 
tained unless  some  regulation  by  the  state  was  enforced.  It  seems 
highly  probable,  and  the  experience  of  various  European  countries  is 


16 


Bulletin  No.  78. 


beginning  to  teach  us  the  same  story,  that  the  eradication  of,  or  holding 
in  subjection,  the  scourge  of  bovine  tuberculosis  can  be  more  eco- 
nomically and  more  thoroughly  performed  if  this  method  is  sometimes 
used  than  where  a compulsory  tuberculin  test  is  authorized  and  all  re- 
acting animals  slaughtered  as  was  attempted  in  Massachusetts. 

WHEN  SHALL  THIS  METHOD  BE  EMPLOYED? 

The  objection  may  be  raised  against  this  method  that  it  is  unwise  to 
permit  animals  to  remain  alive  that  may  in  any  possible  way  endanger 
public  health,  that  the  method  here  detailed  involves  too  much  super- 
vision. Such  a generalization  in  the  abstract  is  permissible,  but  the 
evidence  is  constantly  accumulating  that  indicates  that  a reaction  to 
the  tuberculin  test  does  not  necessarily  mean  that  the  affected  animal  is 
dangerous  at  the  time.  No  one  will  deny  but  that  the  possibility  of 
danger  is  present,  that  an  animal  affected  with  the  disease,  even  in  the 
latent  form,  is  less  desirable  than  a perfectly  healthy  animal,  but  inas- 
much as  it  is  already  practical  to  completely  destroy  the  seeds  of  disease 
in  the  milk  by  pasteurization,  it  would  seem  unnecessary  to  destroy 
valuable  animals  that  react  to  the  test  until  it  has  been  possible  to 
perpetuate  their  good  qualities  in  offspring  that  is  perfectly  healthy. 

This  method  entails  considerable  work,  and  of  course  some  extra  ex- 
pense, and  the  question  must  be  raised  in  each  individual  instance, 
which  process  of  eradication  shall  be  used,  for  there  can  be  no  question 
but  that  earnest  endeavors  should  be  made  to  eradicate  the  disease  in 
some  way  or  other  as  soon  as  its  presence  is  recognized.  Whether  all 
reacting  animals  are  slaughtered  at  once,  or  whether  some  or  all  are 
separated  and  kept  for  breeding  purposes,  will  depend  upon  the  condi- 
tions that  surround  each  case. 

If  a tuberculin  test  shows  a single  animal  or  comparatively  few  af- 
fected, then  it  is  unquestionably  good  policy  to  exterminate  the  disease 
by  slaughter,  or  in  any  event  to  remove  the  infected  animals  from  the 
herd  with  the  view  of  disposing  of  the  same  as  soon  as  circumstances 
permit. 

If  on  the  other  hand  a tuberculin  test  of  a valuable  herd  shows  the 
disease  to  be  present  in  a large  number  of  cases,  say  a majority  of  the 
breeding  animals,  then  the  “weeding  out”  of  the  disease  can  be  more 
economically  done  by  quarantine  and  separation  of  tested  progeny. 
Animals  worth  hundreds  of  dollars  can  well  be  saved  for  the  healthy 
calves  which  can  be  secured  from  them.  If  after  the  herd  has  been  built 
up  to  the  desired  number,  by  using  the  diseased  foundation  for  breeding 
these  healthy  animals,  then  the  original  cows  can  be  destroyed.  They 
have  served  their  purpose  well,  if  they  permit  their  owner  to  perpetuate 
their  valuable  qualities  in  healthy  offspring. 


Wi a.  Bull.  No.  79. 


irn^i 


UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN. 


Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


BULLETIN  NO.  79. 


PRINCIPLES  OF  CONSTRUCTION  AND  MAINTENANCE 
OF  COUNTRY  ROADS. 


MADISON , WISCONSIN,  SEPTEMBER,  1899. 


&B~The  Bulletins  and  Annual  Reports  of  this  Station  are  sent  free  to  all 
residents  of  this  State  upon  request. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN 


AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 


BOARD  OF  REGENTS. 

PRESIDENT  of  the  UNIVERSITY,  ex-officio. 

STATE  SUPERINTENDENT  of  PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION,  ex-officio. 
State-at-large,  JOHN  JOHNSTON,  Milwaukee. 

State-at-large,  WILLIAM  F.  VILAS,  Madison. 

First  District,  OGDEN  H.  FETHERS,  Janesville. 

Second  District,  B.  J.  STEVENS,  Madison. 

Third  District.  JOHN  E.  MORGAN.  Spring  Green. 

Fourth  District,  GEORGE  H.  NOYES,  Milwaukee. 

Fifth  District,  JOHN  R.  RIESS.  Shphoygan. 

Sixth  District,  C.  A.  GALLOWAY,  Fond  du  Lac. 

Seventh  District,  BYRON  A.  BUFFINGTON,  Eau  Claire. 

Eighth  District.  ORLANDO  E.  CLARK.  Appleton. 

Ninth  District,  J.  A.  VAN  CLEVE,  Marinette. 

Tenth  District,  J.  H.  STOUT,  Menomonie. 

Officers  of  the  Board  of  Res'ents. 

GEORGE  H NOYES.  President.  I STATE  TREASURER,  Ex-Officio  Treasurer. 
J.  H.  STOUT,  Vice-President.  | E.  F.  RILEY,  Secretary,  Madison. 


Agricultural  Committee. 

Regents  CLARK,  STOUT,  FETHERS,  RIESS.  MORGAN  and  PRESIDENT  ADAMS. 


OFFICERS  OF  THE  STATION. 

TH  5 PRESIDENT  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY. 

W.  A.  HENRY  ......  Director 

S M BABCOCK.  .......  . Chief  Chemist 

F H.  KING  ...  ....  Physicist 

E.  S.  GOFF,  Horticulturist 

W.  L.  CARLYLE,  ........  Animal  Husbandry 

F.  W.  WOLL,  ..........  Chemist 


H.  L.  RUSSELL, 

E.  H.  FARRINGTON. 

J.  W.  DECKER, 

ALFRED  VI VI  \N, 

A.  R.  WHITSON, 

E.  G.  HASTINGS, 
FREDERTC  CRANEFIELD 
A.  G.  HOPKINS, 

R.  A.  MOORE, 

LESLIE  H.  ADAMS,  - 
IDA  HERFURTH. 

EFFIE  M.  CLOSE, 


Bacteriologist 
Dairy  Husbandry 
Dairying 
- Assistant  Chemist 
Assistant  Physicist 
Assistant  Bacteriologist 
- Assistant  in  Horticulture 
Veterinarian 
Assistant  to  Director 
Farm  Superintendent 
- Clerk  and  Stenographer 
Librarian 


FARMERS’  INSTITUTES. 

GEORGE  McKERROW,  --------  Superintendent 

HATTIE  V.  STOUT,  ......  Clerk  and  Stenographer 

General  Offices  and  Departments  of  Agricultural  Chemistry,  Animal  Hus- 
bandry, Bacteriology,  Farmers’  Institutes  and  Library,  in  Agricultural  Hall, 
near  University  Hall,  on  Upper  Campus. 

Dairy  Building  and  joint  Horticulture-Physics  Building,  west  end  of  Obser- 
vatory Hill,  adjacent  to  Horticultural  Grounds  and  Experiment  Farm. 
Telephone  to  Station  Office,  Dairy  Building  and  Farm  Office. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


Page. 


Grade  of  roads 9 

How  the  draft  increases  with  the  grade  9 

The  steepest  grade  admissible 9 

Rigidity  of  the  road  bed 11 

Draft  with  different  widths  of  tire 11 

Size  of  the  carriage  wheel 13 

Distribution  of  load  on  the  carriage  ..  13 

Heaviest  load  on  the  hind  wheels 14 

Establishing  the  grade 15 

Factors  to  be  considered  in  establish- 
ing the  grade 15 

Road  drainage 17 

The  relation  of  water  to  roads 17 

Depth  of  underdrainage 19 

Place  for  the  drain 19 

Fall  of  the  drain 21 

Outlet  of  the  drain 21 

Size  of  tile 21 

Kind  of  tile 21 

Surface  drainage 22 

Slope  of  the  road  surface 22 

Water-breaks 22 

Texture  of  road  material 23 

Roads  should  be  built  in  layers 23 

Uniformity  of  size  of  material  used — 23 

Shape  of  fragments 24 

Cleanness  of  material 24 

Earth  roads 24 

Forming  the  roadbed 24 

Utilizing  the  old  road  as  a roadbed 25 

Preparing  the  roadbed  a year  or  more 

in  advance 27 

Roads  on  gravelly  loam 27 

Roads  in  fine  clay  soil 27 

Clay  roads  surfaced  with  gravel 27 

Sandy  roads 28 

The  use  of  stone,  sawdust  and  tan  bark 

on  sandy  roads 28 

Road  gravel 29 


Page. 


Clean  white  gravel  not  suitable 29 

Texture  of  gravels  altered  by  crushing 

and  screening 29 

Some  gravels  contain  too  much  clay. ..  30 

Gravel  roads 30 

Roads  in  swampy  places 30 

Stone  roads 31 

Macadam  roads 31 

Construction  of  macadam  roads 32 

Fitting  the  roadbed 32 

Forming  the  shoulders 33 

Kinds  of  rock  for  the  road 33 

Foundation  and  surfacing  stone  may 

be  different 34 

Sorting  boulders  before  crushing 34 

Using  limestone  for  binding 34 

Roads  made  without  binding  material  35 

Use  of  sand  for  binding 35 

Limestone  for  stone  roads 37 

Spreading  the  rock  on  the  roadbed  — 37 

Thickness  of  layer 37 

Rolling 39 

Size  and  weight  of  roller 39 

Amount  of  rolling 39 

Manner  of  rolling 39 

Kind  of  roller 42 

Rock  crushers 42 

Revolving  screen 42 

Earth  and  stone  road  combined 43 

Telford  foundations 43 

Maintenance  of  country  roads 44 

Section  men  necessary 44 

Road  Master 44 

Width  of  tires  controlled 44 

Maintenance  and  repairs 45 

Good  maintenance 45 

Maintenance  of  earth  and  gravel  roads  45 
Road  supervision 46 


Fig.  1.— View  of  a section  of  the  Menomonee  model  road  before  any  work  had  been  done  upon  it. 


PRINCIPLES  OF  CONSTRUCTION  AND  MAINTENANCE 
OF  COUNTRY  ROADS. 


F.  H.  KING. 

The  immediate  occasion  for  the  preparation  of  this  bulletin  was  the 
effort  of  our  public  spirited  citizen,  Senator  J.  H.  Stout  of  Menomonee, 
Wis.,  to  build,  at  his  own  expense,  a section  of  model  road,  in  the  vicin- 
ity of  his  own  town,  which  should  serve  as  an  object  lesson  and  an 
inspiration  to  the  better  construction  and  maintenance  of  city  and 
country  roads. 

As  Senator  Stout  had  decided  to  make  so  thorough  an  example  of 
a piece  of  good  road,  and  had  secured  from  the  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  the  services  of  Special  Agent  E.  G.  Harrison  to 
supervise  its  construction,  it  seemed  best  to  supplement  this  effort 
by  obtaining  good  photographs  showing  important  steps  in  the  process 
of  construction  and  to  prepare  a bulletin  which  might  bring  to  a 
larger  number  of  our  citizens  the  results  of  this  effort,  together  with 
other  information  specially  needed  at  this  time. 

The  section  of  road  built  begins  at  the  northwest  corner  of  Dunn 
County  Fair  grounds  and  extends  eastward  along  the  public  highway 
one-half  mile  toward  the  Dunn  County  Asylum. 

The  soil  upon  which  the  road  was  built  is  a sandy  loam  naturally 
well  drained,  and  Fig.  1 represents  a portion  of  the  road  before  any 
work  was  done  upon  it.  The  plans,  when  fully  executed,  contemplate 
leaving  the  road  with  the  profile  represnted  in  Fig.  2. 

The  work  superintended  by  Mr.  Harrison  consisted  in  preparing  the 
roadbed  and  building'  two  types  of  stone  road,  each  one-fourth  of  a 
mile  long  and  twelve  feet  wide.  The  west  quarter  of  a mile  was  given 
a gravel  foundation  which,  when  consolidated,  was  four  inches  thick, 
and  the  east  quarter  of  a mile  a crushed  rock  foundation  of  the  same 
thickness. 

The  object  of  building  the  half  mile  of  road  of  two  types  was  to  test 
the  value  of  a local  gravel  as  a road  foundation  when  surfaced  with 
crushed  rock  of  good  quality,  for,  if  this  proved  satisfactory  when 
compared  with  the  all  stone  portion  over  which  the  same  traffic  must 
pass,  it  would  cheapen  the  construction  of  good  roads  in  that  locality 
very  materially. 


6 


Bulletin  No.  79. 


The  rock  used  in  the  construction  of  this  piece  of  road  was  shipped 
from  Chippewa  Falls,  where  they  were  taken  from  the  bed  of  the  stream 
in  the  form  of  granitic  and  trapean  boulders.  There  were  used  on 
the  half  mile  of  road  42  carloads  of  rock,  most  of  which  required 


to  be  broken  with  hammers 

before  it  could  be  received  by 

the  No.  3 Austin  crusher, 

shown  at  work  in  the  three 

• engravings,  Figs.  8,  9,  10, 

■g  which,  together  with  the 

I*  other  machinery,  was  secured 

8 through  the  United  States  De- 

§ partment  of  Agriculture. 

.a 

£ The  crusher  was  driven  by 
'S  a 22-horse  power  threshing 
•2  engine,  and  on  July  19,  nine- 
| ty-three  cubic  yards  of  rock 
g were  crushed  and  placed  upon 

o 

03  the  road. 

03 

r d It  will  be  seen  from  the  il- 

03 

g lustrations  that  the  crusher 
was  provided  with  an  elevator 
g and  revolving  screen  which 

2 separated  the  rock  into  three 
a 

® grades,  depositing  each  in  sep- 
§ arate  bins  from  which  they 

<D 

S could  be  loaded  directly  into 

wagons  as  shown  in  the  cuts. 

The  coarser  pieces,  passing 

® the  end  of  the  screen,  were 

g used  in  the  foundation  layer 
a 

tD  as  far  as  they  would  go.  The 

a __ 

£ medium  grade  shown  in  Figs. 
^ 23  and  24  was  used  for  sur- 

C n 

B facing  and  for  the  foundation 

a 

bo  when  needed,  while  the  finest 

03 

p portion  was  used  for  binding. 
Jj  There  was  not  fine  material 
o’  enough  to  fill  all  the  voids  and 
sand  was  used  in  the  founda- 
tion layer  beginning  with  the 
corner  of  the  fair  grounds  and 
extending  east  about  600  feet. 


The  Construction  and  Maintenance  of  Country  Roads.  7 


Fig.  3.— View  of  the  west  end  of  the  Menomonee  model  road  with  the  stone  portion  in  the  foreground  nearly  completed. 


8 


Bulletin  No.  79. 


Fig.  4.— View  of  the  middle  section  of  the  Menomonee  model  road  where  four  inches  of  crushed  rock  for  wearing  surface  is 

being  built  upon  four  incher  of  road-gravel  as  foundation  layer. 


The  Construction  and  Maintenance  of  Country  Roads.  9 


It  was  not  the  original  intention,  however,  to  do  this,  the  situation  be- 
ing accepted  only  to  meet  the  emergency  of  insufficient  fine  material 
to  fill  the  voids  in  the  two  layers  of  crushed  rock.  This  variation  in  the 
all-stone  road  will  serve  to  show  whether,  for  light  roads  where  rock 
must  be  shipped  for  long  distances,  the  crushed  rock  filling  may  be 
omitted  and  thus  save  expense  by  using  sand  for  binding. 

The  gravel  used  for  this  foundation  is  of  a reddish  brown  color,  and 
a sample  taken  from  the  roadbed  had  the  texture  given  below: 

38.17  per  cent,  not  passing  a screen  of  4 meshes  per  inch. 

14.57  per  cent,  passing  screen  of  4 meshes  but  not  one  of  12  meshes  per  inch. 

8.58  per  cent,  passing  screen  of  12  meshes  but  not  one  of  20  meshes  per  inch. 

21.27  per  cent,  passing  screen  of  20  meshes  but  not  one  of  40  meshes  per  inch. 

13:50  per  cent,  passing  screen  cu  40  meshes  but  not  one  of  100  meshes  per  inch. 

4.01  per  cent,  passing  screen  of  100  meshes  per  inch. 

The  same  or  closely  similar  gravel  was  also  used  in  the  construction 
of  a section  of  gravel  road  in  the  city  of  Menomonee,  on  Broadway  be- 
tween Ash  and  West  Willow  streets,  which  will  serve  to  demonstrate 
the  value  of  the  same  material  for  the  construction  of  all-gravel  roads. 

GRADE  OF  ROADS. 

A pull  of  2,000  lbs.  is  required  to  lift  a ton  vertically,  but  to  simply 
move  it  horizontally  only  the  friction  of  the  carriage  and  the  resistance 
of  the  air  need  be  overcome.  The  more  nearly  level  that  roads  are 
built,  therefore,  the  heavier  and  the  faster  may  loads  be  moved  over 
them. 


HOW  THE  DRAFT  INCREASES  WITH  THE  GRADE. 

If  the  roadbed  rises  one  foot  in  100  feet  it  is  said  to  have  a one 
per  cent,  grade,  and  this  amount  of  slope  will  increase  the  draft  one 
per  cent,  of  the  weight  of  the  load  over  what  it  would  be  on  the  same 
roadbed  level.  A two  per  cent,  grade  rises  two  feet  in  every  100  feet 
and  the  draft  is  increased  by  it  two  per  cent,  of  the  load;  a ten  per 
cent,  grade  rises  ten  feet  in  every  100  feet  and  will  increase  the  draft 
of  a ton  200  lbs.  over  what  it  is  on  a level  road  of  the  same  charac- 
ter. The  heavier  the  loads  to  be  moved,  therefore,  the  more  objection- 
able becomes  any  grade  in  the  road.  This  is  why  with  all  railroads 
the  heavier  their  freight  the  more  they  overhaul  their  tracks  and  lower 
the  grade. 


THE  STEEPEST  GRADE  ADMISSIBLE. 

When  it  is  asked  what  is  the  steepest  grade  which  should  be  per- 
mitted on  a given  road  there  are  many  factors  which  must  be  con- 
sidered, but  the  most  general  rule  is  to  make  the  grade  as  small  as 
practicable  on  roads  where  horses  are  expected  to  carry  all  they  can 
well  handle  on  good,  nearly  level  roads,  and  the  better  the  level  part 


Bulletin  No.  79, 


10 


Fig.  5.— View  on  the  east  section  of  the  Menomonee  model  road  where  the  road-bed,  in  the  foreground,  has  been  shaped  with 
road  grader  and  is  receiving  the  foundation  layer  of  crushed  rock  4 inches  thick. 


The  Construction  and  Maintenance  of  Country  Roads.  11 

of  the  road,  the  longer  the  haul  and  the  more  teams  to  pass  over  it, 
the  less  steep  should  the  grade  be.  On  all  well  designed  roads  a great 
effort  is  usually  made  to  keep  below  a rise  of  seven  feet  in  100  feet. 

RIGIDITY  OF  THE  ROAD-BED. 

A yielding  roadbed  is  perhaps  the  most  serious  defect  of  roads,  and 
the  one  which  increases  the  draft  more  than  any  other.  If  a wheel 
is  steadily  cutting  into  its  roadbed  it  is  continually  tending  to  rise 
over  an  obstruction  or  out  of  a rut,  or  it  is  doing  what  is  in  effect 
all  the  time  passing  up  a grade,  the  hill  being  steeper  in  proportion 
as  the  wheels  are  smaller. 

When  the  obstruction  is  only  four  per  cent,  of  the  radius  of  the 
wheel  the  draft  is  increased  more  than  two-fold.  That  is  to  say,  if 
a wheel  is  48  inches  in  diameter,  an  obstruction  of  four  per  cent,  would 
be  only  .96  of  an  inch,  and  yet  the  draft  is  made  by  it  more  than  twice 
as  heavy. 

When  the  wheel  cuts  in  one  inch  the  draft  would  not  increase  quite 
so  much  because  the  wheel  never  rises  quite  out  of  the  rut,  but  the 
difference  between  the  draft  on  the  macadam  and  dirt  road  is  due 
mostly  to  the  difference  in  the  yielding,  or  cutting  in  of  the  wheels. 

An  experiment  conducted  by  the  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture testing  the  draft  of  ordinary  wagons  on  steel  wagon  road 
showed  that  a single  small  horse  easily  drew  11  tons,  or  22  times  the 
weight  of  the  animal,  and  it  is  stated  in  the  report  that  the  horse  could 
readily  have  hauled  50  times  his  own  weight.  This  would  be,  for  a 
1,000-pound  horse,  25  tons,  but  of  course  with  such  a load  the  road  must 
be  practically  level,  for  a grade  of  one  per  cent,  would  increase  its 
draft  500  pounds. 

DRAFT  WITH  DIFFERENT  WIDTHS  OF  TIRE. 

Prof.  J.  H.  Waters1  has  made  an  extended  series  of  trials  to  test 
the  effect  of  the  width  of  tires  on  the  draft  of  loads  under  different 
conditions  of  road.  He  used  always  a net  load  of  one  ton,  but  the 
6-inch  tired  wagon  was  245  pounds  heavier  than  the  1 1-2  inch,  mak- 
ing the  gross  loads  3,225  and  2,980  pounds  respectively,  when  the  wag- 
ons were  free  from  mud.  The  following  are  his  results: 

On  macadam  streets,  wide  tire  26  per  cent  less  than  narrow  tire. 

On  gravel  road,  wide  tire  24.1  per  cent,  less  than  narrow  tire. 

On  dirt  roads,  dry,  smooth,  free  from  dust,  wide  tire  26.8  per  cent,  less  than 
narrow  tire. 

On  clay  road,  with  mud  deep  and  drying  on  top  and  spongy  beneath,  wide 
tire  52  to  61  per  cent,  less  than  narrow  tire. 

On  meadow,  pasture,  stubble,  corn  ground  and  plowed  ground  from  dry  to 
wet,  wide  tire  17  to  120  per  cent,  less  than  narrow  tire. 


1M1.  No.  39,  Missouri  Agr.  Exp.  Station. 


12 


Bulletin  No.  79, 


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The  Construction  and  Maintenance  of  Country  Roads.  13 

On  the  other  hand  he  found  that  when  the  roads  were  covered  with 
a deep  dust,  or  with  a thin  mud  but  hard  below,  the  narrow  tired  wagon 
gave  the  lightest  draft.  Alsd  when  the  mud  was  thick  and  so  sticky 
as  to  roll  up  on  the  wheel,  loading  it  down,  and  again  when  narrow 
tired  wagons  had  made  deep  ruts  in  the  road  which  the  wide  tired 
wagon  tended  to  fill  up,  the  narrow  wheeled  wagon  gave  the  lightest 
draft. 

SIZE  OF  THE  CARRIAGE  WHEEL. 

It  is  plain  from  what  has  been  said,  that  on  yielding  roadbeds  the 
draft  must  necessarily  be  heavier,  other  things  being  the  same,  the 
smaller  the  wheels  of  the  vehicle.  This  must  be  so  both  because  small 
wheels  present  less  surface  to  the  roadbed  to  sustain  the  load,  and  be- 
cause when  the  wheel  has  depressed  the  surface  it  must  move  its  load 
up  a steeper  grade  than  the  large  wheel.  It  follows  also  from  these 
statements  that  wagons  with  small  wheels  must  be  more  destructive 
to  the  road  itself,  whether  this  be  of  dirt,  gravel,  stone  or  iron. 

DISTRIBUTION  OF  LOAD  ON  THE  CARRIAGE. 

When  there  is  nothing  to  prevent  doing  so,  the  load  carried  by  the 
wagon  should  be  so  distributed  upon  the  wheels  as  to  be  divided  pro- 
portionately to  the  surface  the  wheels  present  to  the  ground,  and  when 
the  front  wheels  are  smaller  they  should  carry  a smaller  load.  When 
care  is  not  exercised  in  this  matter  there  is  danger,  especially  on 
soft  roads  and  in  the  field  generally,  of  very  materially  increasing  the 
labor  of  hauling.  When  the  load  is  heaviest  on  one  side  the  wheels 
of  that  side  are  unduly  depressed,  thus  increasing  the  draft.  The 
tilting  of  the  wagon  in  this  way  throws  the  center  of  the  load  to  one 
side  still  further  and  to  a very  serious  degree  if  the  load  is  high,  as 
is  the  case  in  hauling  hay  or  cordwood. 

HEAVIEST  LOAD  ON  THE  HIND  WHEELS. 

In  loading  the  ordinary  wagon  the  heaviest  load  should  be  placed 
on  the  hind  wheels  for  three  important  reasons:  First,  because  they 
are  larger  and  will  not  depress  the  roadbed  so  much  and  will  draw 
easier  if  they  do;  second,  when  the  wheels  track,  the  front  wheels 
make  a road,  by  firming  the  ground,  over  which  the  balance  of  the 
load  may  be  more  easily  drawn;  third,  when  the  axle  of  the  front 
wheel  is  free  to  be  turned,  as  in  the  common  wagon,  the  slight  inequal- 
ities of  the  roadbed  tend  all  the  time  to  keep  the  tongue  vibrating,  so 
that  there  is  a strong  tendency,  by  this  to  and  fro  swinging,  to  cause 
the  front  wheels  to  cut  more  deeply  into  the  ground  and  thus  increase 
the  draft.  On  a very  rigid  roadbed  this  matter  is  not  as  important 
as  in  doing  field  work,  but  the  differences  are  large  enough  on  earth 
roads  so  that  they  should  never  be  overlooked. 


14 


Bulletin  No.  79. 


Fig.  7. — View  on  the  Menomonee  model  road  showing  horse  roller  at  work  compacting  the  road  metal. 


The  Construction  and  Maintenance  of  Country  Roads.  15 

In  the  following  table  some  observed  differences  are  recorded: 


Drv  sheep 
pasture. 

Dry 

meadow. 

Load  equally  on  four  wheels 

Lbs.  per  ton. 

110.4 

120.0 

129.3 

101.8 

Lbs.  per  ton. 

174.0 

187.5 

229.9 

190.9 

Load  heaviest  on  one  side 

Load  heaviest  on  front  wheels 

Load  heaviest  on  hind  wheels 

These  statements  may  appear  to  contradict  the  common  practice  of 
hauling  logs  butt  end  forward  and  the  general  tendency  of  placing 
the  heaviest  portion  of  the  load  forward.  The  conditions,  however,  are 
quite  different  from  those  where  there  is  a real  advantage  in  placing 
the  heaviest  load  forward. 

Having  outlined  the  principles  underlying  the  draft  of  wagons  on 
roads  the  next  consideration  should  be  how  to  make  and  maintain  the 
road  for  the  given  locality  which,  everything  considered,  is  the  most 
economical. 


ESTABLISHING  THE  GRADE. 

For  ordinary  country  roads  the  roadbed  will  generally  conform  with 
the  natural  slope  of  the  surface  over  which  it  passes;  steep  hills,  how- 
ever, should,  if  possible,  always  be  avoided  either  by  turning  to  one 
side  or  by  grading  and  filling. 

Where  the  hills  are  short  and  steep  they  may  usually  be  graded 
down  to  better  advantage  than  to  pass  around  them,  but  when  the  hill 
is  both  long  and  high  then  it  may  be  best  to  reduce  the  grade  by  pass- 
ing obliquely  up  the  hill. 

FACTORS  TO  BE  CONSIDERED  IN  ESTABLISHING  THE  GRADE. 

There  are  many  factors  which  must  be  considered  in  deciding  the 
particular  grade  a road  over  a given  hill  may  be  permitted  to  have.  If 
the  road  for  the  main  travel  is  generally  excellent  and  level,  with  a 
good  deal  of  traffic  over  it,  then  it  is  important  to  keep  the  grade  as 
low  as  practicable.  Where  the  country  is  generally  rolling,  so  that 
there  are  many  hills  which  must  in  any  event  have  a high  grade,  it 
will  not  be  as  important  to  cut  other  hills  down  as  much  as  a more 
level  country  could  warrant. 

The  better  the  more  level  portions  of  the  road  are  where  heavy 
teaming  is  done  the  more  important  it  is  to  reduce  the  grade  to  a 
low  per  cent.,  because  it  is  important  to  be  able  to  go  over  any  hill 
readily  which  can  be  approached  with  the  largest  load  the  team  is 
able  to  handle  without  injury  to  itself.  The  great  importance  of  this 


16 


Bulletin  No.  79. 


Fig.  8.— View  of  No.  3 Austin  Crusher,  with  revolving  screen  breaking  boulders  for  Menomonee  model 
road;  and  wagon  loading  coarsest  grade  of  broken  stone. 


The  Construction  and  Maintenance  of  Country  Roads . IT 

point  will  be  readily  understood  when  it  is  stated  that  the  steepest 
grade  admissible  on  an  average  macadam  road  is  10.5  per  cent.,  and  on 
a dirt  road  in  good  condition  16  per  cent.  But  as  these  grades  will  tax 
the  team  to  its  utmost  the  hills  should  not  be  permitted  to  rise  if  prac- 
ticable faster  than  4 feet  in  100  feet  for  the  ordinary  macadam  and  6.2 
feet  in  100  feet  for  the  earth  road  in  good  condition. 

In  thinly  settled  sections  people  must  be  content  to  improve  the 
roads  gradually,  but  if  the  end  finally  to  be  reached  is  kept  in  mind 
all  the  time  it  will  usually  be  possible  to  make  each  year’s  work  count 
as  permanent  improvement  and  avoid  tearing  down  one  year  the  work 
of  the  years  preceding. 

ROAD  DRAINAGE. 

The  keeping  of  the  road  dry,  both  above  and  below,  is  the  most 
fundamental  necessity  of  a good  permanent  highway.  Fill  any  soil, 
however  hard  and  firm,  completely  with  water,  and  a child  walking 
over  it  will  mire;  and  to  completely  drain  and  dry  any  soft  and  marshy 
place  will  leave  it  so  that  heavy  loads  may  be  moved  across  it  readily 
and  safely.  Drainage  is  one  of  the  first  requisites  of  a good  road. 

In  some  places  only  surface  drainage  requires  attention.  Where 
the  surface  is  more  or  less  rolling  and  underlaid  with  coarse  porous 
materials,  so  that  standing  water  in  the  ground  does  not  occur  within 
10  to  20  feet  of  the  surface,  unaer  drainage  will  not  be  necessary;  but 
wherever  the  adjacent  fields  would  be  improved  by  drainage,  wherever 
the  ground  is  springy,  and  wherever  the  ground  water  at  any  season 
of  the  year  rises  to  within  three  or  four  feet  of  the  surface  there  the 
roadbdd  should  be  drained. 

In  humid  climates  provisions  should  be  made  to  surface  drain  every 
road. 

THE  RELATION  OF  WATER  TO  ROADS. 

When  a soil  is  completely  filled  with  water  the  individual  soil  grains 
are  invested  by  water  and  tend  to  float  in  it  so  that  there  is  the  great- 
est freedom  of  motion  of  the  particles.  On  the  other  hand  let  all 
water  be  removed  from  the  soil  and  the  ground,  while  hard,  easily 
frets  into  fine,  loose,  separate  dust  particles,  which  not  only  increase 
the  draft  but  are  easily  drifted  away  by  the  wind,  thus  injuring  the 
road  much  as  it  would  be  were  the  top  washed  away  by  running 
water. 

There  is  a medium  condition  or  amount  of  water  in  jthe  soil  which 
gives  it  power  to  withstand  the  eroding  tendency  of  the  tramp  of 
the  horses’  feet  and  the  rolling  of  the  wheels.  When  sand  is  just  wet 
enough  its  surface  is  hard  and  will  carry  a heavy  load,  the  grains 
being  bound  together  by  the  surface  tension  of  the  water  films.  So, 
too,  with  the  clay  roads  and  those  of  the  best  of  loam,  the  right  amount 
of  water  always  present,  so  as  to  keep  the  surface  damp  and  dark 
without  making  them  soft,  greatly  improves  the  quality  and  lengthens 
2 


18 


Bulletin  No:  79, 


Fig,  9.— View  of  engine  and  crusher  breaking  rock,  and  wagon  loading  surfacing  grade  for  Menomonee  model  road. 


The  Construction  and  Maintenance  of  Country  Roads.  19 

their  life.  So  valuable  is  the  right  amount  of  water  on  earth  roads 
that  sprinkling  them  in  arid  and  semi-arid  climates  and  in  dry  times  in 
humid  climates,  is  one  of  the  most  effective  means  of  maintenance. 

DEPTH  OF  UNDER  DRAINAGE. 

Where  under  drainage  is  needed  the  drain  should  not  be  less  than 
three  to  four  feet  deep,  and  this  is  especially  true  if  heavy  traffic  Is 
to  be  maintained  over  it. 

No  one  thinks  of  walking  on  the  yielding  surface  of  the  water  of 
a lake  or  stream,  but  let  it  be  covered  with  a sufficiently  thick  layer 
of  ice  and  it  then  makes  the  best  kind  of  a roadbed.  The  drained 
ground  beneath  the  road  surface  must  be  sufficiently  thick  to  float  on 
the  soft  soil  beneath  any  load  which  may  be  driven  along  it,  just  as 
the  ice  floats  its  burden. 

PLACE  FOR  THE  DRAIN. 

In  the  narrow  roads  of  eight  to  sixteen  feet,  where  the  water  to  be 
removed  is  that  which  may  be  raised  by  hydrostatic  pressure  vertically 
upward  beneath  the  roadbed,  the  best  place  for  the  drain  is  directly 
beneath  the  center  of  the  drive-way,  as  represented  in  Fig.  11. 


Fig.  11.— Showing  method  of  under-draining  a narrow  road.  (After  Spalding.) 

Where  the  main  source  of  the  water  causing  the  trouble  is  an  under- 
flow through  sands  and  gravels  from  adjacent  higher  lands  then  the 
drain  should  be  placed  upon  the  side  of  the  road  from  which  the  water 
comes,  as  represented  in  Fig.  12. 


Fig.  12.— Showing  method  of  under-draining  for  a road  on  a side  hill  where  the 
underflow  is  from  the  hill  side.  (After  Spalding.) 

Where  the  ground  is  marshy  on  all  sides,  and  particularly  if  the 
road  is  wide,  it  may  then  be  necessary  to  lay  two  lines  of  tile,  one 
on  each  side,  as  represented  in  Fig.  13. 


Fig.  13.— Showing  method  of  under-draining  a broad  roadbed  in  a wet  place. 

(After  Spalding.) 

If  springy  places  occur  under  or  near  the  roadbed  drains  must  be 
connected  with  the  spring  itself. 


20 


Bulletin  No.  70. 


Fig.  lO.-Side  view  of  No.  3 Austin  Crusher  and  wagon  loading  screenings  for  the  Menomonee  model  road. 


The  Construction  and  Maintenance  of  Country  Roads*  21 

FALL  OF  THE  DRAIN". 

The  fall  of  the  drain  will  usually  conform  somewhat  nearly  to  the 
grade  of  the  roadbed,  but  should  not  be  less  than  two  inches  in  100 
feet,  if  this  can  be  secured.  It  will,  however,  be  necessary  sometimes 
to  lay  the  drain  on  a slopq  less  than  this,  even  as  low  as  1-2  an  inch 
in  100  feet.  In  all  cases  care  should  be  exercised  to  lay  the  tile  on 
a true  grade,  not  allowing  them  to  drop  anywhere  below  or  rise  above 
a rigidly  maintained  grade  line.  If  they  are  not  laid  in  this  man- 
ner waiter  will  stand  in  the  sags  and  behind  the  bends,  and  in  these 
places  the  tile  may  become  filled  with  silt. 

It  may  sometimes  occur  that  the  road  is  so  nearly  level  that  there 
is  no  fall  for  the  drain.  In  such  cases  it  may  be  necessary  to  lay 
the  beginning  end  of  the  drain  nearer  the  surface  of  the  ground  by 
as  much  as  six  or  even  twelve  inches.  In  this  way  could  be  given  a 
fall  of  one  inch  in  100  feet  over  a distance  of  1,200  feet,  but  of  course 
the  upper  portion  of  the  road  could  not  be  as  well  drained  and  the 
plan  should  be  followed  only  where  there  is  no  other  alternative. 

OUTLET  OF  THE  DRAIN. 

The  drain  should  be  turned  out  to  the  side  of  the  road  whenever 
there  is  an  opportunity  for  doing  so,  that  is,  whenever  there  is  a natural 
line  of  drainage  leading  across  the  road  which  will  answer  for  the 
purpose.  The  free  end  of  the  drain  is  best  made  of  one  length  of 
cast  iron  sewer  pipe  eight  feet  long,  because  this  will  not  be  injured 
by  freezing  nor  be  easily  broken.  There  should  be  a free  fall  at  the 
end  of  the  tile  and  it  is  better  that  the  opening  should  be  protected 
by  some  sort  of  metal  grating  or  screen  to  prevent  animals  from  run- 
ning in  in  dry  times. 

SIZE  OF  TILE. 

Tile  three  inches  in  diameter  is  the  best  to  use  for  the  reason  that, 
in  case  the  grade  is  very  small,  slight  errors  in  laying  the  line  can- 
not carry  the  entire  opening  of  the  tile  above  or  below  the  grade  line 
and  hence  permit  the  drain  to  be  entirely  closed  by  silt. 

KIND  OF  TILE. 

Where  the  tile  can  be  laid  two  feet  or  more  below  the  surface  of 
the  road  ordinary  drain  tile  which  are  well  burned,  straight,  smooth 
inside  and  having  the  ends  cut  squarely  off  so  that  they  may  fit  closely 
together  are  best.  Great  care  should  be  taken  in  placing  the  tile  to 
turn  them  until  the  ends  fit  very  closely  all  the  way  around,  and  then 
to  fix  them  rigidly  there.  This  care  is  needed  in  order  to  prevent 
silt  from  being  washed  in  at  the  joints. 

Where  the  tile  must  come  less  than  two  feet  below  the  surface  it 
will  be  safer  either  to  use  the  vitrified  drain  tile  or  else  second  qual- 
ity sewer  tile  no't  likely  to  be  disintegrated  by  frost. 


22 


Bulletin  No.  79. 


SURFACE  DRAINAGE. 

The  quick  removal  of  water  from  the  surface  of  a road  and  the 
prevention  of  seepage  down  through  the  roadbed  are  the  most  impor- 
tant points  to  be  secured  in  the  matter  of  maintenance.  The  surface 
of  every  road,  therefore,  should  be  so  shaped  as  to  act  like  a roof  in 
throwing  all  rains  quickly  and  completely  off,  permitting  only  a little 
moisture  to  be  drawn  downward  by  capillary  action  to  moisten  the 
material  and  lessen  the  formation  of  dust.  If  the  compacted  mate- 
rial of  the  road  and  the  roadbed  beneath  it  can  be  kept  with  only  a 
small  per  cent,  of  capillary  water  in  them  the  danger  of  injury  from 
frost  is  greatly  lessened  and  the  liability  to  soften  during  wet  periods 
is  also  largely  removed. 

Water  should  under  no  conditions  be  permitted  to  stand  either  upon 
the  surface  nor  along  the  side  of  the  road,  the  shape  being  sufficiently 
rounded  to  throw  the  rains  quickly  to  either  side,  and  the  surface 
ditches  deep  enough,  clean  enough  and  possessing  sufficient  capacity 
to  carry  all  water  rapidly  away. 

SLOPE  OF  THE  ROAD  SURFACE. 

In  order  to  have  quick,  complete  surface  drainage  it  is  necessary 
to  so  arch  the  face  as  to  make  a road  twelve  feet  wide  three  inches 
higher  in  the  center  than  at  either  margin,  a slope  of  about  four  per 
cent,  or  four  inches  in  100  inches.  But  if  the  road  has  itself  a con- 
siderable grade,  then  the  slope  must  be  made  enough  greater  than  four 
per  cent,  to  force  the  water  to  the  side  ditches  rather  than  to  permit 
it  to  flow  down  the  center  of  the  road.  But  evenness  or  smoothness 
of  surface  is  the  most  important  condition  to  be  secured  and  main- 
tained in  order  to  afford  perfect  drainage.  If  the  road  surface  is  left 
uneven,  or  is  permitted  to  become  so,  no  amount  of  slope  which  can 
be  tolerated  will  secure  the  drainage. 

The  road  must  not  be  made  too  rounding  or  sloping  for  the  reason 
that  then  teams  all  drive  in  one  place  on  the  surface  and  wear  it  into 
ruts  and  this  prevents  drainage. 

WATER-BREAKS. 

On  steep  grades  where  the  hill  is  long  it  is  a common  practice  to 
throw  a ridge  obliquely  across  the  road  at  intervals  to  turn  the  water 
to  the  side.  This  is  a bad  practice  and  should  be  avoided  wherever 
possible,  and  in  all  but  the  steepest  grades  this  may  be  done  by  mak- 
ing the  slope  of  the  road  higher  than  the  grade. 

If  the  water  cannot  be  turned  off  in  this  way  it  is  better  to  make 
two  paved  gutters  meeting  V-shaped  in  the  center  of  the  road  with 
the  point  up  the  grade.  The  paving  will  prevent  washing  and  mak- 
ing the  gutters  meet  in  the  center  does  not  tip  the  wagon  in  passing 
across  them. 


The  Construction  and  Maintenance  of  Country  Roads.  23 

Whenever  it  becomes  necessary  to  carry  water  across  a road  on  a 
hill  from  one  gutter  to  the  other  it  is  much  better  to  carry  it  under 
the  road  than  above  it,  as  is  so  often  done  with  the  aid  of  water-brakes. 
A culvert  is  of  course  necessary  but  it  should  be  used. 

TEXTURE  OF  ROAD  MATERIAL. 

Closeness  of  texture  is  necessary  to  the  building  of  a solid  road. 
The  more  completely  all  pores  can  be  obliterated  and  the  road  given 
the  close  texture  of  iron  the  better  and  more  durable  will  it  be. 

Field  soil  in  its  natural  condition  may  have  from  30  to  50  per  cent, 
of  space  unoccupied  by  anything  but  water  and  air,  and  in  this  con- 
dition it  cannot  form  a good  road.  It  is  too  yielding  to  pressure  and 
water  percolates  through  it  too  rapidly.  When  it  is  properly  rolled 
and  tamped  the  pore  space  is  very  greatly  reduced,  giving  it  so  close 
a texture  that  water  does  not  enter  it  readily,  and  so  large  a portion 
of  the  grains  are  in  actual  contact  that  it  approaches  the  character 
of  a rock.  Of  whatever  material  a road  is  built  it  should  be  of  such 
a character  as  to  permit  the  parts  to  pack  so  closely  as  to  approach 
the  character  of  solid  rock.  * 

ROADS  SHOULD  BE  BUILT  IN  LAYERS. 

Whether  a road  is  to  be  built  of  crushed  rock  or  earth  it  is  indis- 
pensable that  the  materials  used  shall  be  put  on  in  layers.  The  thick- 
ness of  the  layers  will  depend  primarily  upon  the  size  of  the  pieces 
of  material  used,  the  layers  being  thicker  the  coarser  the  material. 
With  crushed  rock  having  pieces  2 to  2 1-2  inches  in  diameter  the 
layers  will  need  to  be  3 to  4 inches  thick;  with  smaller  pieces  the 
layers  should  be  thinner.  If  thicker  layers  than  these  are  made  the 
effect  will  be  the  formation  of  a crust  of  closely  packed  material,  a 
little  thicker  than  the  diameter  of  the  material  used,  over  a loose  and 
open  structure  below. 

The  hardest  and  best  earth  road  can  be  built  only  by  spreading  the 
material  on  very  uniformly  in  thin  layers  and  thoroughly  compacting 
each  layer  before  the  next  is  put  in  place;  the  thickness  of  these  lay- 
ers should  be  2 inches  and  less,  rather  than  more. 

UNIFORMITY  OF  SIZE  OF  MATERIAL  USED. 

It  is  impossible  to  crush  rock  into  sizes  varying  all  the  way  from 
fine  dust  to  pieces  1.5  inches  in  diameter  and  then  use  this  material  un- 
sorted to  make  a solid,  unyielding  road.  The  materials  when  laid  down 
at  once  with  all  sizes  mixed  will  not  pack  so  as  not  to  work  up  loose 
with  the  travel  upon  it;  and  this  is  the  main  reason  why  more  solid 
roads  cannot  be  built  from  earth. 

Crushed  rock  must  be  carefully  separated  into  nearly  uniform  sizes 
by  means  of  screens  and  the  different  grades  applied  to  the  road  in 
layers. 


24 


Bulletin  No.  79. 


When  a layer  is  made  of  only  a single  size  of  pieces  these  may  be 
brought  together  by  packing  so  that  all  touch  and  press  firmly  against 
one  another.  If  now  a grade  is  used  of  smaller  pieces  such  as  will 
work  readily  into  the  pores  left  between  the  angles  of  the  larger  ones, 
pressing  hard  upon  all  sides,  a still  more  stable  layer  will  be  formed. 
If  it  were  practicable  to  follow  this  method  step  by  step  there  would 
be  reproduced  a nearly  solid  rock  from  the  fragments  made  and  the 
most  substantial  of  roads  built. 

SHAPE  OF  FRAGMENTS. 

The  shape  of  the  materials  used  in  road  building  has  important 
bearings  on  the  quality  of  the  road.  The  best  form  is  that  which  ap- 
proaches most  closely  to  the  cube  with  broad,  flat  faces,  sharp  angles 
and  having  the  same  diameter  in  three  directions.  Fragments  of  this 
form  pack  most  readily  and,  as  the  broad,  flat  faces  set  against  each 
other,  the  fragments  do  not  so  readily  turn  under  the  wheel  or  horses* 
feet  and  withstand  a heavier  load  without  crushing. 

Where  sands  and  gravels  are  used  in  road  building  those  of  glacial 
origin  which  are  much  sharper  and  more  angular  than  water  worn 
types  are  much  to  be  preferred,  for  the  simple  reason  that  when  packed 
together  they  give  a more  rigid  body  and  stronger  binding.  Beach 
gravels  and  sands  cannot  be  held  rigidly  by  any  ordinary  cementing 
material  because,  with  the  round,  smooth  surfaces,  there  is  little  op- 
portunity for  any  locking. 

CLEANNESS  OF  MATERIAL. 

Where  crushed  rock  is  used  in  the  building  of  roads  it  is  important 
that  these  materials  be  clean  and  free  from  dirt,  clay  and  rubbish  of 
any  sort.  So  with  gravel  or  sand,  when  these  are  called  for  they 
should  be  clean.  In  general,  anything  which  works  against  uniformity 
of  material  should  be  avoided. 

EARTH  ROADS. 

In  the  country  in  most  parts  of  the  United  States  the  greatest  num- 
ber of  miles  of  travel  for  a long  time  to  come  must  be  made  over  earth 
roads.  It  is  therefore  of  great  importance  that  they  should  be  built 
in  the  best  possible  manner.  The  proper  construction  of  earth  roads 
is  made  the  more  important  through  the  fact  that  when  well  built 
and  well  maintained  there  is  no  road  easier  on  the  team,  the  carriage 
or  the  parties  riding,  where  speed  is  an  important  consideration,  than 
an  earth  road. 

FORMING  THE  ROADBED. 

After  the  grade  has  been  established  and  under-drainage  provided 
where  necessary,  all  organic  material  and  stone  should  be  cleared  out 


The  Construction  and  Maintenance  of  Country  Roads.  25 

of  the  way  and  the  road  given  the  form  and  width  desired  by  a road 
machine  such  as  represented  in  Figs.  15  and  16,  or  by  other  means. 

The  road  itself  should  have  a width  of  16  or  18  feet  bordered  on 
either  side  by  a strip  of  grass  three  feet  wide,  outside  of  which  should 
be  the  surface  drains,  where  needed,  five  feet  wide  at  the  top,  two  feet 
at  the  bottom  and  24  inches  deep,  making  a total  width  of  32  or  34  feet 
as  represented  in  Fig.  14. 


Fig.  14.— Showing  cross-section  of  an  earth  road  18  feet  wide;  bordered  on  each 
side  with  3 feet  of  grass,  outside  of  whiqh  are  placed  the  surface  drains 
when  needed.  The  center  of  the  road  is  three  inches  higher  than  the  sides 
at  the  grass. 

The-  center  of  the  roadbed  should  be  thoroughly  rolled  with  as  heavy 
a roller  as  practicable  in  order  to  compact  it  and  to  discover  in  it  any 
soft  places.  If  soft  places  are  found  these  should  be  filled  and  brought 
to  the  proper  level.  If  the  soft  place  is  due  to  a different  kind  of  ma- 
terial this  should  be  removed  and  replaced  by  other  and  better. 

The  center  of  the  finished  road  should  be  two  to  six  inches  higher 
than  the  margins  at  the  grass  border,  varying  with  the  width  of  the 
track,  in  order  to  give  quick,  complete  surface  drainage,  and  this  should 
be  built  up  in  thin  successive  layers  of  as  uniform  material  as  possible. 
If  earth  is  brought  in  from  the  sides  and  ditches  great  care  should  be 
exercised  in  distributing  it  evenly,  and  thoroughly  harrowing  it  ahead 
of  the  roller,  so  as  to  secure  the  necessary  uniformity  of  texture.  This 
is  of  the  utmost  importance  in  order  to  prevent  the  formation  of  ruts. 
Thorough  rolling  should  follow  the  addition  of  each  layer  of  material 
and  should  be  kept  up  until  a hard,  even  surface  has  been  secured. 

In  making  earth  roads  it  is  particularly  important  not  to  make  them 
wider  than  necessary  because  the  narrow  road  is  always  more  quickly 
and  better  drained  and  lack  of  drainage  more  than  anything  else  will 
destroy  the  earth  road. 

If  the  soil  contains  cobble  stones  everything  larger  than  one  inch  in 
diameter  should  be  thrown  out,  otherwise  they  will  form  ruts. 

If,  in  establishing  the  necessary  grades  on  the  earth  roads,  fills  must 
be  made,  this  filling  should  be  done  systematically,  distributing  the 
earth  in  uniform  layers  which  are  thoroughly  firmed  with  the  roller 
as  the  work  progresses. 

UTILIZING  THE  OLD  ROAD  AS  A ROADBED. 

In  cases  where  the  grade  does  not  require  changing  and  where 
natural  under-drainage  is  adequate  the  old  roadbed  may  be  utilized 
in  its  already  tramped  and  packed  condition  upon  which  to  build  the 
new  road.  This  may  be  fitted  with  the  road  machine  by  throwing  the 


26 


Bulletin  No.  7 9 


Figs.  15,  16.— Views  of  one  type  of  road  machine,  Champion  road  grader. 


The  Construction  and  Maintenance  of  Country  Roads.  27 


loose  and  uneven  portion  of  the  surface  outward  to  form  the  shoulders. 
Then  if  there  are  still  low  places  these  should  be  filled  in  and  thor- 
oughly packed  with  the  roller,  the  use  of  which  is  necessary  even 
where  no  leveling  is  needed,  in  order  to  discover  any  soft  spots,  quite 
certain  to  exist,  and  in  order  to  give  the  foundation  a more  thorough 
packing  than  the  wagons  have  secured. 

PREPARING-  THE  ROADBED  A YEAR  OR  MORE  IN  ADVANCE. 

It  will  generally  be  found  advantageous  10  get  the  roadbed  into 
proper  shape  to  receive  the  surfacing  material,  whether  this  be  gravel 
or  crushed  rock,  a year  or  more  in  advance,  utilizing  the  weathering 
of  rains,  the  frost  of  winter  and  the  traffic  to  settle  the  roadbed,  but 
directing  and  assisting  these  agencies  by  a timely  and  judicious  use 
of  the  harrow,  road  machine  and  roller.  It  is  particularly  important 
to  allow  time  to  intervene  where  there  has  been  much  filling  neces- 
sary. 

ROADS  ON  GRAVELLY  LOAM. 

Where  the  soils  are  a gravelly  loam  the  best  earth  roads  are  pos- 
sible. The  reason  for  this  is  found  in  the  fact  that  a gravelly  loam 
is  made  up  of  large  and  small  grains  in  such  proportions  that  when 
they  are  thoroughly  worked  and  compacted  the  coarser  sand  particles 
work  in  between  the  gravel,  and  the  fine  clay  particles  between  those 
of  sand,  in  such  a way  that  there  is  left  almost  no  open  space;  un- 
der these  conditions  the  water  is  shed  the  most  rapidly  and  completely 
so  that  the  road  is  less  liable  to  soften  under  the  travel  over  it  and 
it  is  less  liable  to  be  injured  by  frost. 

ROADS  IN  FINE  CLAY  SOIL. 

Where  the  soil  is  a fine  adhesive  clay  it  is  hardly  possible  to  make 
a good  road  without  the  aid  of  foreign  material.  Of  course  by  grading 
it  into  proper  form  so  as  to  secure  the  needed  drainage  the  road  will 
be  good  when  it  is  not  wet,  and  under  these  conditions  it  will  remain 
fair  much  longer  than  if  not  so  prepared  because,  when  this  soil  has 
been  once  thoroughly  compacted  and  dry,  water  enters  it  very  slowly, 
so  that  it  is  only  during  long  wet  spells  and  when  the  frost  is  going 
out  that  the  most  serious  injury  to  the  road  comes. 

CLAY  ROADS  SURFACED  WITH  GRAVEL. 

Where  gravel  of  suitable  quality  is  available  a covering  of  three 
or  four  inches,  thoroughly  rolled  and  packed,  will  very  greatly  im- 
prove the  surface  of  a clay  road,  preventing  it  from  softening  so  read- 
ily with  every  rain  and  with  the  action  of  frost.  Even  sand  and  good 
loam,  where  nothing  better  is  available,  will  improve  the  quality. 

In  some  cases  burning  the  clay  has  been  practiced  so  as  to  render  it 


28 


Bulletin  No.  79. 


less  plastic  and  sticky,  but  this  practice  will  be  one  of  the  last  to 
be  resorted  to  at  this  time  of  cheap  transportation  and  high  price  of 
fuel. 

SANDY  ROADS. 

The  making  of  good  roads  in  a country  of  very  sandy  soil  is  ex- 
tremely difficult  on  account  of  the  nearly  complete  absence  of  bind- 
ing properties  in  the  sand  when  dry.  If  there  were  any  cheap  method 
of  keeping  the  surface  wet  sand  would  make  an  excellent  road.  Even 
the  rounded  grains  of  beach  sand  for  a short  time  after  the  waves 
have  withdrawn  are  so  tightly  bonded  that  a horse  may  canter  along 
the  beach,  making  but  little  impression  upon  it.  The  water,  how- 
ever, drains  away  so  rapidly  from  the  coarse  clean  rounded  grains  that 
there  is  no  longer  anything  to  bind  them  together,  and  the  foot  or 
wheel  easily  sets  them  aside.  When,  however,  there  are  a sufficient 
number  of  much  finer  particles  commingled  with  the  coarse  sand 
grains  a loam  is  the  result  whose  water  holding  power  is  increased 
so  that  for  a longer  time  the  grains  are  bonded  together  by  it,  en- 
abling the  loam  to  form  the  better  road.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
amount  of  water  may  be  too  great  to  permit  it  to  act  as  a binding  ma- 
terial and  as  the  water-holding  power  of  the  clays  is  greater  than  the 
loams,  they  more  quickly  come  into  the  condition  of  over  saturation 
during  long  rains  and  so  the  loam  which  is  intermediate  between  the 
two  extremes  makes  the  best  earth  road,  sand  tending  most  of  the  time 
to  retain  too  little  water  and  the  clay  retaining  too  much  for  tight 
binding. 

With  this  principle  to  direct  practice  it  is  clear  that  if  the  right 
amount  of  finer  soil  particles  can  be  obtained  to  incorporate  with  the 
sand  of  sandy  roads  their  firmness  will  be  increased.  It  is  unfortu- 
nately too  often  true  that  in  districts  where  sandy  roads  prevail  there 
is  no  clayey  or  loamy  material  available,  either  to  incorporate  with  the 
sand  or  to  place  above  it. 

THE  USE  OF  STRAW,  SAWDUST  AND  TAN  BARK  ON  SANDY  ROADS. 

It  is  well  known  that  these  materials  when  applied  to  sandy  roads 
have  temporarily  a beneficial  effect.  The  fundamental  principle  un- 
derlying this  improvement  is  that  stated  in  the  last  paragraph;  that 
is,  in  the  power  they  have  of  maintaining  a higher  per  cent,  of  water 
in  the  sand,  which  is  necessary  in  order  to  bind  the  grains  together. 
The  sawdust,  tan  bark  and  straw  act  in  two  ways  to  maintain  the 
needed  amount  of  water  in  the  sand.  At  first  they  act  as  a mulch, 
lessening  the  rate  of  evaporation  from  the  surface.  Later,  when  they 
begin  to  disintegrate,  they  form  a humus-like  material,  in  its  physical 
effects,  which  increases  the  capillary  power  and  diminishes  the  rate  of 
percolation  downward  after  rains. 


The  Construction  and  Maintenance  of  Country  Roads.  29 


The  reason  why  these  materials  are  only  temporary  in  their  effect 
is  because  they  rapidly  decay,  being  converted  into  soluble  salts  and 
gaseous  products  which  finally  leave  the  sand  as  if  nothing  had  been 
added. 

ROAD  GRAVEL. 

It  occasionally  happens  that  natural  gravel  beds  are  found  which 
possess  the  right  characteristics  for  making  roads,  and  when  the 
gravel  is  just  right  excellent  roads  may  be  made  from  it. 

There  are  several  important  features  which  a good  road  gravel  must 
possess: 

1.  There  must  be  one  prevailing  size  of  pebble  in  sufficient  quantity 
so  that  when  thoroughly  rolled  they  press  against  one  another. 

2.  There  must  be  enough  of  the  finer  sizes  of  coarse  sand  and  fine 
gravel  to  fill  the  voids  between  the  coarser  gravel. 

3.  There  must  be  enough  of  fine  loam  to  fill  the  voids  between  the 
eoarse  sand  and  fine  gravel  and  retain  a sufficient  amount  of  water 
to  bind  the  sand  grains  together  and  prevent  their  rolling. 

4.  The  course  and  fine  gravel  and  the  sand  must  be  made  up  of  more 
•or  less  angular  fragments  in  order  that  flat  faces  of  rock  may  set  to- 
gether and  thus  lessen  the  danger  of  rolling  and  of  crushing  under  the 
weight  of  the  load. 

It  is  not  possible  to  give  specific,  concise  directions  for  identifying  a 
good  road  gravel,  but  a man  who  has  seen  and  worked  with  it  readily 
recognizes  it. 

CLEAN  WHITE  GRAVEL  NOT  SUITABLE. 

It  will  be  apparent  at  once  that  the  several  characteristics  which  have 
been  pointed  out  are  not  likely  often  to  occur  together  in  just  the 
right  ratios;  and  so  there  will  be  all  possible  gradations  from  the  ideal 
gravels  to  those  which  will  not  answer  at  all.  Indeed  it  must  be  said 
that  most  gravel  beds  have  had  the  finer  materials  so  completely 
washed  out  that  only  clean  sand  and  gravel  remains;  and  when  this 
is  true  it  is  useless  to  try  to  make  a road  with  it.  Such  materials  can 
•only  be  used  to  temper  a road  which  is  too  clayey  in  its  texture  by  re- 
ducing its  water  capacity. 

TEXTURE  OF  GRAVELS  ALTERED  BY  CRUSHING  AND  SCREENING. 

It  happens  in  the  majority  of  cases  that  much  of  the  gravel  is  too 
large  and  too  rounded  to  permit  close  packing  and  fast  binding.  When 
this  is  true  much  better  qualities  may  be  secured  by  using  either  the 
crusher  or  the  screen  or  both  together.  It  will  be  at  once  apparent 
that  where  much  of  the  gavel  is  too  coarse,  to  run  it  through  the 
crusher  so  as  to  reduce  the  material  to  a more  uniform  size  and  at  the 
same  time  to  increase  the  angularity  of  the  fragments  will  make  a 
much  better  road  material  to  use  either  by  itself,  to  build  a road  of 
or  as  a tempering  material. 


30 


Bulletin  No.  79. 


SOME  GRAVELS  CONTAIN  TOO  MUCH  CLAY. 

There  are  many  deposits  of  gravelly  clay  which  it  might  appear 
would  make  a good  road  material,  but  the  principle  must  be  kept  al- 
ways in  mind  that  too  much  of  a too  fine  material  will  take  in  and 
retain  so  much  water  that  the  binding  quality  of  the  water  is  lost. 
These  gravelly  clays  occur  in  many  of  the  hills  of  the  glaciated  por- 
tions of  the  United  States  and  through  which  roads  are  often  cut. 

GRAVEL  ROADS. 

In  the  construction  of  a gravel  road,  as  in  that  of  a stone  road,, 
it  is  of  prime  importance  to  secure  first  of  all  a properly  shaped  and. 
thoroughly  rolled  and  firmed  roadbed  before  any  gravel  is  laid  on. 
When  this  has  been  done,  and  a suitable  gravel  has  been  found,  the 
next  step  is  to  spread  evenly  over  the  surface  and  thoroughly  roll  a. 
layer  which,  when  finished,  will  measure  three  inches  thick. 

In  the  rolling  it  will  be  important  to  firm  the  outer  edges  of  the 
gravel  first  in  order  that  the  rolling  may  not  force  it  outward  and 
destroy  the  slope.  Should  the  gravel  be  too  dry  to  pack  it  must  be 
moistened  or  the  work  be  suspended  to  take  advantage  of  the  rains. 

To  make  a good  road  there  should  be  not  less  than  three  3-inch, 
layers,  and  usually  four  will  be  better.  Of  course  a road  6 inches 
thick  will  be  a great  improvement,  and  often  where  the  travel  is  light 
and  the  roadbed  thoroughly  made  three  inches  of  good  gravel,  well’ 
placed,  will  make  a great  improvement  in  the  road,  serving  as  a wear- 
ing surface. 

Where  the  gravel  must  be  crushed  and  screened  to  secure  the  proper" 
sizes  the  revolving  screen  represented  in  Figs.  8 and  25  should  be  used 
and  should  have  two  sizes  of  holes  iy2  to  2-inch  and  % inch  in  diame- 
ter. The  coarser  size  of  gravel  will  form  the  body  of  the  road  while 
the  finer  will  have  to  be  discarded  unless  it  happens  to  be  of  the  right 
quality  to  use  as  a binding  material  or  in  making  a bicycle  path  along, 
one  side  of  the  road. 


ROADS  IN  SWAMPY  PLACES. 

It  occasionally  happens  that  roads  must  be  built  in  places  which.! 
cannot  be  drained  and  which  are  too  soft  to  permit  of  the  construction 
of  a solid  earth  foundation.  A common  way  to  meet  this  type  of  con- 
ditions is  to  lay  a foundation  of  logs,  poles  or  even  brush,  having  the 
desired  width  of  the  road  and  of  sufficient  body  to  enable  an  earth 
or  gravel  road  to  be  built  upon  it.  When  such  roads  are  built  in  sit- 
uations where  the  wood  is  kept  constantly  beneath  the  water  it  does 
not  decay  and  a road  of  considerable  permanence  and  solidity  is  se- 
cured. 

Where  logs  are  used  care  is  taken  to  arrange  them  at  right  angles- 


The  Construction  and  Maintenance  of  Country  Hoads.  31 

to  the  direction  of  the  road,  parallel  with  one  another  and  like  sizes 
side  by  side.  The  depressions  between  the  logs  are  filled  with  smaller 
logs  or  poles,  whole  or  split,  while  these  in  turn  may  be  covered  with 
twigs  and  limbs  forming  a mat  upon  which  the  earth  or  gravel  road 
is  built.  Upon  this  mat  of  wood  is  usually  first  thrown  the  material 
taken  from  ditches  on  either  side  made  for  drainage  building  the 
earth  or  gravel  road  upon  this  after  it  has  first  been  well  spread  and 
firmed. 


STONE  ROADS. 


Stone  roads  of  one  form  or  another  date  back  to  and  possibly  be- 
yond Roman  times;  and  Figs.  17,  18,  and  19  represent  three  types  of 
the  extremely  massive  and  substantial  roads  which  were  built  ten  to 
fifteen  centuries  ago,  some  of  which  still  survive.  These  roads  had 
a width  of  30  feet  and  pavements  of  heavy  stone  at  the  bottom  and 
often  one  or  more  layers  of  stone  bedded  in  cement  to  make  the  road 
water  proof.  One  type  of  construction  which  they  followed  made  the 
road  consist  of  four  layers: 

1.  Two  or  three  courses  of  flat  stone  or,  if  these  were  not  obtainable, 
of  other  stone,  generally  laid  in  mortar. 

2.  A layer  of  rubble  masonry  or  coarse  concrete. 

3.  A finer  concrete  upon  which  was  laid 

4.  A layer  of  paving  blocks  jointed  with  the  greatest  nicety. 

It  is  stated  that  with  many  of  the  great  roads  the  paved  portion  had 
a width  of  16  feet  bordered  by  raised  stone  causeways  outside  of  which 
on  each  side  were  unpaved  side-ways  each  eight  feet  wide,  and  the 
paved  way  sometimes  had  an  aggregate  thickness  of  three  feet. 

MACADAM  ROADS. 

The  use  of  crushed  rock  in  road  building  is  at  least  as  old  as  Roman 
history;  but  as,  during  the  dark  ages,  little  road  building  of  a per- 
manent character  was  practiced,  the  art  had  to  be  revived  in  modern 
times  and  about  1764  the  French  engineer  Tresaguet  appears  to  have 
introduced  in  France  the  type  of  road  represented  in  Fig.  20,  consist- 
ing of  a stone  pavement  covered  with  two  or  three  inches  of  crushed 
rock  as  a facing  material.  After  being  introduced  into  England  and 
Scotland,  where  the  details  were  modified  and  perfected  by  Telford 
about  1820,  this  type  of  stone  construction  came  to  be  known  as  the 
Telford  road. 

Macadam’s  work  began  somewhat  earlier  than  Telford’s  in  1816,  and 
to  him  apparently  is  due  the  idea  that  when  any  roadbed  is  thor- 
oughly under  drained,  so  as  to  remain  permanently  hard,  then  crushed 
stone  alone  may  be  used,  the  pavement  of  Roman  practice  becoming 
unnecessary. 


32 


Bulletin  No.  79. 


Figs.  17,  18,  19. — Three  types  of  Ancient  Roman  stone  roads.  (After  Shaler.) 


Fig.  20.— Type  of  road  introduced  into  France  by  Tresaquet  about  1764. 

(After  Shaler.) 

CONSTRUCTION  OF  MACADAM  ROADS. 

After  the  foundation  for  the  stone  road  has  been  completed  the 
border  is  left  with  a shoulder  of  earth  on  each  side  as  represented  in 
Fig.  5,  between  which  the  roadbed  is  covered  with  a layer  of  crushed 
rock  as  nearly  one  size  as  possible  and  three  or  four  inches  thick.  This 
layer  is  next  thoroughly  rolled  and  then  covered  with  enough  of  finely 
crushed  rock  to  fill  the  voids  between  the  larger  fragments.  This  ma- 
terial is  worked  in  with  the  roller  and  water  until  a solid  bed  has  been 
formed. 

After  the  first  layer  has  been  placed  the  second  is  applied  in  the 
same  manner,  rolled,  and  the  binding  material  applied  and  again  rolled, 
until  thorough  consolidation  has  been  secured. 


FITTING-  THE  ROAD  BED. 

It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  to  have  a thoroughly  firmed  and 
seasoned  roadbed  put  into  proper  form  and  well  drained  before  the 
stone  surface  is  to  be  applied  and  to  do  this  most  economically  it  is 


The  Construction  and  Maintenance  of  Country  Roads.  33 

well  to  do  all  of  this  preliminary  work  a year  or  more  ahead  so  that 
traffic,  rains  and  frosts  shall  have  an  opportunity  to  do  the  work  of 
consolidation,  and  to  discover  the  soft  places  which  may  exist.  In 
short,  the  formation  of  a good  earth  road  to  be  used  for  a number  of 
years  as  such  will  generally  be  found  the  best  and  most  economical 
preparation  for  the  stone  road. 

FORMING  THE  SHOULDERS. 

The  formation  of  the  shoulders  represented  in  the  foreground  of 
Fig.  5 is  best  done  with  a road  grader  or  road  machine.  With  this 
tool  the  surface  of  the  roadbed  is  prepared  at  the  same  time  and  the 
shoulders  left  in  such  shape  that  very  little  hand  labor  will  be  re- 
quired for  the  finisihng  touches.  After  the  shoulders  have  been 
roughly  formed  and  before  the  finishing  touches  are  given  the  roller 
should  go  over  the  roadbed  to  make  sure  that  it  is  properly  firmed 
and  that  there  are  no  soft  places. 

KINDS  OF  ROCK  FOR  THE  ROAD. 

Practical  experience  has  demonstrated  that  the  best  rocks  for  road 
making  are  the  dark  green,  black  and  dark  gray  trap  or  igneous  rock 
such  as  are  known  in  common  language  as  “nigger  heads”  in  glaciated 
countries  where  large  boulders  are  common  in  the  fields  and  cuts  of 
roads.  They  are  tough,  fine  grained  rock,  much  less  brittle  than  most 
others,  which  yield  when  grinding  upon  themselves  and  under  the 
wheel  a fine  rock  flour  whose  texture  is  such  that  it  holds  the  needed 
amount  of  moisture  to  make  it  bind  together  well,  and  consequently 
a road  built  from  these  fragments  sets  sooner  than  almost  any  other 
crystalline  rock  and  hence  is  subject  to  less  internal  wear.  In  Wis- 
consin there  are  natural  ledges  or  outcrops  of  this  type  of  rock  at 
various  places  from  St.  Croix  Falls  on  the  southwest  extending  in  a 
northeasterly  direction  through  Minong  and  Cabal  and  on  across  the 
Michigan  boundary  up  into  the  Kewaunee  peninsula. 

Next  to  the  trap  rock  in  value  for  road  building  purposes  stand  the 
closer  grainer  hornblend-bearing  syenites  and  gneisses  which  are  spe- 
cies of  granite  where  hornblend  takes  the  place  of  mica  of  the  true 
granites.  It  is  the  class  of  dark  minerals  allied  to  hornblend  compos- 
ing much  of  the  trap  rock  referred  to  above  which  makes  that  the  best 
road  stone. 

Next  in  order  stand  the  true  granites  made  up  of  quartz,  feldspar  and 
mica,  and  their  gneissoid  varieties.  The  best  of  this  class  of  rocks  are 
the  close  fine-grained  varieties  having  the  least  tendency  to  break  into 
thin  layers,  giving  flat  instead  of  cubical  blocks. 

To  the  granites  and  syenites  with  their  banded  or  gneissoid  varie- 
ties belong  the  lighter  colored  and  flesh  colored  boulders  which  are 
usually  associated  with  the  “nigger  heads”  of  glacial  drift. 

3 


34 


Bulletin  No.  79. 


The  chief  difficulty  with  syenites  and  granites  for  road  metal  is  their 
brittle,  unyielding  quality  and  coarse  crystalline  structure  which  makes- 
them  grind  and  pound  up  into  a coarse  sand  without  a sufficient 
amount  of  the  finest  dust  to  give  it  the  needed  water-holding  power 
to  permit  it  to  properly  bind  the  pieces  together.  The  roadbed  fails 
to  set  quickly  and  the  internal  wear  is  larger  while  there  is  a greater 
tendency  for  ruts  to  form  in  wet  weather  and  for  the  surface  to  ravel 
or  throw  out  loose  pieces  in  a dry  time. 

Next  to  the  syenites  and  granites  in  general  availability  for  road 
metal  stand  the  close  grained  hard  limestones  which  break  into 
hard,  clean  blocks  and  fragments  with  sharp  edges  and  little  material 
which  will  rub  off  under  the  fingers.  Any  rock  which  crushes  readily 
into  an  earth-like  or  sandy  material  will  not  answer  for  road  work. 

When  a good  road  limestone  wears  down  under  the  wheels,  the 
horses’  feet  or  the  roller,  a loam-like  powder  is  formed  which  holds 
the  right  amount  of  water  for  good  binding,  and  besides  this  it  ap- 
pears more  quickly  to  pass  into  that  cementing  stage  which  in  nature 
cements  beds  of  loose  fragments  into  rock. 

The  chief  objection  to  limestone  as  a road  metal  is  its  softness, 
which  permits  it  to  wear  away  rapidly,  leaving  the  surface  dusty  in 
dry  and  muddy  in  wet  weather. 

The  extremely  hard  and  brittle  quartzite  which  throws  off  angular 
bits  under  the  blows  of  horses’  feet  and  the  rolling  of  wheels  make 
one  of  the  poorest  road  materials  because  it  too  nearly  possesses  glass- 
like brittleness  and  the  dust  is  too  coarse  and  sand-like  to  hold  the 
needed  water  for  binding. 

FOUNDATION  AND  SURFACING  STONE  MAY  BE  DIFFERENT. 

Where  there  is  in  the  locality  a rock  which  does  not  make  a good 
wearing  surface  but  which  binds  well,  like  limestone,  this  may  be  used 
to  advantage  for  the  foundation  of  country  roads,  thus  making  it  neces- 
sary to  import  only  the  wearing  surface  layer. 

SORTING  BOULDERS  BEFORE  CRUSHING. 

In  localities  where  there  are  many  boulders  available  for  road  work 
it  will  often  be  practicable  to  sort  these  when  hauling  them  to  the 
crusher  in  such  manner  as  to  use  the  lighter  colored  varieties  for  the 
foundation,  reserving  all  of  the  “nigger  heads”  for  the  surface  layer, 
and  in  this  way  increase  the  efficiency  of  the  material. 

USING  LIMESTONE  FOR  BINDING. 

Where  only  granitic  rock  and  quartzite  are  available  for  road  work 
and  these  do  not  bind  well,  it  will  often  happen  that  the  limestone  of 
the  locality  may  be  crushed  fine  to  form  screenings  and  used  to  great 
advantage  as  a binding  material  to  hold  the  harder  rocks  more  se- 


The  Construction  and  Maintenance  of  Country  Roads.  35 

curely  in  place.  This  practice  would  be  especially  desirable  for  the 
foundation  layer  where  it  could  not  be  converted  into  dust.  But  in 
localities  where  both  limestone  and  the  harder  rock  are  available, 
but  where  the  limestone  can  be  obtained  at  much  the  less  cost,  this 
may  be  used  alone  for  the  foundation  and  as  a binding  material  for 
the  surface  layer. 

ROADS  MADE  WITHOUT  BINDING  MATERIAL. 

It  was  Macadam’s  practice  in  road  building  to  strictly  forbid  the  use 
of  all  binding  material  whatsoever.  He  preferred  to  wait  for  the  gen- 
eral traffic  over  the  road  to  develop  from  the  wear  of  the  crushed, 
stone,  both  superficial  and  internal,  the  necessary  amount  of  rock  flour 
to  do  the  work  of  filling  and  cementing.  While  this  work  was  in 
progress  the  road  was  given  constant  supervision  to  keep  it  in  proper 
form.  At  the  same  time  the  filling  and  binding  material  was  being 
slowly  produced  there  was  brought  upon  the  road  with  the  wheels  and 
horses’  feet  a considerable  amount  of  earth  which  slowly  worked  down- 
ward and  united  with  the  rock  flour  to  complete  the  consolidation. 
Macadam  certainly  secured  in  the  end  a better  road  by  this  method 
than  was  usually  secured  with  the  use  of  the  then  available  binding 
material. 

It  must  be  remembered,  however,  that  in  his  time  rock  were  crushed 
by  hand  and  little  fine  material  was  made  to  use  for  binding,  whereas 
with  the  modern  rock  crushers  a large  amount  of  this  material  is  pro- 
duced which  must  be  a dead  loss  if  it  cannot  be  used  for  binding  and 
surfacing,  and  it  is  quite  certain  that  had  Macadam  used  our  modern 
rock  crushers  he  would  have  availed  himself  of  the  screenings. 

USE  OF  SAND  FOR  BINDING. 

The  great  readiness  with  which  clean  dry  sand  works  into  and  fills 
the  voids  between  the  stone  of  a road,  the  ease  with  which  it  may  be 
handled  and  the  readiness  with  which  it  may  often  be  obtained,  leads 
to  its  occasional  use  as  a binding  material  in  macadam  road.  The 
coarse  silicious  sands,  however,  have  very  little  cementing  quality,  they 
do  not  retain  water  well  enough  either  to  make  the  road  shed  the 
rains  nor  give  the  surface  tension  of  water  much  opportunity  to  bind 
the  grains  together  firmly;  consequently  the  best  results  cannot  be  se- 
cured when  it  is  used. 

If  loam  is  used  there  is  danger  that  it  will  pack  in  the  upper  sur- 
face of  the  layer  of  stone  and  prevent  even  the  combined  use  of  water 
and  the  roller  from  working  it  to  the  bottom  so  as  to  completely  fill 
the  voids.  There  is  the  still  further  danger  that  it  will  work  in  be- 
tween the  flat  surfaces  of  the  crushed  rock,  holding  them  apart  to  such 
an  extent  that  heavy  loads  will  produce  too  much  rocking  of  the 
pieces  and  quickly  lead  to  the  formation  of  ruts.  If  the  loam  could  be 


36 


Bulletin  No.  79, 


Fig.  21. — View  of  distributing  cart  being  raised  to  spread  crushed  rock  on  the  Menomonee  model  road. 


The  Construction  and  Maintenance  of  Country  Roads.  37 

had  in  a dry  condition,  such  as  is  usually  the  case  with  the  screenings 
and  the  sand,  it  would  be  possible  with  dry  rolling  to  nearly  completely 
fill  the  voids  so  that  the  subsequent  use  of  water  would,  with  the  roller, 
lead  to  good  results. 

LIMESTONE  FOR  STONE  ROADS. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  crushed  limestone  although  a soft  rock  will 
make  an  excellent  country  road  where  the  traffic  is  not  heavy  and  the 
use  of  it  should  be  encouraged  wherever  suitable  quality  of  rock  is 
available.  There  is  no  rock  which  breaks  in  better  form  or  which 
binds  as  well  and  sets  as  quickly.  It  is  readily  quarried  and  put  in 
shape  for  the  crusher;  and  the  power  required  for  crushing  being  small 
makes  it  less  burdensome  for  towns  to  invest  in  the  necessary  ma- 
chinery. 

It  is  true  that  the  road  wears  rapidly  under  heavy  traffic  and  the 
surface  becomes  dusty  in  a dry  time,  but  not  more  so  than  clay  roads 
do.  It  is  true  that  careful  road  engineers  advise  against  its  use,  but 
it  is  usually  from  the  standpoint  of  city  and  suburban  traffic  rather 
than  from  that  of  the  purely  country  road. 

SPREADING  THE  ROCK'  ON  THE  ROAD  BED. 

It  is  important  that  the  crushed  rock  should  be  laid  down  on  the 
roadbed  in  a sheet  both  of  uniform  thickness  and  uniform  density  and 
where  this  is  not  done  the  road  is  quite  certain  to  roll  to  an  uneven 
surface  which  will  make  it  neseccary  to  add  more  material  in  some 
places  and  remove  it  in  others.  But  this  will  unnecessarily  add  to  the 
cost  of  the  road.  Not  only  this,  but  when  a wagon-load  of  stone  is 
all  dumped  in  one  place,  leaving  it  for  a man  to  spread,  it  is  certain 
to  occur  that  all  of  the  dust  and  fine  materials  not  removed  by  the 
screen  will  drop  into  the  voids  at  the  place  where  the  load  was  left 
and  this  will  give  rise  to  a spot  more  compacted  than  the  balance  of 
the  road  and  hence  when  it  comes  into  service  two  ruts  or  depressions 
are  liable  to  form  one  on  either  side  of  the  harder  spot. 

To  avoid  these  difficulties  and  to  save  time  in  spreading  the  mate- 
rial the  distributing  cart  represented  in  Figs.  21  and  22  has  been  de- 
vised. In  it  can  be  placed  two  cubic  yards  of  rock,  and  after  tilting 
the  box  as  shown  in  Fig.  21  the  end  board  may  be  opened  to  such  a 
width  as  to  deposit  a uniform  layer  of  any  desired  thickness  while  the 
team  travels  along  at  a slow  and  uniform  pace.  Fig.  23  is  a view 
showing  how  the  surface  was  left  by  the  distributing  cart  and  the 
watch  is  a scale  by  which  the  size  of  the  pieces  may  be  judged,  its 
diameter  being  a trifle  less  than  two  inches. 

THICKNESS  OF  LAYER. 

The  thickness  of  a layer  placed  at  one  time  should  vary  somewhat 
with  the  size  of  the  pieces,  the  depth  being  greater  with  the  larger 


38 


Bulletin  No.  79, 


•View  of  distributing  cart  spreading  crushed  rock  on  the  Menomonee  model  road. 


The  Construction  and  Maintenance  of  Country  Roads.  39 

fragments.  With  pieces  of  the  size  shown  in  Fig.  23  the  layer  when 
packed  should  not  be  greater  than  four  inches  and  three  inches  will 
pack  more  quickly  and  closely  than  four  inches.  A thick  layer  tends 
to  form  a crust  on  the  surface,  making  it  difficult  to  fill  all  the  voids 
below  completely. 

ROLLING. 

The  function  of  rolling  is  to  arrange  the  fragments  in  the  positions 
of  the  greatest  stability  with  reference  to  the  rolling  of  wheels  and  the 
tramping  of  horses.  The  first  effect  of  the  roller  is  to  bring  the  pieces 
nearer  together  and  to  reduce  the  size  of  the  voids.  This  is  clearly 
brought  out  by  the  two  photo-engravings,  Figs.  23  and  24. 

There  is  one  other  important  thing  which  rolling  should  secure  and 
that  is  to  put  the  several  pieces  of  stone  together  in  the  positions  of 
the  most  stable  equilibrium;  that  is,  in  positions  such  as  to  make  cer- 
tain that  they  shall  not  tip  or  turn  when  the  stress  of  the  wagon  or 
team  is  brought  upon  them. 

SIZE  AND  WEIGHT  OF  ROLLER. 

The  diameter  of  the  roller  should  be  large  to  prevent  it  from  shoving 
the  stone  forward  as  it  moves  and  in  order  that  the  thrust  may  be  as 
nearly  directly  downward  as  possible.  It  will  be  observed  that  even 
the  front  wheel  of  a loaded  wagon  often  slides  rather  than  rolls  when 
coming  upon  the  unpacked  layer  of  rock  on  the  road,  and  such  move- 
ment cannot  do  proper  packing. 

There  appears  to  be  a lack  of  agreement  between  practical  men  re- 
garding the  proper  weight  of  the  roller,  some  advocating  a roller  of  3.5 
to  5.5  tons,  while  others  hold  that  only  one  of  15  to  20  tons  weight 
will  serve  the  purpose.  Others  advocate  a light  weight  to  begin  with 

and  a heavier  one  at  the  close. 

♦ 

AMOUNT  OF  ROLLING. 

The  only  general  rule  which  can  be  given  in  regard  to  the  amount 
of  rolling  a given  layer  should  receive  is  that  the  work  should  be 
continued  until  the  stone  cease  to  move  in  front  of  the  roller  or  un- 
til the  roller  no  longer  sensibly  depresses  the  bed  and  it  has  become 
hard  and  smooth.  It  should  be  kept  in  mind,  however,  that  the  road 
may  be  rolled  too  much,  or  until  the  stone  again  begin  to  move.  This 

■'*'  "if' 

is  most  likely  to  occur  when  the  stone  is  too  dry. 

MANNER  OF  ROLLING. 

The  rolling  should  begin  at  the  outer  sides  of  the  road,  packing  the 
stone  first  against  the  shoulder  of  the  road.  If  this  is  not  done  the 
fact  that  the  roadbed  is  highest  in  the  center  will  lead  to  flattening  the 
slope  and  thinning  out  the  rock  in  the  center  through  a side  creeping 
of  the  material  from  under  the  roller. 


40 


Bulletin  No.  79. 


Fig.  23.— View  of  surfacing  crushed  rock  as  left  by  the  distributing  cart  on  the  Menomonee  model  road.  The  watch,  2 inches 
in  diameter,  serves  as  a scale  to  show  the  size  of  the  rock  fragments. 


The  Construction  and  Maintenance  of  Country  Roads.  41 


Fig.  24.— View  of  the  surfacing  rock  after  it  has  been  packed  by  the  roller. 


42 


Bulletin  No.  79. 


KIND  OF  ROLLER. 

There  are  three  methods  of  consolidating  the  layers  of  stone  put  into 
a road.  The  first,  now  largely  abandoned  as  being  too  expensive  and 
too  uncertain,  is  to  allow  it  to  be  done  by  the  natural  traffic.  The 
second,  also  being  abandoned  as  too  expensive,  is  the  use  of  a 3.5  to 
5-ton  horse  roller;  and  the  third,  which  is  regarded  the  cheapest  and 
best,  is  with  the  aid  of  an  8 to  20-ton  steam  roller. 

The  safest  indications  seem  to  point  to  the  use  on  country  roads  of 
an  8 to  10-ton  steam  roller  as  most  satisfactory;  although  good  work 
can  be  done  with  the  horse  roller  of  half  this  weight  which  may  be 
made  heavier  or  lighter  by  taking  on  and  laying  off  weights.  Such  a 
roller  as  this  is  represented  in  Fig.  7,  which,  naked,  weighs  3 1-2 
tons,  but  by  the  addition  of  castings  to  the  inside  of  the  roller  may  be 
increased  to  5.5  tons.  This  roller  has  the  frame  and  tongue  so  con- 
structed that  the  team  may  be  turned  without  reversing  the  roller,  a 
very  important  feature. 

It  will  be  readily  seen  that  the  use  of  two  men  and  two  teams  must 
make  the  service  of  this  roller  very  expensive,  and  when  the  disturbing 
effects  of  the  horses’  feet  are  recalled  it  becomes  clear  that  the  steam 
roller  easily  managed  by  one  man  is  much  better. 

ROCK  CRUSHERS. 

Until  recently  all  rock  crushing  for  road  work  has  been  done  by  hand 
and  hammer,  and  in  the  days  of  slave  labor  when  the  man  was  a ma- 
chine which  managed,  fed,  cared  for  and  reproduced  itself,  it  is  clear 
how  such  Herculean  tasks  as  the  ancient  Roman  roads  could  be  ac- 
complished. But  happily,  the  use  of  steel  and  inanimate  forces  is 
freeing  man  from  such  drudgery;  and  in  Figs.  8,  9 and  10  are  three 
views  of  a rock  crusher  at  work,  breaking  stone,  sorting  it  and  deliv- 
ering it  into  bins  where  it  may  easily  be  dropped  into  wagons  for  de- 
livery upon  the  road. 

At  the  time  these  views  were  taken  the  crusher  was  being  driven 
by  a 22  H.  P.  traction  engine  and  was  crushing  rock  at  the  rate  of 
100  wagon  loads  per  day.  The  material  is  separated  into  three  sizes, 
the  coarsest  used  for  the  foundation,  the  intermediate  for  the  wear- 
ing surface  and  the  finest  as  binding  and  surfacing  material,  and  Fig. 
J shows  a wagon  loading  with  the  foundation  size,  Fig.  9 with  the 
wearing  size,  and  Fig.  10  with  the  screenings  or  binding  material. 

There  are  various  forms  of  crushers  on  the  market  and  Fig.  25  repre- 
sents another  type. 

REVOLVING  SCREEN.. 

The  revolving  screen  is  an  indispensable  attachment  to  a rock 
crusher,  because  a good  road  cannot  be  made  with  the  unsorted  ma- 
terial, for  with  this  method  of  putting  the  crushed  rock  upon  the  road 


The  Construction  and  Maintenance  of  Country  Roads.  43 

the  fine  materials  are  certain  to  work  downward  and  the  coarser  frag- 
ments to  come  to  the  surface.  It  should  be  thoroughly  understood  too 
that  the  chute  screen  will  not  do  the  work. 


Fig.  25.— Champion  rock  crusher  and  screen. 


EARTH  AND  STONE  ROAD  COMBINED. 

Where  it  is  desired  to  cheapen  the  construction  of  stone  roads  it  is 
practicable  to  make  the  central  portion  8 feet  wide  of  this  material, 
and  then  have  on  one  or  both  sides  an  earth  road  of  eight  feet,  giving 
a total  width  of  16  or  24  feet  to  the  margin  of  grass  and  30  feet  to  the 
side  ditches.  The  most  serious  objections  to  this  combined  plan  is  the 
securing  at  all  times  of  sufficient  and  quick  surface  drainage. 

The  chief  difficulty  which  will  arise  in  the  carrying  out  of  this  plan 
will  come  from  the  tendency  of  summer  traffic  on  the  narrow  earth 
road  to  go  so  persistently  in  one  track  as  to  develop  wheel  and  foot 
ways  deep  enough  to  prevent  surface  drainage.  The  fact  that  the 
-stone  road  may  come  into  service  when  the  ground  is  wet  will  only 
lessen  the  tendency  to  develop  the  evil  pointed  out  but  not  prevent  it. 
For  winter  service  in  cold  climates  it  seems  clear  that  the  earth  road 
-will  be  likely  to  ensure  better  sleighing. 

TELFORD  FOUNDATION. 

When  it  is  necessary  to  build  the  road  where  the  ground  is  soft  then 
it  may  be  best  to  lay  a foundation  of  larger  stone  as  was  the  general 
practice  with  the  Romans  and  with  the  English  engineer,  Telford, 
whose  name  is  now  attached  to  this  type  of  road  foundation.  The  pav- 
ing blocks  should  be  uniform  in  size,  laid  in  rows  across  the  road  after 
it  has  been  given  the  proper  slope,  the  pieces  breaking  joints.  The 
-stones  should  not  exceed  10  inches  in  length,  6 inches  wide  on  the  bot- 
tom and  4 inches  at  the  top,  the  thickness  being  4 or  5 inches  for  a 
aroad  8 inches  thick.  The  surface  of  the  pavement  foundation  should 


44 


Bulletin  No.  79. 


bo  as  even  as  practicable  and  the  voids  filled  with  broken  stone.  It  is 
necessary  to  have  each  piece  thoroughly  bedded  before  the  madacam 
material  is  added  so  as  not  to  be  tilted  on  the  surface. 

MAINTENANCE  OF  COUNTRY  ROADS. 

Important  as  the  matter  of  construction  of  good  roads  is,  it  is,  or 
should  be,  secondary  to  that  of  maintenance;  when  a good  road  haa 
been  made  which  is  designed  for  permanent  service  it  is  clearly  a mat- 
ter of  sound  business  policy  to  provide  whatever  economic  means  is 
practicable  for  keeping  it  in  order. 

SECTION  MEN  NECESSARY. 

In  the  maintenance  of  railroads  it  was  early  learned  that  two  or 
more  men  provided  with  proper  tools  must  be  employed  by  the  year, 
permanently  or  as  long  as  they  rendered  efficient  service,  to  care  for 
and  keep  in  order  a certain  number  of  miles  of  road.  It  is  the  busi- 
ness of  these  men  to  daily  go  over  their  section  and  keep  it  in  first  class 
repair  and  their  tenure  of  office  is  only  conditioned  upon  their  doing 
this  satisfactorily. 

It  is  self-evident  that  good  country  roads  can  only  be  maintained  by 
adopting  and  keeping  in  force  a system  which  is  equivalent  to  that 
found  indispensable  in  railroad  maintenance.  That  is,  men  competent 
to  do  the  work,  provided  with  the  necessary  authority,  tools  and  ma- 
terials, must  have  constant  employment  at  a price  which  will  permit 
them  to  devote  their  time  to  it,  and  they  must  be  made  responsible 
for  the  maintenance  of  a certain  number  of  miles  of  road  365  days  in  a 
year. 


ROAD  MASTER. 

In  the  country  road  service  it  will  be  necessary  to  have  one  man  who 
corresponds  in  duties  and  responsibilities  to  the  “Section  Boss”  of  the 
railroad.  He  must  be  competent,  temperate  and  in  every  way  reliable 
and  trustworthy.  He  must  have  a practical  knowledge  of  the  princi- 
ples and  details  underlying  the  maintenance  of  good  roads  and  at  his 
command  the  necessary  assistance  and  appliances  for  doing  the  work 
required. 


WIDTH  OF  TIRES  vCONTROLLED. 

When  we  come  to  have  a system  of  good  roads  and  the  means  for 
maintaining  them  it  will  be  necessary  to  have  ordinances  regulating 
the  width  of  tire  and  diameter  of  wheel  which  may  be  used  on  the 
roads  when  carrying  specified  loads.  In  Europe,  where  better  roads 
are  found  and  a better  system  for  maintenance  exists,  there  are  ordi- 
nances which  fix  the  width  of  tire  to  be  used  with  given  loads.  In 
Bavaria  the  regulations  are  as  follows: 


The  Construction  and  Maintenance  of  Country  Roads.  45 


2 wheel  carts  with  two  horses,  4.133  inch  tires. 

2 wheel  carts  with  four  horses,  6.180  inch  tires. 

4 wheel  carts  with  two  horses,  2.596  inch  tires. 

4 wheel  carts  with  four  horses,  4.133  inch  tires. 

4 wheel  carts  with  five  to  eight  horses,  6.180  inch  tires. 

Carts  with  more  than  four  and  wagons  with  more  than  eight  horses 
are  not  allowed  to  use  the  roads  without  a special  permit  from  the  au- 
thorities. 

Other  countries  of  the  Old  World  have  found  similar  ordinances 
necessary  and  it  is  clearly  rational  and  just  that  such  matters  should 
be  regulated,  for  otherwise  one  man  may  easily  put  in  jeopardy  the  In- 
terests of  a whole  community. 

MAINTENANCE  AND  REPAIRS. 

A sharp  distinction  should  always  be  made  between  the  maintenance 
of  a road  and  its  repairs.  It  is  only  when  some  accident  has  occurred 
to  seriously  injure  a road  or  when,  from  long  neglect,  it  has  become 
well  nigh  worn  out  that  repairs  are  needed,  but  the  daily  touching  up 
of  slight  defects  and  places  of  evident  wear  constitutes  maintenance. 

GOOD  MAINTENANCE. 

Good  maintenance  will  consist  in  daily  attention  to  all  the  details 
which  are  necessary  to  keep  a section  of  road  up  to  the  standard  of  per- 
fection practicable  to  its  type,  influenced  by  its  local  surroundings  and 
conditions.  It  must  consist  in  (1)  keeping  the  road  in  proper  form; 
(2)  in  adding  materials  to  the  wearing  surface  where  needed;  (3)  in 
keeping  the  road  surface  and  drainage  channels  clean;  (4)  in  keeping 
the  road  sides  free  from  weeds  and  otherwise  neat;  (5)  in  caring  for 
and  maintaining  road  trees  if  they  are  grown;  (6)  in  maintaining  the 
proper  conditions  in  winter  in  regard  to  snow. 

MAINTENANCE  OF  EARTH  AND  GRAVEL  ROADS. 

The  first  requisite  to  the  maintenance  of  any  road  is  the  knowledge 
which  can  be  gained  by  going  over  the  road  while  or  immediately  after 
it  has  rained.  Observations  at  this  time  will  show  the  road  master 
where  the  most  serious  defects  exist  and  he  should  make  careful  note 
of  them  to  use  in  directing  his  efforts  as  soon  as  the  weather  permits. 
It  should  therefore  be  the  business  of  the  road  master  to  study  his 
roads  in  wet  weather  and  he  should  be  equipped  with  clothing,  etc.,  in 
a way  which  will  permit  him  to  do  this  without  risk  of  injury  to 
health. 

Whenever  ruts  or  saucers  begin  to  show  in  the  road  they  should  be 
corrected  immediately,  provided  the  moisture  conditions  permit  of  do- 
ing so,  but  on  the  earth  roads  the  soil  may  be  either  too  wet  or  too  dry 
to  allow  this  to  be  done  well,  and  the  highest  success  will  be  attained 
when  the  road  master  comes  to  know  and  understand  his  conditions 


46 


Bulletin  No.  79. 


and  then  is  alert  to  move  at  just  the  right  time.  The  ruts  will  be 
formed  chiefly  in  both  the  very  wet  and  the  very  dry  weather,  and  in 
the  country  where  sprinkling  the  roads  cannot  be  afforded,  everything 
must  be  planned  to  take  advantage  of  every  shower  heavy  enough  to 
bring  the  road  into  condition  for  working  with  grader,  shovel,  rake  and 
roller. 

With  our  present  system  of  working  country  roads  there  is  no  pos- 
sibility of  either  making  or  maintaining  earth  roads  in  first  class  or- 
der. It  is  possible,  however,  to  do  much  better  than  is  done  in  many 
places,  and  one  of  the  most  fundamental  changes  which  needs  to  be 
made,  and  which  may  readily  be  made,  is  to  reserve  a considerable  part 
of  the  road  tax  each  year  to  be  worked  out  along  the  lines  of  mainten- 
ance on  any  day  during  mid-summer,  fall  and  early  winter  when  it  is 
seen  that  something  needs  to  be  done  and  when  the  soil  is  in  just  the 
right  condition  to  permit  the  most  effective  work. 

The  general  practice  of  working  out  all  of  the  road  tax  in  the  late 
spring  and  early  summer  makes  it  necessary  to  be  nearly  all  of  the  time 
either  making  road  or  repairing  that  which  is  in  very  bad  condition, 
and  the  result  is  that  during  most  of  the  time  the  travel  is  over  poor 
or  bad  roads  when,  if  the  work  were  more  intelligently  distributed 
through  the  seasons  when  work  may  be  effectively  done,  nearly  the 
whole  labor  would  be  devoted  to  correcting  the  slight  defects  and  thus 
enabling  nearly  all  travel  to  be  over  good  or  fairly  good  roads. 

The  intelligent  use  of  the  grader  and  roller  at  the  right  time  after 
the  rains  of  a wet  period  and  after  a dry  period  will  make  marvelous 
changes  in  the  character  of  earth  roads  of  all  classes  and  particularly 
in  those  which  are  proverbially  bad. 

We  cannot  too  strongly  emphasize  that  to  drive  up  one  side  of  the 
road  with  a road  machine  and  back  on  the  other,  scraping  a lot  of  loose, 
heterogeneous  rubbish  and  earth  into  the  middle  of  the  road,  to  be 
tramped  out  again  by  the  traffic,  is  neither  repairing  nor  maintaining 
the  road.  The  material  brought  upon  the  road  should  be  well  distrib- 
uted and  harrowed  until  an  even,  uniform  layer  has  been  secured  and 
then  the  roller  should  be  thoroughly  applied  when  the  earth  is  in  just 
the  right  condition  to  pack  well.  Work  of  this  sort  will  count  and  will' 
be  appreciated. 


EOAD  SUPEEVISION. 

It  seems  clear  that  the  development  of  the  proper  machinery  for  put- 
ting into  effective  execution  an  adequate  system  of  road  construction 
and  road  maintenance  requires  the  evolution  of  a system  of  supervision 
which,  while  it  is  in  harmony  with  our  form  of  government,  is  yet  less 
subject  to  political  influences  and  changes  than  is  our  public  school 
system.  It  is  clear  that  the  work  must  be  in  the  hands  of  men  spe- 
cially trained  for  it,  and  that  competency  and  honesty  shall  be  the 
only  conditions  necessary  to  permanency  of  position.  Any  system' 


The  Construction  and  Maintena?ice  of  Country  Roads.  47 

which  will  make  the  tenure  of  office  dependent  upon  the  changes  of  po- 
litical administration  can  be  but  little  better  than  the  one  we  now  have. 

It  seems  clear  that  there  should  be  a State  Commissioner  or  Superin- 
tendent of  Roads,  whose  duties  shall  be  to  unify  and  co-ordinate  the 
work  throughout  the  state.  Subordinate  to  this  central  officer  there 
may  be  County  Road  Engineers  who  shall  have  immediate  supervision 
of  road  construction  in  their  respective  counties,  and  subordinate  to 
the  county  road  engineer  there  should  be  the  City  Road  Engineers  for 
cities  above  a certain  size,  and  District  Road  Masters  for  the  country 
and  small  towns,  the  latter  officials  having  for  their  duty  the  main- 
tenance of  country  roads. 


f 1 

f f 


Fig.  26.— View  of  country  stone  road  with  foot  path  on  one  side,  near  Maybole, 
Ayrshire,  Scotland.  From  photo  in  1895. 

To  properly  equip  these  offices  with  men  of  the  needed  training  im- 
plies two  courses  of  instruction,  one  for  engineers  of  road  and  bridge 
construction,  and  street  pavement,  and  one  for  road  masters  for  the 
maintenance  of  country  roads.  The  first  course  may  best  be  devel- 
oped in  connection  with  engineering  schools  and  the  second  in  connec- 
tion with  schools  of  agriculture. 


48 


Bulletin  No.  79. 


Fig.  28.— View  on  the  same  road  showing  the  tool  house  where  appliances  for 
caring  for  the  road  are  kept.  Photo,  in  1895,  near  Grignon. 


V£> 


V 


Wia.  Bull.  No.  80. 


/ 


UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN. 


Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


BULLETIN  NO.  80. 


THE  CHARACTER  AND  TREATMENT  OF  SWAMP  OR 
HUMUS  SOIL. 


MADISON,  WISCONSIN , JANUARY , 1900. 


mrThe  Bulletins  and  Annual  Reports  of  this  Station  are  sent  free  to  all 
residents  of  this  State  upon  request. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN 


AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 


BOARD  OF  REGENTS. 

PRESIDENT  of  the  UNIVERSITY,  ex-officio. 

STATE  SUPERINTENDENT  of  PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION,  BX-OFFICIO. 
8tate-at-large,  JOHN  JOHNSTON,  Milwaukee. 

3tate-at-large,  WILLIAM  F.  VILAS,  Madison. 

First  District,  OGDEN  H.  FETHERS.  Janesville. 

Second  District,  B.  J.  STEVENS,  Madison. 

Third  District,  JOHN  E.  MORGAN,  Spring  Green. 

Fourth  District,  GEORGE  H.  NOYES,  Milwaukee. 

Fifth  District,  JOHN  R.  RIESS,  Sheboygan. 

Sixth  District,  C.  A.  GALLOWAY,  Fond  du  Lac. 

Seventh  District,  BYRON  A.  BUFFINGTON,  Eau  Claire. 

Eighth  District,  ORLANDO  E.  CLARK,  Appleton. 

Ninth  District,  J.  A.  VAN  CLEVE,  Marinette. 

Tenth  District,  J.  H.  STOUT,  Menomonie. 

Officers  of  tlie  Board  of  Regents. 

GEORGE  H.  NOYES,  President.  I STATE  TREASURER,  Ex-Officio  Treasurer 
J.  H.  STOUT,  Vice-President.  | E.  F.  RILEY,  Secretary,  Madison. 


Agricultural  Committee. 

Regents  CLARK,  STOUT,  FETHERS,  RIESS,  MORGAN  and  PRESIDENT  ADAMS. 


OFFICERS  OF  THE  STATION; 


THE  PRESIDENT  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY. 

W.  A.  HENRY, 

S.  M.  BABCOCK,  - 

F.  H.  KING, 

E.  S.  GOFF, 

W.  L.  CARLYLE,  .... 

F.  W.  WOLL,  .... 

H.  L.  RUSSELL,  .... 

E.  H.  FARRINGTON, 

A.  R.  WHITSON,*  .... 

A.  G.  HOPKINS,  .... 
ALFRED  VIVIAN,  - 

E.  G.  HASTINGS,  - 

R.  A.  MOORE,  .... 

U.  S.  BAER, 

FREDERIC  CRANEFIELD,  - 
LESLIE  H.  ADAMS, 

IDA  HERFURTH,  - 

EFFIE  M.  CLOSE, 


Director 
Chief  Chemist 
Physicist 
Horticulturist 

- Animal  Husbandry 

Chemist 
Bacteriologist 
Dairy  Husbandry 

- Assistant  Physicist 

- Veterinarian 

- Assistant  Chemist 
Assistant  Bacteriologist 

Assistant  to  Director 
Dairying 

Assistant  Horticulturist 

- Farm  Superintendent 
- Clerk  and  Stenographer 

Librarian 


FARMERS’  INSTITUTES. 

GEORGE  McKERROW,  Superintendent 

HATTIE  V.  STOUT,  ......  Clerk  and  Stenographer 

General  Offices  and  Departments  of  Agricultural  Chemistry,  Animal  Hus- 
bandry, Bacteriology,  Farmers’  Institutes  and  Library,  in  Agricultural  Hall, 
near  University  Hall,  on  Upper  Campus. 

Dairy  Building  and  joint  Horticulture-Physics  Building,  west  end  of  Obser- 
vatory; Hill,  adjacent  to  Horticultural  Grounds  and  Experiment  Farm. 
Telephone  to  Station  Office,  Dairy  Building  and  Farm  Office. 


After  May  1, 1900, 


GENERAL  CONCLUSIONS  REGARDING  SWAMP  OR 
HUMUS  SOILS. 


1.  There  are  in  Wisconsin  alone  in  the  neighborhood  of  4,000  square  miles  of 

humus  soils,  most  of  which  may  readily  he  drained  and  put  In  condition 
for  tillage. 

2.  So  far  as  the  elements  of  plant  food  are  concerned  they  contain  a higher  per 

cent,  than  most  of  the  best  upland  soils. 

3.  The  soil  when  drained  is  easy  to  work  and  maintains  an  excellent  tilth. 

4.  But  when  reclaimed  they  are  often  found  relatively  unproductive,  especially 

after  two  or  three  years. 

5.  Their  productiveness  frequently  varies  to  a marked  degree  in  different  sea- 

sons and  without  an  evident  cause  for  it. 

6.  Coarse  farmyard  manure,  in  almost  all  cases,  greatly  improves  even  the  best 

of  these  lands,  enabling  them  to  give  large  yields. 

7.  Liquid  farmyard  manure  has  not  been  found  to  have  an  appreciable  influ- 

ence on  the  yield. 

8 Potassium  carbonate,  sulphate  and  nitrate  and  wood  ashes  have  been  found 
to  greatly  improve  these  soils  for  corn.  Kainite  improves  the  yield  but 
to  a less  degree. 

9.  Potassium  chloride  in  one-lialf  the  quantity  of  other  salts  killed  the  corn. 
10.  Land  plaster,  lime,  marl,  phosphates,  boufe  meal  and  Thomas  slag  have 
been  tried  with  little  benefit. 

1 1-  Coarse  litter,  like  straw,  plowed  in,  is  often  very  helpful. 

12.  A good  dressing  of  manure  may  materially  increase  the  yield  for  four  con- 

secutive years. 

13.  Heavy  crops  of  oat  hay  can  often  be  grown  upon  the  lands  but  the  plants 

are  liable  to  lodge  and  not  fill  well  if  left  to  mature. 

14.  It  is  difficult  to  get  a good  stand  of  clover  and  winter  killing  is  very  common. 

15.  Timothy  and  red  top  appear  to  do  best  among  the  grasses,  but  it  is  often 

very  difficult  to  get  a stand  of  these  if  the  field  has  been  cultivated  sev- 
eral years. 

16.  One  farmer  has  tried  three  consecutive  years  to  seed  a field  to  timothy  and 

failed,  even  when  sowing  early  in  the  spring  with  and  without  oats,  late 
in  the  summer,  and  in  the  fall  with  rye,  and  yet  in  former  years  heavy 
crops  had  been  taken  from  the  ground,  including  timothy. 

17.  Almost  any  crop  maybe  grown  upon  these  soils  if  they  are  manured  and 

very  heavy  crops  of  corn. 

18.  As  pastures  these  lands  only  give  a moderate  amount  of  feed. 

19.  When  undrained  and  kept  in  the  native  wild  grass  and  cut  continuously 

these  lands  in  some  known  cases  greatly  decrease  in  productiveness,  so 
much  so  as  to  hardly  pay  for  cutting. 

20.  In  sowing  to  grain  and  seeding  after  corn,  which  has  been  kept  clean,  it 

will  generally  be  best  not  to  plow  on  account  of  the  naturally  loose  char- 
acter of  the  soil.  If  plowing  must  be  done  and  the  ground  is  dry  enough 
to  do  so  it  will  be  best  to  roll  to  increase  the  firmness. 

21.  When  clover  has  winter  killed,  leaving  the  timothy  standing,  the  ground 

may  be  seeded  to  clover  very  early  in  the  spring  by  sowing  on  the  surface 
and  harrowing  lightly. 


year  there  was  uniform  heavy  stand. 


THE  CHARACTER  AND  TREATMENT  OF  SWAMP  OR 
HUMUS  SOIL. 


F.  H.  KING  and  J.  A.  JEFFERY. 

AMOUNT  OF  HUMUS  SOILS  IN  WISCONSIN. 

If  reference  is  made  to  the  soil  map  of  Wisconsin  published  by  the 
State  Geological  Survey  of  1873  to  1879  it  will  be  seen  that  there  is  rep- 
resented a very  large  number  of  areas  covered  by  humus  soils;  and  an 
approximate  estimate  of  the  aggregate  surface  places  the  number  of 
acres  at  2,700,000,  equal  in  round  numbers  to  4,000  sq.  miles. 

These  soils,  when  measured  by  the  amount  of  plant  food  they  contain, 
as  indicated  by  chemical  analyses,  are  among  the  richest  we  have,  and 
yet  many  if  not  most  of  them,  after  being  reclaimed,  soon  become  com- 
paratively unproductive  unless  fertilized  with  farmyard  manure. 

CHARACTER  OF  THE  SOIL. 

The  soils  of  this  type  are  usually  quite  black  in  color;  very  mellow 
and  easily  worked,  the  horses  feet  often  sinking  deeply  into  the  ground 
when  dry.  The  soil  holds  a very  high  percentage  of  water  and 
yet  the  capillary  rise  of  water  into  the  surface  when  it  is  loose  is  so 
slow  that  young  plants,  especially  clover,  suffer  severely  when  the 
weather  becomes  dry  before  the  roots  have  penetrated  deeply  into  the 
ground. 

If  the  surface  of  the  ground  is  naked  long,  so  that  considerable  evap- 
oration takes  place,  a white  deposit  forms  over  the  unstirred  surface 
and  it  is  usually  where  these  deposits  form  most  profusely  that  crops 
are  smallest. 

These  soils  are  at  all  times  relatively  rich  in  nitrates  and  chemical 
analyses  show  a good  supply  of  phosphates  and  potash  in  them,  indeed 
often  more  than  most  upland  soils.  They  have  more  lime  and  more 
magnesia  than  most  soils  and  the  content  of  humus  is  very  high,  and 
yet  a good  dressing  of  coarse  farmyard  manure  usually  increases  the 
productiveness  in  a remarkable  degree. 

THE  BEHAVIOR  OF  CROPS  ON  HUMUS  SOILS. 

It  appears  to  be  the  most  general  experience  regarding  these  soils 
that  when  reclaimed  by  draining  and  plowing  the  first  crop  is  good  or 


6 


Bulletin  No.  80 „ 


excellent  unless  some  unfavorable  weather  conditions  prevent.  Suc- 
ceeding crops  are  not  as  large  and  in  some  cases  after  the  third  or  fourth 
season  it  becomes  very  difficult  to  raise  any  crop  upon  the  ground. 

It  is  oftenest  true  that  fields  of  these  soils  are  very  unequal  in  pro- 
ductiveness in  different  portions,  some  areas  bearing  good  yields  while 
others  produce  little  or  nothing.  When  corn  is  grown  upon  these 
lands  there  will  often  be  one  or  two  unusually  large  hills  surrounded 
on  all  sides  by  plants  which  are  very  small  and  yellow,  and  Fig.  1 is  a 
fair  illustration  of  a very  common  appearance. 

The  soil  often  varies  in  a marked  degree  in  productiveness  different 
years  and  the  figure  just  referred  to  is  an  illustration  in  point.  The 
year  before,  on  the  same  ground,  there  was  a heavy  growth  of  nearly 
uniform  plants;  but  this  was  the  first  crop.  The  third  crop  was  more 
nearly  like  the  second,  but  the  present  year,  or  fourth  crop,  the  growth 
has  again  been  much  larger  and  more  even. 

In  the  places  where  crops  fail  to  develop  normally  it  is  common  to 
find  on  pulling  up  plants  that  they  have  a very  imperfect  root  system, 
the  tips  of  new  roots  appearing  brown  and  soft  much  as  if  they  had  been 
corroded.  Farmers  frequently  ascribe  this  appearance  to  wire  worms 
and  they  do  sometimes  work  in  these  soils  but  wire  worms  are  not  re- 
sponsible for  the  deficient  root  system  in  most  cases. 

RESULTS  OF  WORK  IN  1896  AND  1897. 

The  experiments  wih  commercial  fertilizers  tried  in  1896  showed  that 
only  those  containing  potash  materially  improved  the  yield,  as  a study 
of  the  table  on  page  107,  Rept.  of  1896,  will  show. 

By  averaging  the  yields  of  the  two  unfertilized  plots  adjacent  to  each 
fertilized  plot,  to  use  as  a standard  for  comparison  of  the  effect  exerted 
by  the  fertilizer,  we  find  the  results  given  in  the  table  below: 


Table  showing  influence  of  fertilizers  on  humus  soil  in  1896. 


A 

Fertilized, 
dry  matter 
per  acre. 

Not  fertilized, 
dry  matter 
per  acre. 

| Difference. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Farmyard  manure 

7,622 

3,597 

+4,025 

Marl 

4,292 

4,083 

+209 

Kainite 

4,817 

4,912 

-95 

Potassium  sulphate 

4,101 

3,441 

+660 

Potassium  chloride 

5,772 

3,544 

+2,228 

Superphosphate 

4,529 

4,851 

—322 

Bone  meal 

4,286 

4,171 

+115 

Basic  slag 

5,568 

5,788 

-220 

Char  act  er'jxnd  Treatment  of  Swamp  Soil. 


7 


It  appeared  from  the  results  in  1896  that  these  soils  might,  for  some 
reason,  be  lacking  in  available  nitrogen  and  potash,  and  in  1897  work 
was  done  in  the  plant  house  bearing  upon  this  phase  of  the  problem, 
and  the  results,  with  others,  are  recorded  on  pages  234  to  239  of  the  re- 
port for  that  year.  There  it  was  shown  that,  while  farmyard  manure, 
straw  and  potassium  carbonate  had  marked  beneficial  effects,  nitrate  of 
soda  did  hot  sensibly  affect  the  growth  of  corn  upon  these  soils,  as  il- 
lustrated in  Fig.  2. 


Fig.  2. — Showing  that  available  nitrogen  in  the  form  of  sodium  nitrate  does  not  im 
prove  the  yield  on  black  marsh  soil.  The  four  large  cylinders,  in  the  center,  have 
received  sodium  nitrate,  while  the  four  on  the  right  were  treated  with  farmyard 
manure,  and  those  on  the  left  with  potassium  carbonate. 

It  was  also  shown  that  corn  on  clover  sod  did  very  much  better  than 
corn  following  oats,  as  illustrated  in  Fig.  3.  After  this  very  marked  im- 
provement in  the  corn  crop  following  clover  was  secured  it  was  resolved 
to  repeat  the  experiments;  but  before  this  could  be  done  an  interval  be- 
tween December,  1897,  and  February,  1898,  occurred  during  which  these 
and  other  cylinders  of  the  plant  house  were  used  for  the  tillage  experi- 
ments recorded  in  the  report  of  1898.  At  the  close  of  these  trials  the 
cylinders  were  again  planted  to  corn  but  as  the  crop  advanced  toward 
maturity  it  was  found  that  the  influence  of  the  clover  had  entirely  dis- 
appeared. 

There  appear  to  be  but  two  rational  explanations  of  the  failure  of 
the  corn  to  respond  to  the  clover  as  it  had  done  in  so  marked  a manner 
before.  The  first  is  that  the  development  of  nitrates  in  the  soil  during 
the  tillage  experiments  had  been  so  large  that  no  difference  existed  be- 
tween the  cylinders  which  had  borne  clover  and  the  others.  The  second 
is  that  during  the  interval  of  tillage  all  of  the  clover  roots  had  decayed 


Bulletin  No.  80. 


and  so  the  influence  which  these  might  be  supposed  to  exert  analq/^ous 
to  that  of  the  cut  straw  and  coarse  manure  was  lost. 

When  these  soils  came  to  be  examined  for  the  quantity  of  nitric  acid 
they  contained  it  was  found  that  there  was  present  an  unusual  amount, 
as  shown  in  the  table  below,  where  the  quantities  found  in  the  first, 
second  and  third  feet  of  the  several  cylinders  are  given. 


After  oats.  After  clover. 

Fig.  3. — Showing  the  increased  yield  on  black  marsh  soil  due  to  red  clover. 


It  will  be  seen  from  these  figures  that,  so  far  as  nitrates  are  concerned, 
the  soils,  at  the  time  the  crop  which  showed  no  benefit  from  the  clover 
was  on  the  ground,  contained  very  large  amounts  of  it  but  no  more  in 
the  clover  cylinders  than  in  the  others. 


Character  and  Treatment  of  Swamp  Soil. 


Table  showing  amount  of  nitric  acid  in  pounds  per  million  of  dry 
humus  soil  of  plant  house  cylinders  after  tillage  experiments  of 
1897-98.  Samples  taken  May  4 , 1898. 


*Best  Soil,  West  Series. 

Poorest  Soil,  East  Series. 

Depth  of  Sample. 

Depth  of  Sample. 

No  of 
Cyl. 

First 

foot. 

Second 

loot. 

Third 

foot. 

No  of 
Cyl. 

First 

foot. 

Second 

foot. 

Tiiird 

foot. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

1 

36 

) 

1 

) 

Losely  packed •< 

y 94 

131 

143 

V 242 

382 

573 

35 

) 

2 

) 

( 

34 

) 

3 

) 

Cut  straw  < 

y 117 

185 

332 

[ 274 

332 

394 

l 

33 

) 

4 

l 

32 

) 

5 

) 

Farmyard  manure  s 

31 

286 

300 

394 

6 

J 300 

350 

407 

( 

30 

) 

7 

Sodium  nitrate -s 

y 315 

300 

335 

[■  420 

485 

525 

( 

29 

8 

) 

( 

28 

) 

9 

) 

Potassium  carbonate K 

}■  225 

355 

600 

V 233 

420 

485 

l 

27 

) 

10 

) 

l 

26 

11 

) 

Closely  packed s 

[■  315 

394 

315 

y 450 

350 

315 

25 

) 

12 

) 

l 

24 

) 

13 

) 

Oats < 

y 315 

233 

162 

f-  162 

450 

450 

1 

23 

) 

14 

I 

22 

15 

1 

Clover  

21 

20 

} 162 

180 

371 

16 

17  j 

J 242 

350 

228 

l 

19 

J 

18 

J 

Notwithstanding  the  presence  of  these  large  amounts  of  nitric  acid  in 
the  soil,  and  in  so  soluble  a form  that  they  are  quickly  removed  by  dis- 
tilled water,  farmyard  manure  produced  a marked  improvement  in  the 
crop  as  shown  in  Fig.  4.  These  being  the  facts,  it  seemed  clear  that 
the  farmyard  manure  must  exert  an  influence  not  attributable  to  its  in- 
fluence on  the  development  of  nitric  acid  through  fermentation.  On 
this  account  and  because  of  the  good  effect  which  cut  straw  has  been 
found  to  have,  it  was  decided  to  make  a study  of  the  influence  of  differ- 
ent kinds  of  farmyard  manure  in  the  field  during  the  season  of  1898. 


*The  west  series  of  cylinders  was  filled  with  soil  taken  from  places  in  the  field  where 
the  first  crop  of  corn  was  largest  and  the  east  cylinders  with  soil  where  the  corn  was 
smallest. 


Bulletin  No.  80. 


10 


INFLUENCE  OF  THREE  TYPES  OF  FARMYARD  MANURE  ON  CROPS  GROWN  ON 

HUMUS  SOIL. 

To  study  this  problem  two  plots  of  humus  soil  on  the  Station  farm  150 
feet  by  100  feet  were  each  divided  into  11  sub-plots  13.6  feet  wide  and  100 
feet  long.  A set  of  three  of  these  sub-plots  on  each  of  the  plots  sepa- 
rated by  blanks  were  treated,  one  with  coarse  manure,  one  with  fine  well 
rotted  manure  and  the  other  with  liquid  manure.  The  solid  manure 
was  applied  April  15  at  the  rate  of  64.36  cubic  feet  to  each  sub-plot  and 
plowed  in.  The  liquid  manure  was  taken  from  the  collecting  cistern 


Manure.  Nitrate. 

Fig.  4.—  Showing  the  beneficial  effect  of  farmyard  manure  on  black  marsh  soil,  and  the 
failure  of  sodium  nitrate  to  improve  the  crop. 


and  applied  to  the  surface,  after  the  ground  had  been  plowed  on  April 
25;  the  amount  being  458  lbs.  per  sub-plot.  This  liquid  was  very  dark 
colored  and  contained  .1356  per  cent,  of  solids.  Corn  was  planted  upon 
the  ground  and  when  it  came  to  maturity  a very  large  increase  in  yield 
on  the  sub-plots  receiving  the  solid  manure  was  realized  and  the  differ- 
ence between  two  of  the  sub-plots  and  the  blank  between  them  is  clearly 
shown  in  Fig.  5.  We  were  much  surprised  to  find,  however,  that  no  per- 
ceptible influence  was  exerted  by  the  liquid  manure,  either  upon  corn, 
oats,  timothy  or  clover  where  two  other  trials  were  made.  The  liquid 
manure  was  not  examined  for  the  amount  of  fertilizers  it  contained  ex- 
cept as  to  the  total  solids  in  solution,  but  we  know  of  no  reason  to  sup- 
pose that  it  was  notably  deficient  and  such  dressings  have  very  much 
improved  upland  soils. 


Fig.  5. — Showing  the  effect'of  coarse  and  fine  farmyard  manure  on  black  marsh  soil.  The  center  strip  of  small  corn 

is  on  the  untreated  soil. 


Character  and  Treatment  of  Swamp  Soil. 


11 


1 


Bulletin  No.  80. 


INFLUENCE  OF  CLAY,  SAND  AND  LAND  PLASTER. 

On  the  same  two  plots  the  same  season  other  sub-plots  were  used  to 
test  the  influence  of  dressings  of  clay  and  sandy  soil  and  of  land  plaster 
on  these  marsh  grounds.  The  same  dimensions  of  sub-plots  as  those 
used  for  the  manure  were  employed  and  each  was  alternated  with  a 
blank  or  untreated  area  of  like  dimensions. 

After  the  ground  had  been  plowed  and  before  it  was  planted  1,350 
lbs.  of  sandy  loam  and  1,770  lbs.  of  good  clay  soil  were  evenly  spread 
over  the  respective  sub-plots,  each  13.6  feet  by  100  feet;  and  20  lbs.  of 
land  plaster  were  sown  upon  each  of  two  other  sub-plots  of  like  soil. 
After  this  had  been  done  the  surface  was  harrowed  lengthwise  of  the 
sub-plots. 

On  two  other  plots  within  the  tile  drained  area,  and  where  the  soil 
was  notably  poor,  other  sub-plots  were  treated  with  liquid  manure  and 
with  land  plaster,  where  the  ground  had  been  sowed  to  oats  and  seeded 
to  clover.  The  dressings  applied  were  at  the  rate  of  6 lbs.  of  land 
plaster  and  60  lbs,  of  liquid  manure  per  square  rod. 

In  no  one  of  the  sub-plots  treated  with  liquid  manure,  with  land 
plaster  or  with  sand  or  clay  was  there  any  observable  improvement  of 
the  crop,  when  judged  by  plants  growing  upon  the  blank  or  control  plots 
between  them. 

THE  INFLUENCE  OF  LAND  PLASTER  STUDIED  IN  THE  PLANT  HOUSE. 

On  June  10  and  11,  1898,  the  odd  numbers  of  cylinder^,  Fig.  6,  1 to  18 
and  even  numbers  20  to  36,  were  given  dressings  of  200  gms.  of  land 
plaster  each,  or  at  the  rate  of  2,717  lbs.  per  acre. 


Fig.  6. — Showing  ths  arrangement  of  plant  house  cylinders  used  in  studying  black 

marsh  soils. 

This  treatment  was  given  on  the  working  hypothesis  that  these  soils 
may  contain  a sufficient  amount  of  black  alkali — sodium  carbonate — to 
produce  the  bad  effects  observed,  it  having  been  found  in  the  west  that 
land  plaster  is  a corrective  of  this  trouble  by  converting  the  sodium 
carbonate  into  sodium  sulphate,  which  is  less  harmful  to  vegetation. 


Character  and  Treatment  of  Swamp  Soil . 


13 


In  starting  the  experiment,  about  a cubic  foot  of  the  surface  soil  was 
removed  and  one-half  of  the  land  plaster  applied  and  well  worked  in. 
Water  was  then  added  to  bring  the  cylinders  up  to  standard  weight,  the 
amount  required  ranging  from  50  to  103  lbs.  per  cylinder.  When  this 
water  had  been  absorbed  the  balance  of  the  land  plaster  was  sowed  upon 
the  wet  surface,  reserving  a little  to  sprinkle  in  each  hill  when  the  corn 
was  planted.  The  soil  which  had  been  removed  was  then  returned  and 
the  corn  planted. 

On  July  7,  26  days  after  the  land  plaster  had  been  applied  clyinders  11, 
12,  13,  14,  15,  16,  17,  18  on  the  east  side  and  19,  20,  21,  22,  23,  24,  25  and 
26  on  the  west  side  were  flooded  with  100  lbs.  of  water,  the  object  being 
to  test  the  effect  of  leaching  upon  the  crop  and  upon  the  amount  of 
sodium  carbonate  left  in  the  soil.  After  15  hours  standing  the  drains 
were  opened  and  the  water  withdrawn.  The  last  portion  of  this  drain- 
age water  was  examined  for  carbonates  in  solution,  with  results  as  given 
below,  computed  as  Na3  C03, composites  having  been  made  of  the  four 
classes. 


Nominal  alkalinity  of  drainage  water  from  humus  soil  in  plant 
house , treated  and  not  treated  with  land  plaster. 

Parts  per  million. 


East  side,  poorest  soil,  treated  with  land  plaster 1079 

East  side,  poorest  soil,  not  treated  with  land  plaster 1113 

West  side,  best  soil,  treated  with  land  plaster 731  4 

West  side,  best  soil,  not  treated  with  1^  nd  plaster 099. 6 


On  July  14,  100  lbs.  more  water  were  added  to  the  cylinders  and  al- 
lowed to  drain  away.  Composite  samples  of  the  surface  foot  of  soil  from 
the  eight  groups  were  then  taken  and  the  nominal  alkalinity  in  these 
determined,  with  the  results  given  in  the  next  table. 

Table  showing  the  nomina  alkalinity  of  humus  soil  in  plant  house 
which  has  been  treated  and  not  treated  with  land  plaster  and 
afterwards  either  leached  or  not.  Carbonates  computed  as 
Na 2 COs  in  parts  per  million  of  dry  soil. 


Series. 

Land  Plaster. 

No  Land 

Plaster. 

Leached. 

Not  leached. 

Leached. 

Not  leached. 

East  side,  or  poorest  soil 

West  side,  or  best  soil 

Lbs.  pr  mill. 
238.5 

206.7 

Lbs.  pr  mill. 
238.5 

259.7 

Lbs.  pr  mill. 
299.4 

206.7 

Lbs.  pr  mill. 

310.9 

243.9 

14 


Bulletin  No.  80. 


After  these  determinations  were  made  still  anotner  100  lbs.  of  water 
were  added  to  the  cylinders  to  be  leached,  on  July  21,  and  the  water 
drawn  off.  On  August  4 it  was  concluded  that  the  corn  had  advanced 
far  enough  to  show  any  effect  which  the  land  plaster  and  the  leaching 
were  likely  to  develop  and  it  was  cut  and  the  dry  matter  determined. 
The  results  are  given  below: 


Table  showing  the  dry  matter  in  corn  grown  in  plant  house  on  humus 
soil  treated  and  not  treated  with  land  plaster , and  which  had 
either  been  leached  or  not. 


Series. 

Land  Plaster. 

No  Land  Plaster. 

Leached. 

Not  leached. 

Leached. 

Not  leached. 

East  side,  or  poorest  soil 

137.8 

141.7 

189.9 

148  9 

West  side,  or  best  soil 

357.6 

318.3 

403.6 

316.2 

If  the  results  of  these  two  tables  are  combined  they  will  stand  as 
follows : 


Leached. 

Not 

leached. 

Land 

plaster. 

No  land 
plaster. 

Yield  of  dry  matter 

544.4 

475.6 

462.5 

526.5 

475.6 

472.7 

522.2 

530  5 

Amount  of  nominal  alkalies 

That  is  to  say,  the  yield  of  dry  matter  on  the  ground  leached  is 
larger  than  on  that  not  leached  and  the  nominal  alkalinity  of  the  soil 
is  least  where  it  has  been  leached.  This  relation  is  what  should  be  ex- 
pected if  sodium  carbonate  were  present  in  the  soil  to  an  injurious  ex- 
tent. Then,  too,  the  nominal  alkalinity  is  less  on  the  soil  to  which 
land  plaster  was  applied,  as  should  be  expected  if  sodium  carbonate 
were  present  in  measurable  quantities  and  it  was  decomposed  by  the 
land  plaster.  But,  contrary  to  what  should  be  expected,  the  yield  on 
the  cylinders  treated  with  land  plaster  was  less  than  where  they  were 
not  so  treated.  The  case  therefore  was  not  a demonstrative  one;  but 
we  had  come  to  think  that  the  real  difficulty  with  these  soils  could  not 
be  the  presence  in  them  of  sodium  carbonate  and  a change  in  the  line 
of  treatment  was  resolved  upon. 

INFLUENCE  OF  MAGNESIUM  SALTS. 

In  view  of  the  fact  that  magnesium  salts  have  been  recognized  to 
produce  injurious  effects  upon  field  crops  under  certain  conditions,  and 
the  fact  that  the  magnesium  salts  are  more  soluble  than  those  of  lime. 


Character  and  Treatment  of  Swamp  Soil. 


15 


together  with  the  fact  that  in  many  parts  of  our  state  dolomitic  lime- 
stones occur  in  heavy  and  extensive  beds,  under  conditions  to  yield 
their  salts  to  the  drainage  water,  led  us  to  try  in  the  plant  house  the  in- 
fluence of  magnesium  carbonate  and  magnesium  sulphate  upon  the 
growth  of  corn. 

These  two  salts  were  chosen  as  being  the  two  most  likely  to  be  pres- 
ent in  the  largest  amounts  in  the  underflow  waters  giving  rise  to  the 
formation  of  the  humus  soils  in  question. 

In  carrying  out  the  trials  cylinders  Nos.  5,  7,  10,  12,  15  and  18  and 
19,  22,  25,  27,  30  and  32  of  Fig.  6 were  chosen  for  treatment  with  mag- 
nesium sulphate;  and  Nos.  2,  4,  9,  11,  14,  17,  20,  23,  26,  28,  33  and  35  for 
magnesium  carbonate,  the  remaining  numbers  being  reserved  as  blanks 
for  comparison. 

On  May  2,  1898,  the  soil  of  all  of  these  cylinders  was  examined  for 
nominal  alkalies  in  the  first,  second  and  third  feet,  and  those  on  the 
east  side,  Nos.  1 to  18,  were  found  to  contain  a mean  of  .03874  per  cent, 
of  the  dry  weight  when  computed  as  all  sodium  carbonate;  and  on  the 
west  side,  Nos.  19  to  36,  .03034  per  cent,  of  the  dry  weight  of  the  soil. 

For  the  purposes  of  the  series  of  experiments  next  to  be  made  it  was 
assumed  that  the  total  nominal  alkalinity  was  due  to  magnesium  car- 
bonate, and  we  planned  to  double  the  content  assumed  to  be  present  in 
the  east  cylinders  and  to  increase  the  amount  in  the  west  series  until  it 
should  equal  that  in  the  other  set.  Magnesium  sulphate  was  also  taken 
sufficient  to  give  amounts  of  magnesium  equal  to  that  carried  to  the 
soils  by  the  carbonate  to  be  added. 

The  2-ounce  package  commercial  magnesia  alba  was  used  for  the 
carbonate  and  1.75  lbs.  were  placed  in  each  of  three  galvanized  cylin- 
ders 18  inches  in  diameter  and  42  inches  deep,  which  were  then  filled 
with  well  water,  the  plan  being  to  add  the  carbonate  as  a saturated 
water  solution,  using  this  to  water  the  plants  with  as  needed.  The 
water  was  stirred  from  time  to  time  and  the  carbonate  allowed  to  set- 
tle before  the  water  was  to  be  applied.  The  amount  of  carbonate  added 
each  time  of  watering  was  computed  by  titrating  a sample  of  the  water 
used  with  ^ H Cl,  the  alkalinity  usually  averaging  about  .0136  per  cent. 
The  magnesium  sulphate  was  dissolved  in  water  and  one-half  the 
amount  required  to  represent  the  equivalent  of  the  nominal  alkalinity 
found  in  May  was  added  at  once  and  the  balance  August  19,  making  in 
all,  .4002  lbs.  to  each  east  cylinder  and  .4839  to  each  west  one,  or  at 
the  rate  of  2466  and  2982  lbs.  per  acre,  respectively.  On  September  16, 
a quarter  more  MgS04  was  added,  increasing  the  total  to  3082  and  3727 
lbs.  The  total  amount  of  magnesium  carbonate  which  had  been  added 
at  the  close  of  the  trials  was  an  average,  for  the  twelve  cylinders  of 
541.1  lbs.  per  acre  computed  from  the  titrations  and  the  amounts  of 
water  used. 

Corn  was  planted  three  different  times  under  these  treatments  and 


16 


Bullet  in  No.  SO. 


the  results  as  amounts  of  dry  matter  produced  are  given  in  the  table 
which  follows: 


Table  showing  the  yield  of  dry  matter  of  corn  on  humus  soil  in 
plant  house  treated  with  magnesium  sulphate , magnesium  car- 
bonate,  and  not  treated. 


Date. 

Treated  with  Mag- 
nesium Sulphate. 

Treated  with 
Magnesia  Alba. 

Not  Treated. 

East 

series, 

poorest 

soil. 

West 
series, 
best  soil. 

East 

series, 

poorest 

soil. 

West 
series, 
best  soil. 

East 

series, 

poorest 

soil. 

West 
series, 
best  soil. 

Dry  matter 

Dry  matter 

Dry  matter 

Dry  matter 

Dry  matter 

Dry  matter 

Aug.  9 to  Sept.  14 

198.9 

390.3 

173.7 

307.3 

197.8 

436.3 

Sept.  16  to  Dec.  2 

295.9 

669.6 

243  5 

672.1 

260.8 

822.5 

Total 

494.8 

1059.9 

417.2 

979.4 

458.6 

1258.8 

Per  cent 

107.9 

84.19 

90.97 

77.79 

100.00 

100.00 

It  appears  clear  from  these  results  that  the  magnesia  alba  has  re- 
duced the  yield  of  dry  matter  on  both  the  poorest  and  best  soil,  but 
much  more  on  the  best  soil,  the  yield  there  being  only  77.79  per  cent,  of 
that  on  the  best  soil  receiving  no  treatment.  It  appears  clear  also  that 
the  magnesium  sulphate  has  decreased  the  yield  on  the  best  soil,  that 
being  only  84.19  per  cent,  of  that  on  the  same  soil  not  treated.  Speak- 
ing of  the  poorest  soil,  there  is  some  indication  that  the  magnesium  sul- 
phate has  increased  the  yield,  although  the  amounts  are  not  large 
enough  to  make  sure  that  the  differences  may  not  be  due  to  some  other 
factor. 

The  appearance  of  the  plants  of  the  first  set  at  the  time  that  the  ex- 
periment was  closed  are  represented  in  Figs.  7,  8 and  9. 

It  would  appear  safe  to  conclude  that  magnesium  sulphate  in  the 
soil  water  certainly  cannot  be  the  cause  of  the  unproductiveness  of 
these  soils.  The  case  is  not  so  clear  in  regard  to  the  magnesium  car- 
bonate, and  partly  because  subsequent  analysis  has  shown  the  mag- 
nesia alba  to  contain  .473  per  cent,  of  sodium  carbonate,  as  well  as  .091 
per  cent,  of  potassium  carbonate. 

With  these  results  standing  as  given  it  appeared  best,  before  chang- 
ing the  treatment,  to  make  it  still  more  violent,  and  the  series  was 
again  repeated,  but  this  time  adding  one  pound  of  each  of  the  two  salts 
to  the  cylinders  which  had  already  received  these  salts. 


Character  and  Treatment  of  Swamp  Soil , 


17 


Treated  with  Treated  with 

Not  treated.  Magnesia  alba.  Magnesium  sulphate. 

Fig.  7.—  Showing  the  influence  of  treating  black  marsh  soil  with  magnesium  sulphate. 

and  Magnesia  alba. 


Poorest  soil  Best  soil  treated 

treated  with  Poorest  soil  Best  soil  not  „ with  land 

land  plaster.  untreated.  treated.  plaster. 

Fig  . 8.— Showing  the  small  effect  resulting  from  the  use  of  land  plaster.  These  are 
the  same  plants  shown  in  Fig.  7,  but  all  those  which  had  been  grown  on  soil  treated 
with  landtp]aster  are  placed  in  two  groups,  and  these  grown  on  the  soil  not  treated 
with  land; plaster  are  jut  in  two  other  groups. 


18 


Bulletin  No.  80. 


Best  soil  Poorest  soil  Poorest  soil  Best  soil  not 

leached.  leached.  not  leached.  leached. 

Fig.  9.—  The  same  plants  as  in  Fig.  7 grouped  to  show  the  effect  on  the  second  crop  of 
the  first  experiment  in  leaching. 

In  applying  this  dressing  a cubic  foot  of  the  soil  was  first  removed, 
then  the  salts  were  sown  over  the  surface  and  thoroughly  worked  in  by 
stirring  with  a four-tined  fork  to  a depth  of  three  inches.  Water 
enough  was  then  added  to  bring  the  cylinders  to  standard  weight  and 
after  this  had  soaked  away  and  the  soil  become  firm,  corn  was  planted 
directly  upon  the  wet  surface,  and  covered  with  the  soil  which  had 
been  removed.  The  planting  was  done  Dec.  12,  in  four  hills  of  six  ker- 
nels each,  and  later,  on  Jan.  4,  after  studying  the  differences  in  ger- 
mination, the  hills  were  thinned  to  two  stalks. 

On  February  13  the  experiment  was  closed  and  the  dry  matter  In 
the  plants  produced  under  the  three  treatments  determined  with  the 
results  given  below: 


Table  showing  the  yield  of  dry  matter  in  corn  on  humus  soil  treated 
with  magnesium  sulphate  and  carbonate ; and  on  that  not  treated. 


Treated  with  Mag 
nesium  Sulphate. 

Treated  with 
Magnesia  Alba. 

Not  Treated. 

Date. 

East  series 
poorest 
soil. 

West  series 
best  soil. 

East  series 
poorest 
soil. 

West  series 
best  soil. 

East  series 
poorest 
soil. 

West  series 
best  soil. 

Dry  matter 

Dry  matter 

Dry  matter 

Dry  matter 

Dry  matter 

Dry  matter 

December  12  to 

Feb.  13 

89.58 

138.96 

62  71 

93.83 

108.13 

176.25 

Per  cent  .... 

82  87 

78.84 

58.01 

53.22 

100 

100 

Character  and  Treatment  of  Swamp  Soil. 


19 


It  is  very  clear  now  that  the  magnesium  salts  have  seriously  inter- 
fered with  the  growth  of  the  corn  and  that  the  influence  of  the  mag- 
nesia alba  has  been  much  stronger  than  that  of  the  sulphate,  the  results 
being  quite  parallel  with  those  from  the  lighter  dressings,  except  that 
they  are  more  intensified. 

: ' !i  : : J J-  j 

CONDITION  OF  THE  ROOT  SYSTEM. 

In  harvesting  the  corn  of  the  last  trial  the  plants  were  pulled  and 
the  condition  of  the  roots  examined.  By  bringing  into  composite  groups 
two  plants  from  each  cylinder  receiving  like  treatment  it  was  very  evi- 
dent that  the  first  set  of  roots  from  the  tip  of  the  radicle  had  developed 
much  less  on  the  plants  which  had  been  treated  with  the  magnesia  alba 
than  on  either  of  the  other  two  treatments.  It  was  also  true  that  this 
condition  was  most  marked  in  the  plants  from  the  poorest  soil  or  East 
series;  indeed,  in  the  majority  of  these  cases  this  set  of  roots  was  dead. 

The  roots  from  the  first  and  second  nodes  above  the  tip  of  the  radicle 
were  much  better  developed  and  more  branched  on  both  the  sulphate 
and  no  treatment  than  they  were  on  the  carbonate  treatment.  It  was 
not  clear,  however,  to  the  eye,  that  any  important  difference  existed  be- 
tween the  plants  of  the  sulphate  treatment  and  those  on  the  untreated 
soil.  Below  is  given  a comparison  of  the  weight  of  dry  matter  in  the 
roots,  which  came  up  with  the  plants  in  pulling  them  from  the  soil. 


Table  showing  the  dry  matter  in  roots  of  corn  grown  on  humus 
soil  in  plant  house  between  Dee.  12  and  Feb.  13. 


Treated  with  Mag 
nesium  Sulphate. 

Treated  with 
Magnesia  Alba. 

Treated  with 
Nothing. 

Date. 

East 

series, 

poorest 

soil. 

West 

series,  best 
soil. 

East 

series, 

poorest 

soil. 

West 

series,  best 
soil. 

East 

series, 

poorest 

soil. 

West 

series,  best 
soil. 

Dec.  12  to  Feb.  13 

Dry  matter 
13.33 

Dry  matter 
15.80 

Dry  matter 
7.90 

Dry  matter 
12.07 

Dry  matter 
11.43 

Dry  matter 
18.57 

Percent.,  roots. 

116.60 

85.08 

69.12 

65.00 

100 

100 

Per  cent.,  tops 

82.87 

78.84 

58.01 

53.22 

100 

100 

This  table  shows  that  the  root  system  is  less  seriously  affected  by  the 
treatment  than  the  tops,  but  this  is  perhaps  what  should  be  expected, 
provided  the  difficulty  was  really  in  the  root  system,  because  if  the 
roots  were  being  injured  it  might  be  expected  that  the  plant  would  make 
its  greatest  effort  to  repair  the  injured  tissues  and  hence  fail  to  develop 
as  fully  the  portions  not  directly  injured. 


20 


Bulletin  No.  80. 


INFLUENCE  OF  DRAINAGE  WATER  FROM  HUMUS  SOIL  ON  THE  GROWTH  OF 
CORN  IN  THE  PLANT  HOUSE. 

The  drainage  from  one  of  the  tile  drained  pieces  of  humus  soil  is  ar- 
ranged so  that  the  water  may  be  examined  from  each  line  of  tile  and 
the  laterals  discharge  into  a main  which  passes  through  a silt  well  be- 
fore reaching  the  outlet.  On  Nov.  10,  1898,  a sample  of  the  composite 
water  from  the  silt  well  was  taken  and  analyzed  by  the  “Official  method” 
for  calcium  and  magnesium,  which  showed  it  to  contain  .01495  per  cent, 
of  CaO,  and  .0207  per  cent,  of  MgO. 

The  total  solids  in  solution  in  1000  cc.,  taken  from  the  same  place  Oct. 
13,  1899,  was  .379  gms.  or  .0379  per  cent. 

An  examination  of  the  drainage  water  from  several  laterals  taken 
July  15,  1898,  for  C02  and  nominal  alkalinity,  gave  the  results  stated 
in  the  table  which  follows: 


Table  showing  the  amount  of  C02  salts  found  in  drain  water  from 
humus  soil;  (1)  by  titrating  directly  against  If  Cl ; and  (2)  by 

first  evaporating  to  dryness , then  redissolving  in  distilled  water , 
filtering  and  titrating  against  H Cl;  cochineal  being  used  as 
indicator. 


Solution. 

Solution. 

1 

No.  ot 
lateral. 

Not 

evaporated. 

Evaporated. 

No.  of 
lateral. 

Not 

evaporated. 

Evaporated. 

Pounds 
per  million  as 
Nag  C03. 

Pounds 
per  milliofi 

Na2  C03. 

Pounds 
per  million 
Nag  C03. 

Pounds 
per  million 
Na2C03. 

1 

358.3 

68.92 

6 

307.5 

32.87 

2 

344.5 

47.71 

9 

318.1 

40.29 

3 

360.4 

95.45 

10 

324.4 

36.04 

4 

355.1 

71.02 

11 

342  5 

34.98 

5 

339.2 

62.55 

12 

337.1 

42.40 

Mean . . 

338.71 

53.232  ‘ 

As  it  was  possible  to  have  easy  access  to  the  water  draining  away 
from  the  humus  soil  under  investigation  it  appeared  desirable  to  test 
the  influence  of  this  water  on  the  growth  of  corn  in  the  plant  house,  us- 
ing a different  quality  of  water  as  a check,  working  upon  the  hypothesis 
that  if  the  soil  water  contained  a toxic  or  otherwise  injurious  principle 
its  effect  would  become  evident. 

To  carry  out  the  work  the  conditions  were  planned  to  use  as  much 
water  as  praticable  by  arranging  for  as  large  an  evaporation  as  could 
be  secured. 


Character  and  Treatment  of  Swamp  Soil.  2l 

Two  galvanized  iron  trays  83  in.  long,  6 in.  wide  and  6 in.  deep,  coated 
inside  with  asphalt  paint,  were  filled  with  soil,  two  with  a sandy  loam 
and  two  with  a clay  loam  in  good  moisture  condition  for  plant  growth. 
When  filled  the  two  trays  with  clay  loam  contained  165.5  and  165.75  lbs. 
and  the  two  with  sandy  loam  175.25  and  178  lbs.,  respectively. 

In  order  to  keep  the  soil  warm  and  the  air  dry  the  trays  were  placed 
upon  boards  resting  upon  brick  on  the  top  of' the  steam  radiator  in  the 
plant  house,  conditions  which  secured  a soil  temperature  of  about  80°  F. 
and  a high  root  pressure.  To  make  the  consumption  of  water  still  more 
rapid  nine  hills  of  corn  were  planted  in  each  tray,  each  with  6 kernels. 
The  drain  water  for  two  of  the  trays  was  brought  fresh  from  the  silt 
well,  referred  to  above,  the  day  it  was  used  and,  for  the  other  two,  rain 
water  or  melted  snow  collected  from  the  roof  of  the  plant  house  was 
employed.  The  trays  were  watered  as  often  as  needed  to  keep  the  soil 
moist,  usually  every  two  or  three  days;  and  four  repetitions  of  the  ex- 
periment were  made  beginning  Nov.  2,  1898,  and  closing  June  29,  1899. 


Table  showing  the  amount  of  water  used  and  the  dry  matter  pro- 
duced when  watering  corn  with  drainage  water  from  humus 
soil  and  with  rain  water . 


Sandy  Loam. 

Clay  Loam. 

Date. 

Drain  water. 

Soft  water. 

Drain  water. 

Soft  water. 

Water. 

Dry 

matter. 

Water. 

Dry 

matter. 

Water. 

Dry 

matter. 

Water. 

Dry 

matter. 

Nov.  2 

Lbs. 

) 

Gms. 

Lbs. 

Gms. 

Lbs. 

Gms. 

Lbs. 

Gms. 

to 

Dec.  29 

Dec.  29 

1 

y 206 

) 

61.5 

206 

65.5 

243 

46.5 

243 

64.0 

to 

Feb.  21 

Feb.  21 

< 

y 198 

73.0 

198 

74.9 

225 

97.4 

225 

89.9 

to 

Apr.  10 

Apr.  10 

- 231 

) 

127.4 

234 

106.3 

250 

136.0 

250 

123.8 

to 

June  20 

j 

► 288 

222.2 

286 

149.5 

304 

228.0 

304 

149.5 

Sum. 

926 

484.1 

924 

396.2 

1,022 

508.3 

1,022 

427.2 

22 


Bulletin  No.  80. 


The  total  water  added  to  the  6 inches  in  depth  of  soil  and  other  data 
are  as  follows: 


Sandy  Loam. 

Clay  Loam. 

Soft  water. 

Drain 

water. 

Soft  water. 

Drain 

water. 

Inches  of  water  added 

51.37 

51.48 

.3136 

.0493 

.1917 

.2415 

.6158 

56.82 

56.82 

.3462 

.0544 

.2117 

.2665 

.6796 

Total  carbonates  added  in  lbs 

Total  nominal  alkalies  added 

Total  Mg  0 added  in  water,  lbs 

Pounds  of  Mg  O per  acre  added 

Pounds  per  acre  added  if  the  Mg',0  were 
half  carbonate  and  half  sulphate 

It  would  appear  from  the  data  of  this  table  and  the  last  that  this 
series  of  trials  fail  to  show  that  the  soil  water  is  more  harmful  than 
ordinary  rain  water  collected  from  the  roof  of  the  plant  house,  and  yet 
the  drainage  water  added  may  have  carried  to  the  soil  as  much  magne- 
sium in  the  form  of  salts  as  we  added  to  the  humus  soil  in  the  other 
series  of  trials. 

It  is  true  that  we  did  not  make  these  trials  with  the  humus  soil,  but 
this  appeared  to  us  legitimate  as  we  wished  to  avoid  the  possibility  of 
the  soil  itself  being  a necessary  factor  in  developing  the  injurious  in- 
fluence and  it  was  for  this  reason  that  we  chose  soils  known  to  be  fer- 
tile. 

In  crowding  the  soils  as  severely  as  we  did  it  is  probable  that  we 
should  have  supplied  soluble  plant  foods  to  both  sets  of  trays  in  order 
to  avoid  starvation  effects  obscuring  or  overshadowing  the  ones  we  were 
seeking;  this  is  suggested  by  the  fact  that  during  the  first  period  the 
soft  water  produced  the  largest  yields;  it  was- our  fear,  however,  that 
this  difference  might  have  been  due  to  a difference  in  temperature  and 
to  eliminate  this  possible  effect  the  positions  of  the  trays  were  reversed 
on  the  radiator.  Temperature  could  not  have  been  a disturbing  factor 
in  the  last  period  where  the  differences  are  most  marked,  the  drainage 
water  giving  the  1»"Y~ yields. 

IMPROVEMENT  OF  HUMUS  SOILS  BY  THOROUGH  DRAINAGE. 

If  the  difficulty  with  the  soils  is  an  accumulation  of  soluble  salts  to 
an  injurious  extent  on  account  of  a large  evaporation  of  water  from 
them  in  consequence  of  the  ground  water  being  so  close  to  the  surface, 
then  thorough  drainage  should  help,  provided  this  will  lessen  the 
amount  of  vaporation  or  increase  the  amount  of  percolation  and  leach- 
ing. 


Character  and  Treatment  of  Swamp  Soil. 


23 


It  was  decided  to  begin  on  March,  1,  1899,  a test  of  the  influence  of 
thorough  drainage  or  leaching  on  the  growth  of  corn  on  these  humus 
soils  in  the  plant  house  and  for  this  purpose  the  cylinders  were  divided 
into  three  groups  so  as  to  include  among  those  leached  those  which  had 
before  received  the  different  kinds  of  treatment  described.  Those  to  be 
leached  and  not  leached  are  indicated  by  their  numbers  in  the  table 
which  follows: 


Not 

treated. 

Treated  with 
MgCOa 

Treated  with 
MgS04 

Poorest  soil  leached 

3-  8-13 

4-  9-14 

7—12—15 

Poorest  soil  not  leached 

1-  6-16 

2-11-17 

5-10-18 

Best  soil  leached 

24-29-34 

23-28-33 

22-25-30 

Best  soil  not  leached 

21-31-36 

20-26-35 

19-27-32 

In  beginning  the  treatment,  all  of  the  cylinders  were  given  water  to 
bring  them  to  standard  weight.  Weighed  quantities  of  water  were  then 
added  to  the  cylinders  to  be  leached,  from  time  to  time,  as  indicated  in 
the  table  which  follows: 


March  1,  P.  M.  -water  added 

March  2,  A.  M.  water  added 

March  2,  P.  M.  water  added 

March  3,  A.  M.  water  added 

March  3,  P.  M.  water  added 

March  4,  P.  M.  water  added 

The  outlets  were  closed  and  the  water  held  on  until  A.  M.  March  5. 

March  6,  P.  M.  water  added 

March  7,  A.  M.  water  added 

The  outlets  are  again  closed  until  March  8,  A.  M. 

Total  water  drained  through 1, 


180  lbs.  = 4.896  in 
200  lbs.  = 5 44  in. 
2001bs.  = 5.44  in. 
200 lbs.  = 5.44  in. 
200  lbs.  = 5.44  in. 
200  lbs.  = 5 44  in. 

200  lbs.  = 5 44  in. 
200  lbs.  = 5.44  in. 

580  lbs.  =42.976  in. 


As  soon  as  the  soil  was  dry  enough,  after  this  leaching  of  nearly  43 
inches  of  water  through  it,  corn  was  planted  on  March  23,  which  was 
allowed  to  grow  until  May  26,  64  days,  when  the  crop  was  removed  and 
the  dry  matter  determined,  there  being  four  hills  in  each  cylinder  with 
two  stalks  in  a hill.  The  yields  were  as  follows: 


u 


Bulletin  No.  80, 


Table  showing  the  influence  of  leaching  humus  soil  not  treated  and 
treated  with  magnesium  carbonate  and  sulphate. 


• 

Not  Treated 

Treated  with 
Magnesia 
Alba. 

Treated  with 
Magnesium 
Sulphate 

No.  of 
Cyl. 

Dry 

matter. 

No. 

of  Cyl. 

Dry 

matter. 

No. 

of  Cyl. 

Dry 

matter, 

gms, 

gms. 

gms. 

( 

3 

141.8 

4 

92.7 

7 

91.0 

Poorest  soil  leached < 

8 

121.5 

9 

128.0 

12 

74.5 

l 

13 

93.5 

14 

63.8 

15 

67.1 

Sum 

356  8 

284.5 

232.6 

( 

! 

114.8 

2 

78.2 

323.0 

Poorest  soil  not  leached . . •< 

6 

284.5 

11 

143.9 

10 

239.7 

1 

16 

131.3 

17 

74.8 

18 

120.2 

Sum 

510.6 

296.9 

6'2  9 

C 

24 

299.3 

23 

151  3 

22 

221.0 

Best  soil  leached < 

29 

195.0 

28 

313.3 

25 

278.5 

l 

34 

206.8 

33 

238.3 

30 

230  1 

Sum 

701.1 

702.9 

729.6 

( 

21 

435.3 

20 

332.3 

19 

399.1 

Best  soil  not  leached. ■< 

31 

401.3 

26 

274.5 

27 

483.6 

( 

36 

323.3 

35 

212.0 

32 

410.8  ‘ 

Sum 

1,159.9 

818.8 

1,293.5 

From  the  data  in  this  table  it  is  clear  that  the  immediate  effect  of 
leaching  the  humus  soil  was  to  lessen  its  ability  to  support  plant  life. 
This  will  be  more  evident  from  the  condensed  table  below: 


Not  Treated. 

Treated  with  Mag- 
nesia Alba. 

Treated  with  Mag- 
nesium Sulphate. 

Poorest 

soil. 

Best  soil. 

Poorest 

soil. 

Best  soil. 

Poorest 

soil. 

Best  soil. 

Soil  not  leached 

gins. 

510.6 

gms. 

1,159.9 

gms. 

291.9 

gms. 

818.8 

gms. 

682.9 

gms. 

1,293.5 

Soil  leached 

356  8 

701.1 

284  5 

702.9 

232.6 

729.6 

Loss  by  leach 
ing 

153.8 

458.8 

12.4 

115.9 

450.3 

563.9 

This  grouping  of  the  data  shows  in  how  pronounced  a manner  the 
leaching  has  reduced  the  productiveness  of  the  soil. 

Referring  again  to  the  influence  of  the  magnesium  salts  it  will  be 
seen  that  the  effect  of  the  magnesia  alba  is  so  prejudicial  that  it  greatly 
obscures  the  effect  of  the  leaching,  while  the  magnesium  sulphate  ap- 
pears to  have  increased  the  yield. 


Character  and  Treatment  of  Swamp  Soil. 


25 


EFFECT  OF  LEACHING  ON  THE  AMOUNT  OF  NITRIC  ACID  IN  HUMUS  SOILS. 

Immediately  after  the  above  crop  was  removed  from  the  ground  com- 
posite samples  of  the  surface  foot  of  soil  were  taken  and  the  nitric  acid 
in  them  determined  with  the  results  given  below: 


Table  showing  the  effect  of  leaching  on  the  amount  of  nitric  acid  in 
humus  soils  64  days  later.  The  results  are  in  pounds  per  million 
of  the  dry  soil. 


Not  leached. 

Leached. 

Nitric  acid,  poorest  soil ; lbs.  per  million 

1,026.7 

99.7 

Dry  matter  in  crop,  poorest  soil : gms 

1,490.4 

458.2 

873.9 

Nitric  acid,  bast  soil ; lbs.  per  million 

16.29 

Dry  matter  in  crop,  best  soil ; gms 

3,272.2 

2,133.2 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  change  in  the  nitric  acid  content  of  the  two 
soils  under  the  leaching  has  been  very  marked,  but  the  relative  yields 
of  dry  matter  are  such  as  to  make  it  appear  that  the  reduction  of  yield 
cannot  be  ascribed  to  the  loss  of  nitric  acid.  Indeed,  there  was  nothing 
in  the  appearance  of  the  corn  when  growing  that  would  suggest  nitrogen 
starvation.  It  will  be  seen  from  the  table  that  16  pounds  of  nitric  acid 
to  a million  pounds  of  the  best  dry  soil  on  the  leached  cylinders  is  as- 
sociated with  a yield  about  2.5  times  that  on  the  poor  soil  leached,  and 
yet  this  contained  six  times  the  amount  of  nitric  acid  in  the  best  soil. 

When  this  stage  of  the  investigations  had  been  reached  it  appeared 
to  us  clear  that  either  some  other  essential  plant  food  than  nitric  acid 
had  been  washed  out  by  the  leaching  or  else  that  some  toxic  principle 
had  been  developed  which  was  responsible  for  the  difference  in  yield 
observed  and  a series  of  trials  were  planned  to  test  the  two  hypotheses. 


INFLUENCE  OF  ORGANIC  AND  COMMERCIAL  FERTILIZERS  ON  HUMUS  SOILS  IN 
THE  PLANT  HOUSE. 

It  has  been  pointed  out  that  coarse  farmyard  manure  is  extremely 
helpful  to  these  humus  soils,  while  liquid  farmyard  manure  and  most 
.of  the  ordinary  commercial  fertilizers,  except  the  potash  salts,  exert 
a very  small  effect.  It  has  also  been  shown  that  cut  straw  and  some  of 
the  potash  salts  improve  the  yield,  the  cut  straw  being  nearly  as  ef- 
fective as  the  potash  fertilizers  used.  Further,  it  has  been  shown  that 
corn  following  clover  immediately,  when  the  soil  was  filled  with  the 
clover  roots,  was  much  improved  by  it,  but  that  when  time  enough  had 


Bulletin  No.  80. 


2(j 

been  allowed  for  the  roots  to  decay  before  planting  no  apparent  benefit 
was  experienced. 

Again,  it  has  been  shown  that  the  first  crop  taken  from  humus  soils 
when  they  contain  much  undecayed,  organic  matter,  is  likely  to  be  bet- 
ter than  those  which  follow,  if  nothing  is  added  to  them.  We  have 
shown,  too,  that  the  effect  which  these  coarse  organic  materials  exert 
upon  humus  soils  is  not  clearly  ascribed  to  any  purely  physical  influence 
they  may  exert,  either  in  the  direction  of  better  soil  ventilation  or  bet- 
ter moisture  relations.  Moreover,  it  was  known  that  some  conditions 
exist  which  often  cause  the  roots  of  the  growing  crop  to  die  or  fail 
to  develop,  much  as  if  they  had  been  injured  by  an  excess  of  black 
alkali. 

An  effort  was  next  made  to  devise  a treatment  of  the  surface  soil  to 
neutralize  any  toxic  or  otherwise  injurious  principle  which  might  be 
concentrated,  through  capillarity  and  surface  evaporation,  where  the 
new  whorls  of  corn  roots  are  forming  in  the  surface  soil;  reasoning 
that  if  such  a disturbing  influence  existed,  and  this  could  be  avoided  in 
the  surface  three  inches,  then  young  roots  might  be  able  to  become  so 
mature,  and  their  tender  active  surfaces  so  far  below  the  zone  of  most 
concentrated  solutions  in  the  soil  water,  as  to  continue  to  grow  in  the 
deeper  soil  and  render  a more  nearly  normal  service  to  the  plant. 

To  avoid  the  use  of  farmyard  manure,  whose  value  was  known,  and 
yet  to  have  something  which  should  possess  some  of  its  essential  quali- 
ties, finely  ground  rye  straw  was  chosen  as  one  material,  the  greater 
part  of  farmyard  manure  being  in  reality  finely  ground  vegetable  fiber 
of  one  kind  or  another.  As  materials  containing  more  plant  food  and 
yet  possessing  some  of  the  structural  characters  of  farmyard  manure 
we  selected  ground  oats,  ground  corn  and  ground  rye.  To  vary  these 
relations  still  further  it  was  planned  to  use  in  one  series  the  ground 
straw,  oats,  corn  and  rye  by  themselves;  in  another  to  introduce  potas-, 
sium  carbonate;  in  another  calcium  phosphate;  and  in  still  another 
these  two  fertilizers  mixed  in  equal  parts  by  weight. 

The  plan  of  carrying  out  the  trials  is  represented  in  Fig.  10  where 
the  large  circle  represents  one  of  the  soil  cylinders  and  the  four  smaller 
ones  inside  represent  strips  of  galvanized  iron  four  inches  broad  forced 
into  the  soil  to  a depth  of  three  inches  in  each  case.  The  object  of  these 
strips  of  metal  was  to  keep  the  treated  surface  three  inches  of  soil  sep- 
arate from  that  outside,  not  treated,  and  to  prevent  any  young  root  tips 
from  coming  in  contact  with  untreated  soil  until  they  had  attained  a 
depth  exceeding  3 inches  and  therefore  below  the  zone  of  greatest  con- 
centration of  soil  solutions. 


Character  and  Treatment  of  Swamp  Soil.  2? 

The  thirty-six  cylinders  were  divided  into  groups  and  treated  accord- 
ing to  the  schedule  which  follows: 

Treatment  with  ground  straw. 

Poorest  soil,  Nos.  1,  2,  3,  4.  Best  soil,  Nos.  36,  35,  34,  33. 

Treatment  ivith  ground  oats. 

Poorest  soil,  Nos.  5,  6,  7,  8.  Best  soil,  Nos.  32,  31,  30,  29. 

Treatment  with  ground  corn. 

Poorest  soil,  Nos.  9,  10,  11,  12.  Best  soil,  Nos.  28,  27,  26,  25. 

Treatment  with  ground  rye. 

Poorest  soil,  Nos.  14,  15,  16,  17.  Best  soil,  Nos.  23,  22,  21,  20. 

Treatment  with  ground  rye. 

Poorest  soil,  Nos.  13-18.  Best  soil,  Nos.  24-19. 


Fig.  10. — Showing  the  manner  of  subdividing  the  large  cylinders  to  study  the  influence 
of  treating  the  surface  soil.  The  large  circle  represents  a cylinder;  the  small  part 
circles  represent  the  4-iuch  strips  of  galvanized  iron  which  were  used  to  sepaiate 
the  treated  from  the  untreated  soil  • the  numbers  are  the  numbers  of  hills  used  in 
the  tables  and  in  the  text.  ff 


When  it  came  to  planting,  the  soil  within  each  of  the  circles  1,  2,  3,  4, 
Pig.  10  was  removed  to  a depth  of  3 inches,  into  a pail,  and  with  it  was 
mixed  50  gms.  of  ground  straw,  oats,  corn  or  rye  as  the  case  might  be. 
This  treatment  is  at  the  rate  of  357.3  lbs.  per  acre  where  corn  is  planted 


28 


Bulletin  Bo.  80. 


3 ft.  8 in.  apart  both  ways,  or  at  the  rate  of  6,114  lbs.  per  acre,  if  the 
whole  surface  of  the  field  were  treated  at  the  same  rate. 

All  hills  numbered  1 received  only  the  straw,  oats,  corn  or  rye.  All 
hills  numbered  2 received  in  addition  6.6  gms.  of  calcium  phosphate, 
which  was  mixed  thoroughly  with  the  organic  fertilizer  before  that 
was  mixed  with  the  soil.  All  hills  numbered  3 received  6.6  gms.  of 
potassium  carbonate,  and  hills  numbered  4 received  3.3  gms.  of  calcium 
phosphate  and  3.3  gms.  of  potassium  carbonate.  All  hills  numbered  5, 
except  those  in  cylinders  Nos.  13-18  and  Nos.  24-19,  were  not  treated  in 
any  way  and  were  intended  as  checks  on  the  other  four.  To  the  hills 
numbered  5,  in  13-18  and  24-19,  there  was  added  5 gms.  of  potassium 
nitrate  and  5 gms.  of  calcium  phosphate. 

This  experiment  was  started  May  27,  four  kernels  of  corn  being 
planted  in  each  hill,  which  were  thinned  later  to  two  stalks.  Before 
the  soil  removed  from  the  circles  was  returned  to  place,  a little  of  the 
fertilizers  reserved  for  the  purpose  was  sprinkled  over  the  top  of  the 
unstirred  soil  in  the  ring  and  the  corn  dropped  upon  this,  when  the 
kernels  were  covered  by  returning  the  treated  soil. 

In  watering  the  corn,  the  cylinders  before  planting  had  been  brought 
to  standard  weight  and  then  were  held  there  by  adding  water  once  per 
week  or  once  in  two  weeks,  as  needed.  The  water  was  added  by  cupfuls 
in  rotation  on  the  several  hills,  each  hill  within  the  ring  always  receiv- 
ing the  same  amount,  and  the  portion  of  the  cylinder  outside  a propor- 
tionate amount  as  nearly  as  could  be  estimated. 

This  trial  was  allowed  to  run  from  May  27  to  July  6,  39  days,  when 
the  corn  was  cut  and  the  amount  of  dry  matter  in  each  group  of  hills 
of  like  treatment  determined. 


Table  showing  influence  of  organic  and  mineral  fertilizers  on 
humus  soil.  Yield  of  dry  matter  in  gms. 


Poorest  Soil.  East  Side. 

Best  Soil,  West  Side. 

Nos.  of  hills: 

l 

2 

3 

4 

5 

l 

2 

3 

4 

5 

Ground  straw 

68.7 

67.0 

237.7 

210.8 

52.2 

131.2 

92.0 

221.2 

189.0 

104.7 

Ground  oats 

60.0 

69  7 

277.5 

184.2 

45.7 

118.2 

83.2 

227.6 

207.5 

93.4 

Ground  corn 

53.4 

62.9 

260  3 

208.5 

29.7 

! 108.0 

69.0 

288.2 

211.7 

84.2 

Ground  rye 

77.0 

72  9 

301.9 

244.0 

23.9 

108.9 

90.9 

256.4 

232.0 

107.5 

Sums 

259.1 

272.5 

1077.4 

847.5 

% 

151.5 

466.3 

335.1 

993.4 

840.2 

389.8 

It  will  be  seen  from  this  table  that  the  hills,  Nos.  3,  to  which  potas- 
sium carbonate  was  given,  have  had  their  yields  much  more  increased 
than  any  others;  further,  the  hills  receiving  the  heaviest  applications 
have  been  most  increased.  Not  only  has  this  been  true,  but  in  both  of 


Character  and  Treatment  of  Swamp  Soil. 


29 


these  cases  the  effect  of  the  potash  has  been  to  increase  the  yield  on  the 
poorest  soil  to  an  amount  exceeding  that  of  the  potash  treated  hills  on 
the  best  soil. 

The  phosphate  of  lime,  given  to  hills  Nos.  2,  has  had  little  effect,  but 
appears  to  have  increased  the  yield  on  the  poorest  soil  a little  and  to 
have  decreased  it  on  the  best  soil.  Figs.  11,  12  and  13  show  the  crops 
grown  on  the  cylinders  given  ground  straw  and  ground  oats. 


Hills  52143  34  12  5 

Poorest  soil.  Best  soil. 

Fig.  11.—  Showing  the  effect  of  different  treatments  of  the  surface  three  inches  of  black 

marsh  soil. 

Hills  5 grew  on  untreated  soil ; hills  1 were  treated  with  ground  ' straw  ; .hills  2 were 
treated  with  calcium  phosphate  and  ground  straw ; hills  3 were  treated  with  potassium 
carbonate  and  ground  straw;  hills  4 were  treated  with  ground  straw  and  half  the 
quantity  of  calcium  phosphate  and  potassium  carbonate,  which  were  given  to  hi 
2 and  3. 


Hills.  52  1 43  341  2 5 

Poorest  soil.  Best  soil . 

Fig.  12.— Same  as  Fig  11  except  that  ground  cats  have  teen  used  instead  of  ground 

straw. 


30 


Bulletin  No.  80. 


Hills.  5214  33  4 125 

Poorest  soil.  Best  soil. 

Fig.  13.—  Same  as  Fig.  11,  but  second  crop. 

Comparing  the  sums  it  will  be  seen  that  the  heaviest  dressing  of  pot- 
ash on  the  poorest  soil  has  increased  the  yield  over  no  treatment  seven- 
fold and  on  the  best  soil  two  fold. 

If,  to  compare  the  effect  of  organic  fertilizers,  we  take  the  sums  the 
other  way  in  the  table,  omitting  the  columns  5,  or  hills  receiving  noth- 
ing, it  will  appear  that  the  ground  straw  on  the1  whole  has  been  least 
beneficial,  while  the  rye  has  produced  the  largest  increase.  The  sums 
are  given  in  the  table  below: 


Total  yield  of  hills  treated  with 


Poorest  soil. 

Best  soil. 

Ground  straw ; 

575.2 

633.4 

Ground  oats 

591.1 

636.5 

Ground  corn  

657.1 

676.9 

Ground  ryo 

695  8 

688.2 

The  progressive  increase  in  the  table  can  hardly  be  due  to  peculiari- 
ties of  the  cylinders  because  if  the  yields  from  the  hills  receiving  no 
treatment  are  compared,  it  will  be  seen  that  there  the  progression  is 
on  the  whole  in  the  opposite  direction. 


Character  and  Treatment  of  Swamp  Soil. 


31 


In  the  case  of  the  four  cylinders  Nos.  13-18  and  24-19,  where  potas- 
sium nitrate  was  given  to  the  center,  or  No.  5 hills,  the  increase  in  yield 
was  equally  marked,  being  as  follows: 


Table  showing  influence  of  potassium  nitrate  on  humus  soil. 


No.  of  hills 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

Poorest  soil 

22  5 

33.5 

145 

70.5 

110.7 

Best  soil 

39.5 

42.0 

115.2 

87.9 

123.7 

Here  it  is  seen  that  hills  3,  4 and  5,  all  of  which  received  potash,  are 
much  ahead  of  the  other  two;  and  also  that  both  the  potassium  car- 
bonate and  nitrate  have  increased  the  yield  of  the  poorest  soil  until  it 
has  exceeded  or  nearly  equaled  that  of  the  similar  treatment  on  the 
best  soil. 

It  appears  therefore  from  these  trials  that  either  the  potash,  which 
“official”  chemical  analysis  shows  to  be  in  these  soils,  is  only  partly 
available  or  else  that  the  potassium  carbonate  and  nitrate,  in  some  man- 
ner, exert  a corrective  influence  upon  some  injurious  condition  or  prin- 
ciple in  the  soil. 

INFLUENCE  OF  POTASH  SALTS  ON  HUMUS  SOILS. 

After  securing  the  results  with  potassium  carbonate  and  nitrate  re- 
ported above,  it  was  decided  to  plant  a second  crop  upon  the  same  areas 
in  the  cylinders  but  to  add  other  potash  salts  to  some  of  them  to  see 
if  there  was  any  notable  difference  in  the  influence  they  exerted.  The 
salts  containing  potash  which  were  chosen,  in  addition  to  the  two 
named,  were  wood  ashes,  kainite,  and  potassium  chloride  and  sulphate. 

The  hills  chosen  for  these  trials  were  all  of  those  numbered  1 and  5 
in  both  the  east  and  west  series,  excepting  the  four  which  had  re- 
ceived K N03  Hills  numbered  5 were  selected  for  the  trials  with  wood 
ashes,  alternate  cylinders  being  treated  with  30  gms.  of  water-free  fresh 
red  oak  ashes  directly  from  the  grate,  sown  upon  the  surface  and 
worked  in.  The  planting  was  done  on  July  7.  When  the  corn  was  cut 
on  August  24  and  the  dry  matter  determined,  the  results  stood  as  shown 
in  the  table  below: 


Table  showing  the  effect  of  wood  ashes  on  humus  soils  applied  to  the 
hills  at  the  rate  of  214.2  lbs . per  acre. 


Poorest  Soil. 

Best  Soil. 

Nothing. 

jwood  ashes. 

Nothing. 

Wood  ashes. 

Dry  matter 

71.5 

414.2 

156.4 

475.9 

32 


Bulletin  No.  80. 


Here  it  is  clear  that  a very  marked  improvement  is  assoc'/xted  with 
the  use  of  the  ashes  and  that  the  poorest  soil  is  most  benefited. 

In  the  case  of  the  other  salts  they  were  not  applied  until  July  13,  after 
the  corn  was  up,  the  solids  being  spread  upon  the  surface  after  having 
been  thoroughly  pulverized  in  a mortar.  After  sowing,  they  were 
stirred  into  the  soil  and  the  soil  watered.  Hills  numbers  1 were  used 
for  this  series  and  were  treated  as  follows: 

Given  nothing Nos.  1-7-13  and  Nos.  36-30-24. 

Given  5.5  gins,  of  K 2 SO 4 Nos.  2-8- U and  Nos.  35-29-23. 

Given  5.8  gms.  of  KC1 Nos.  3-9-15  and  Nos.  34-28-22. 

Given  2.8  gms.  of  K2  S04  + 2.9  KC1 Nos.  4-10-16  and  Nos.  33-27-21. 

Given  5.5  gms.  kainite Nos.  5-11-17  and  Nos.  32-26-20. 

Given  11  gms.  kainite Nos.  6-12-18  and  Nos.  31-25-19. 

The  Kainite  used  in  these  trials  contained  12.8  per  cent.  ofK2  O. 

The  yields  of  dry  matter  in  these  cases,  compared  with  the  alternate 
hills  receiving  nothing,  are  as  represented  in  the  next  table,  where  the 
numbers  have  been  multiplied  by  three  to  make  the  number  of  hills 
comparable  with  the  wood  ashes.  In  the  same  table  are  also  placed  the 
results  from  the  other  potash  salts. 


Table  showing  the  effect  of  potash  salts  on  the  yield  of  corn  grown 
on  humus  soils  in  the  plant  house. 


Poorest  Soil. 

Best  Soil. 

Potash. 

Nothing. 

Potash. 

Nothing. 

Dry  matter  with  wood  ashes 

414.2 

71  5 

475.9 

156.4 

Dry  matter  with  potassium  nitrate  K NO3  . .. 

586.8 

101.3 

587.7 

117.8 

Dry  matter  with  potassium  sulphate  K2  SO  4 

961.7 

180.5 

635.7 

311  5 

Dry  matter  with  patassium  chloride  K CL.. 

" (ptb 

Dry  matter  with  K2  SO  4 + K Cl 

Plants 

killed. 

180.5 

Plants 

killed. 

311.5 

Plants 

killed. 

180.5 

Plants 

killed. 

311.5 

Dry  matter  with  5.5  gms.  kainite 

301.1 

180.5 

353.7 

311.5 

Dry  matter  with  11  gms.  kainite 

441.5 

180.5 

642.2 

311.5 

Dry  matter  with  potassium  carbonate 

737.8 

180.5 

772.7 

311.5 

It  is  clear  from  this  table  that  the  potash  salts,  except  the  chloride, 
very  materially  improve  these  humus  soils,  and  the  poorest  type  more 
than  the  best.  The  sulphate  appears  to  have  exerted  the  greatest  effect 
and  to  have  carried  the  yield  on  the  poorest  soil  far  ahead  of  that  of 
the  same  treatment  on  the  best  soil.  Fig.  14  is  a view  of  this  crop  of 
corn  in  the  plant  house  before  cutting. 


M/X*  !<ji3 


Character  and  Treatment  of  Swamp  Soil. 


33 


FIELD  TESTS  OF  POTASSIUM  CARBONATE  AND  WOOD  ASHES. 

The  effect  of  both  potassium  carbonate  and  wood  ashes  was  tested 
in  the  field  on  the  two  plots  already  referred  to.  The  ashes  were  the 
same  as  those  used  in  the  plant  house  but  were  taken  from  the  pile 
rathe:  than  directly  fronrthe  grate,  and  had  been  wet  with  rain  but  not 
leached.  They  were  applied  directly  at  the  surface  about  each  hill 
June  27  after  the  corn  was  up,  covering  nearly  a square  foot  of  surface 
in  100  gm.  lots,  or  about  at  the  rate  of  714.6  lbs.  per  acre  for  hills  3 ft. 
8 in.  apart  each  way.  On  the  plot  where  the  soil  is  best  and  giving  the 
largest  yield,  to  which  alone  the  ashes  were  applied,  they  increased  the 
yield  41.19  per  cent. 


Fig.  14.  — Shows  the  second  crop  of  corn  on  the  black  marsh  soil  cylinders  after  the 
surface  three  inches  of  soil  had  been  treated  in  different  ways. 


On  the  same  date  that  the  wood  ashes  were  applied  potassium  car- 
bonate was  given  to  two  rows  in  each  of  the  two  plots.  It  was  dissolved 
in  water  and  applied  in  a shallow  furrow  drawn  around  each  hill  about 
12  inches  in  diameter.  The  amount  applied  was  at  the  rate  of  27.62 
lbs.  per  acre  where  the  hills  are  3 ft.  8 in.  apart  each  way.  On  the  best, 
soil  the  increase  in  yield  was  24.5  per  cent.,  but  on  the  poorest  soil  only 
10.47  per  cent. 


u 


Bulletin  No.  SO. 


One-half  the  amount  of  sodium  carbonate  dissolved  in  water  and  ap- 
plied in  the  same  manner  to  four  rows  of  hills,  two  on  each  plot,  failed 
to  produce  any  measurable  effect  upon  the  yield. 

INFLUENCE  OF  ORGANIC  FERTILIZERS  ON  THE  FIELD. 

Trials  in  the  field  were  made  of  the  influence  of  straw,  ground  coarse 
and  fine,  and  of  ground  oats  and  ground  corn  as  a check  upon  the  work 
in  the  plant  house.  No  fertilizers,  however,  were'  used  with  these. 
The  materials  were  applied  at  about  the  same  rate  per  hill  as  in  the 
plant  house  and,  in  doing  the  work,  a metal  ring  one  foot  in  diameter 
was  pressed  into  the  ground,  where  the  hills  were  to  be,  and  about  2 
inches  in  depth  of  soil  removed,  with  which  the  straw  or  meal  was 
mixed  in  a pail  and  then  returned  to  cover  the  corn,  after  the  bottom 
of  the  hill  had  been  sprinkled  with  the  fertilizer  used. 

Every  third  row  in  the  two  plots  were  treated  in  this  way,  giving  a 
series  arranged  as  stated  below: 

First  two  rows  not  treated.  1 

3rd  row  treated  with  courss  ground  straw. 

4th  and  5th  rows  not  treated. 

6th  row  treated  with  fine  cut  straw. 

7th  and  8th  rows  not  treated. 

9th  row  treated  with  ground  oats. 

10th  and  11th  rows  not  treated. 

12th  row  treated  with  ground  corn. 


This  series  was  repeated  until  all  the  rows  of  each  plot  were  included. 
In  making  a study  of  the  effect  of  each  treatment,  the  yield  of  the  two 
rows  not  treated  is  compared  with  the  yield  of  the  treated  row  between 
them. 

The  effects  of  these  treatments  are  shown  in  the  table  which  follows, 
containing  the  green  weight  of  well  matured  whole  plants  by  rows: 


Character  and  Treatment  of  Swamp  Soil. 


35 


Table  showing  the  effect  of  organic  fertilizers  on  the  y ield  of  corn  on 

humus  soil. 


Ground  Straw. 

Ground  Mead. 

Nothing. 

Course. 

Nothing. 

Fine. 

Nothing. 

Oats. 

Nothing. 

Corn. 

Plot  south  of  lane. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

172.0 

147.5 

168 .5 

176.2 

156.8 

146.0 

181.5 

131.5 

164.6 

144.0 

163  9 

141.7 

158.5 

160.9 

181.1 

170.9 

183.0 

152.5 

174.1 

155.0 

160.2 

144.8 

190  6 

155.5 

183.8 

151.8 

142.2 

169.4 

205.2 

165.2 

123.5 

142.9 

126.3 

117.3 

170.7 

141.5 

186.9 

98.9 

123.9 

120  9 

125.6 

165.8 

119.7 

124.0 

134  3 

122.8 

125.7 

115.1 

100  5 

130.1 

144.7 

136.1 

119.3 

125.3 

123. 

139.2 

124.2 

138.2 

138.5 

140.6 

885  8 

754.8 

707.6 

692.6 

735.0 

607.1 

781.4 

694.4 

Plot  north  of  lane. 


84.7 

82.0 

105.8 

110.7 

85.5 

104.4 

109.3 

100.9 

91.8 

122.6 

114.3 

119.4 

109.1 

109  7 

149.6 

149.0 

87.3 

139.7 

107.1 

114.3 

157.2 

148.0 

127.4 

152.0 

93.7 

95.2 

151.5 

157.3 

75.3 

91.1 

149.8 

119.7 

128.9 

128.9 

115.4 

110.5 

88.3 

101.6 

117.9 

151.8 

89.9 

113.7 

134.5 

111.8  ! 

129.6 

141.1 

122.8 

126.8 

108.8 

105.6 

101.1 

100.3 

102.5 

98  6 

461.9 

549.2 

498.7 

535.3 

516.1 

540.6 

524  3 

8 
— 1 

Under  the  field  conditions  it  will  be  seen  that,  on  the  south  side  of 
the  lane,  where  the  soil  is  best,  the  organic  fertilizers  have  decreased 
the  yield  almost  without  exception,  but  on  the  north  side  of  the  lane, 
where  the  soil  is  poorest,  the  effect  on  the  whole  has  been  in  the  oppo- 
site direction.  In  the  first  case  the  yield  was  decreased  an  average  of 
13.13  per  cent,  and  in  the  other  case  increased  6.64  per  cent.  It  should 
be  noted  in  this  connection  that  the  potassium  carbonate  improved  the 
yield  most  on  the  soil  that  the  organic  fertilizers  have  decreased  the 
yield  upon. 


36 


Bulletin  No.  80. 


INFLUENCE  OF  GREEN  MANURE  ON  HUMUS  SOIL. 

In  view  of  the  fact  that  coarse  manure  and  coarse  litter  have  been 
observed  to  improve  these  soils  it  appeared  important  to  ascertain  what 
the  effect  would  be  of  plowing  under  a crop  of  green  manure.  This  ap- 
peared the  more  important  because  it  is  often  very  difficult  to  apply 
farmyard  manure  to  some  of  these  lands  when  it  would  be  compara- 
tively simple  to  apply  green  manure.  To  test  this  influence,  three 
strips,  twice  the  width  of  the  grain  drill,  were  sowed  to  oats  at  the  rate 
of  three  bushels  per  acre  on  April  22,  without  plowing.  These  sub-plots 
crossed  the  others  of  last  year  at  right  angles  and,  as  the  corn  was 
planted  in  hills  30  inches  apart  both  ways  and  the  weight  of  each  in- 
dividual hill  taken  when  mature,  it  was  possible  to  study  the  yields 
under  the  different  treatments  so  as  to  note  the  effect  on  the  treatment 
of  last  season  as  well.  The  oats  were  allowed  to  grow  until  June  2, 
when  the  ground  was  plowed,  fitted  and  planted  as  already  described. 
The  oats  were  very  thick  and  stood  a foot  high  before  plowing  under. 

In  comparing  the  yields  of  corn  it  was  found  that  the  effect  of  the 
green  manure  had  been  of  the  same  character  as  that  of  the  ground 
straw  and  ground  meal,  that  is,  it  had  improved  the  crop  on  the  poor- 
est soil  but  decreased  the  yield  on  the  best  soil.  The  results  stand  as 
follows: 


1.  Green  manure  on  best  soil  not  manured  last  year  decreased  the  yield  4.81  per  cent. 

2.  Green  manure  on  best  soil  manured  last  year  decreased  the  yield  to  5.00  per  cent. 

3.  Green  manure  an  poorest  soil  not  manured  last  year  increased  the  yield  5.49  per 

cent. 

4.  Green  manure  on  poorest  soil  manured  last  year  increased  the  yield  8.32  per  cent. 

It  should  be  said,  however,  in  regard  to  both  this  and  the  last  section, 
that  these  results  have  occurred  during  a season  when,  for  some  reason, 
the  corn  has  been  unusually  heavy  on  both  pieces  of  ground  under  treat- 
ment. 

L. 

LENGTH  OF  TIME  FARMYARD  MANURE  IS  EFFECTIVE  ON  HUMUS  SOIL. 

The  corn  on  the  two  plots  of  humus  soil  was  cut  and  weighed  at  the 
right  stage  for  going  into  the  silo,  that  is,  when  the  ears  were  thor- 
oughly hard  but  the  stalks,  husks  and  leaves  yet  green.  We  have  com- 
bined the  weights  so  as  to  show  the  yield  on  the  sub-plots  which  were 
manured  in  1898,  and  on  the  one  manured  in  1896: 

Yields  per  acre , 1899. 


Poorest  soil Manured,  1898,  36.38  tons  ; not  manured,  26.16  tons 

Poorest  soil Manured,  1896,  33.85  tons ; not  manured,  31.68  tons 

Best  soil Manured,  1898,  38.75  tons;  not  manured,  30.785  tons 


Character  and  Treatment  of  Swamp  Soil. 


37 


That  is  to  say,  the  farmyard  manure  in  this  season  of  good  crops  in- 
creased the  second  crop  on  the  best  soil  25.88  per  cent.,  and  on  the  poor- 
est soil  38.97  per  cent.,  while  the  fourth  crop  on  the  poorest  soil  still 
had  its  yield  increased  6.85  per  cent,  by  the  farmyard  manure  of  1896. 

In  the  case  of  the  four  plant  house  cylinders  treated  with  farmyard 
manure  in  December,  1896,  and  upon  which  we  have  grown  not  less 
than  three  crops  each  season,  the  soil  has  finally  reached  a condition 
when  the  present  crop,  Oct.  16,  1899,  does  not  show  to  the  eye  any  ad- 
vantage from  the  manure. 

CHANGE  WITH  TIME  IN  THE  CHARACTER  OF  HUMUS  SOIL  AFTER  LEACHING. 

When  the  third  crop,  following  the  heavy  leaching  on  the  cylinders 
oi  humus  soil,  was  harvested,  the  dry  matter  of  each  separate  hill  was 
determined  and  this  made  it  possible  to  study  what  effect  the  earlier 
leaching  had  had  upon  this  yield  and  also  what  effect  the  magnesium 
sulphate  and  carbonate  were  still  exerting. 

It  is  only  possible  to  use  the  series  of  hills  numbered  2,  3 and  4 in 
this  comparison,  but  as  they  are  found  in  all  of  the  36  cylinders,  the 
series  is  complete  in  that  way.  The  following  table  shows  the  results 
referred  to: 


Table  showing  the  influence  of  time  on  the  effects  of  leaching. 


Not  Treated. 

Treated  with 
Magnesia  Alba. 

Treated  with  Mag- 
nesium Sulphate . 

I Best  "Soil. 

Poorest 

soil. 

Best  soil. 

Poorest 

soil. 

Best  soil. 

Treated  with  potassium  carbonate . 


Leached  

279.5 

311.6 

312.1 

263.1 

222.2 

267.9 

Not  leached 

259.0 

260.4 

203.3 

245.2 

202.4 

195.2 

Difference. . . 

+ 20.5 

+ 51.2 

+108.8 

+ 17.9 

+ 19.8 

+ 72.7 

Treated  with  calcium  phosphate . 

[ 

Leached  

61.4 

91.4 

94.2 

120.8 

74.7 

57.8 

Not  leached 

69.3 

111  1 

54.8 

78.2 

51.6 

90.1 

Difference. . . 

- 4.9 

— 29.7 

+39.4 

+42.6 

+23.1 

-32.3 

Treated  with  both  phosphates 

and  potash 

Leached  

189.3 

209.1 

188.3 

245.9 

137.1 

205.3 

Not  leached 

135.3 

192.6 

164.9 

170.2 

172.7 

180.1 

Difference. . . 

+54.0 

+16.5 

+23.4 

+75  7 

-35.6 

+25.2 

Bulletin  No.  80. 


3S 


It  is  clear  from  this  table  that  a marked  change  has  occurred  in  these 
soils  since  the  first  crop  following  the  heavy  leaching.  With  that  crop 
there  was  no  exception  to  a profound  decrease  in  the  yield  associated 
with  the  leached  soils.  In  this  case,  however,  every  cylinder  which  had 
been  treated  with  magnesia  alba,  and  every  cylinder  but  one  which  had 
received  potassium  carbonate,  show  larger  yields  on  the  leached  soils. 
It  appears  as  though  some  essential  plant  food  had  increased  with  time 
after  the  leaching  until  now  better  yields  are  possible  and  yet  there  is 
little  reason  to  suppose  that  it  can  be  the  nitric  acid;  but  it  appears  even 
more  strange  to  think  that  it  can  be  potash  because  it  is  the  cylinders 
which  have  been  given  potash  since  the  leaching  which  have  most  in- 
creased their  yield  on  the  leached  soil.  This  latter  phase  might  appear 
to  suggest  that  some  prejudicial  principle  or  condition  in  the  unleached 
soils  prevents  the  potash,  or  both  the  potash  and  nitric  acid,  from  being 
as  effective  as  they  might  otherwise  be. 

BENEFICIAL  EFFECT  OF  POTASH  SALTS  EXERTED  NEAR  THE  SURFACE. 

The  working  hypothesis  upon  which  the  last  line  of  experiments  with 
the  humus  soils  in  the  plant  house  was  based  is  that  some  injurious  prin- 
ciple existed  in  the  soil  water,  which  is  concentrated  near  the  surface 
by  capillarity  and  evaporation,  and  that  this  interferes  with  growth  by 
killing  newly  forming  roots  but  is  not  fatal  to  the  older  roots. 
The  aim  was,  if  possible,  to  treat  a sufficient  amount  of  the  surface  soil 
in  a manner  to  destroy  or  neutralize  the  effect  of  this  principle  or  condi- 
tion, and  thus  provide  a soil  in  which  the  newly  forming  roots  could  de- 
velop and  penetrate  to  some  depth  below  the  surface  without  coming  in 
contact  with  the  injurious  conditions. 

The  four  inch  strips  of  galvanized  iron  were  used  to  prevent  any 
new  root  tips  coming  in  contact  with  untreated  soil  until  they  had  first 
attained  some  age,  and  had  penetrated  at  least  to  a depth  of  3 inches 
below  the  surface,  where  it  was  presumed  the  concentration  of  the  in- 
jurious principle  was  too  slight  to  kill  the  roots. 

It  was  very  evident  that  the  hills  No.  5,  growing  outside  the  rings, 
in  no  way  derived  benefit  from  the  potash  salts  used  inside  and  yet  the 
plants  stood  within  less  than  6 inches  of  the  treated  soil  and  cut  off 
from  it  in  only  the  surface  3 inches. 

The  watering  was  done  from  the  surface  as  described  and  often  with 
sufficient  volume  to  wet  down  much  more  than  three  inches,  but  care 
was  taken  to  wet  all  portions  alike  and  at  nearly  the  same  time  so  as 
to  avoid  unnecessarily  washing  the  salts  from  place  to  place. 

It  was  a very  great  surprise  to  us  to  find  that  the  treatment  given  to 
the  first  crop  remained  so  distinct  and  that  the  second  crop  failed  to 
show  any  notable  influence  from  it  except  within  the  circles.  Even  in 
the  third  crop,  which  is  now  upon  the  ground  and  just  coming  into 


Character  and  Treatment  of  Swamp  Soil. 


30 


tassel  Oct.  20,  the  No.  5,  hills,  which  have  not  been  treated,  show  no  ad- 
vantage from  the  potash  salts,  although  they  have  been  applied  to  the 
soil  since  May  27  and  the  ground  has  been  twice  stirred  in  replanting 
and  has  been  heavily  surface  watered  nearly  every  week. 

These  conditions  make  it  appear  clear  that,  whatever  influence  the 
potash  salts  are  exerting,  the  beneficial  effect  must  be  confined  to  the 
surface;  and  it  does  not  appear  clear  that  this  influence  can  be  in  the 
direction  of  supplying  needed  potash  for  plant  food,  for  were  this  the 
main  advantage  it  would  appear  that  the  roots  from  the  central  hills, 
in  underrunning  the  treated  soil,  must  come  in  position  to  avail  them- 
selves of  at  least  a portion  of  it. 

Indeed  in  the  case  of  all  the  rings  treated  with  potassium  chloride, 
the  corn  plants  in  the  center  or  hills  5 outside,  standing  nearest  to  this 
circle,  have  either  been  killed  or  are  very  much  affected  by  this  soil, 
showing  that  in  this  case  there  has  been  either  diffusion  of  salts  out- 
ward or  root  penetration  into  the  treated  soil. 

The  ash  of  the  plants  will  be  examined  for  potash  to  see  if  those  which 
are  so  small  and  have  not  been  given  potash  are  notably  deficient  in  it 
and  if  the  others  have  an  unusual  amount.  Until  this  has  been  done 
the  light  we  have  suggests  that  the  action  of  the  potash  salts  has  in 
some  manner  been  indirect  rather  than  to  serve  as  needed  plant  food. 

RESULTS  OF  WORK  AT  THE  INDIANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 

Some  careful  experiments  conducted  at  the  Indiana  Experiment  Sta- 
tion by  Prof.  H.  A.  Huston  regarding  “The  Improvement  of  Unproduct- 
ive Black  Soils,’’  Bulletin  No.  57,  Vol.  VI,  have  led  him  to  the  following 
general  conclusions: 

“1.  Thousands  of  acres  of  ground  now  unproductive  may  be  improved 
and  made  the  most  productive  corn  lands  in  the  state.” 

“2.  The  use  of  straw  or  kainite  has  proved  very  profitable  as  a means 
of  temporary  improvement  of  such  lands.” 

“3.  The  permanent  improvement  of  such  lands  must  be  effected  by 
efficient  drainage.  This  drainage  will  usually  be  of  a special  kind.” 

“4.  Before  making  any  outlay  for  the  improvement  of  such  lands  a 
preliminary  survey  should  be  made  and  the  system  of  improvement 
should  be  based  on  the  results  of  this  survey.” 


LIBRARY 

Of  THE 

DIVERSITY  of  ILLINOIS. 

wifl.  BaLL  No.  81. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN. 


Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


BULLETIN  NO.  81. 


ANALYSES  OF  LICENSED  COMMERCIAL  FERTI- 
LIZERS, 1900. 


MADISON , WISCONSIN,  APRIL,  1900. 


'The  Bulletins  and  Annual  Reports  of  this  Station  are  sent  free  to  all 
residents  of  this  State  upon  reqtiest . 


Democrat  Printing  Company,  State  Printer,  Madison,  Wis. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN 


AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 


BOARD  OF  REGENTS. 

PRESIDENT  of  the  UNIVERSITY,  ex-officio. 

STATE  SUPERINTENDENT  of  PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION,  EX-OFFICIO. 
State-at-^irge,  GEORGE  W.  PECK,  Milwaukee, 
itate-at-large,  WILLIAM  F.  VILAS,  Madison. 

First  District,  OGDEN  H.  FETHERS,  Janesville. 

Second  District,  B.  J.  STEVENS,  Madison. 

Third  District,  JOHN  E.  MORGAN,  Spring  Green. 

Fourth  District,  GEORGE  H.  NOYES,  Milwaukee. 

Fifth  District,  JOHN  R.  RIESS,  Sheboygan. 

Sixth  District,  C.  A.  GALLOWAY,  Fond  du  Lac. 

Seventh  District,  BYRON  A.  BUFFINGTON,  Eau  Claire. 

Eighth  District,  ORLANDO  E.  CLARK,  Appleton. 

Ninth  District,  GEORGE  E.  MERRILL,  Ashland. 

Tenth  District,  J.  H.  STOUT,  Menomonie. 

Officers  of  the  Board  of  Regents. 

GEORGE  H.  NOYES,  President.  I STATE  TREASURER,  Ex-Officio  Treasurer 
J.  H.  STOUT,  Vice-President.  | E.  F.  RILEY,  Secretary,  Madison. 


Agricultural  Committee. 

Regents  CLARK,  STOUT,  FETHERS,  RIESS,  MORGAN  and  PRESIDENT  ADAMS. 


OFFICERS  OF  THE  STATION; 

THE  PRESIDENT  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY. 

W.  A.  HENRY,  ----------  Director 

S.  M.  BABCOCK,  - --  --  --  --  Chief  Chemist 

F.  H.  KING,  -----  ....  Physicist 


E.  S.  GOFF,  - 
W.  L.  CARLYLE, 

F.  W.  WOLL, 

H.  L.  RUSSELL, 

E.  H.  FARRINGTON, 

A.  R.  WHITSON,*  - 
A.  G.  HOPKINS, 

ALFRED  VIVIAN, 

E.  G.  HASTINGS, 

R.  A.  MOORE,  - 
U.  S.  BAER,  - 
FREDERIC  CRANEFIELD, 
LESLIE  H.  ADAMS, 

IDA  HERFURTH, 

EFFIE  M.  CLOSE, 


Horticulturist 

- Animal  Husbandry 

Chemist 
Bacteriologist 
Dairy  Husbandry 

- Assistant  Physicist 

- Veterinarian 

- Assistant  Chemist 
Assistant  Bacteriologist 

Assistant  to  Director 
Dairying 

Assistant  Horticulturist 

- Farm  Superintendent 

Clerk 

Librarian 


FARMERS’  INSTITUTES. 

GEORGE  McKERROW,  - - - - - - - Superintendent 

HATTIE  V.  STOUT,  Olerk  and  Stenographer 

General  Offices  and  Departments  of  Agricultural  Chemistry,  Animal  Hus- 
bandry, Bacteriology,  Farmers’  Institutes  and  Library,  in  Agricultural  Hall, 
near  University  Hall,  on  Upper  Campus. 

Dairy  Building  and  joint  Horticulture-Physics  Building,  west  end  of  Obser- 
vatory [Hill,  adjacent  to  Horticultural  Grounds  and  Experiment  Farm. 
Telephone  to  Station  Office,  Dairy  Building  and  Farm  Office. 


*After  May  1,  1900. 


ANALYSES  OF  LICENSED  COMMERCIAL  FERTI- 
LIZERS, 1900. 


F.  W.  WOLL  and  ALFRED  VIVIAN. 

The  present  bulletin  is  published  in  accordance  with  Wisconsin  Stat- 
utes of  1898,  sec.  149 id,  and  gives  the  results  of  the  analyses  of  fertilizers 
licensed  to  be  sold  in  this  state  during  the  'current  calendar  year.  The 
general  subject  of  commercial  fertilizers  has  been  discussed  in  some  detail 
in  earlier  publications  of  our  Station,  and  the  explanations  there  given  as 
to  the  main  principles  governing  the  application  of  fertilizers,  will  doubt- 
less be  of  service  to  those  unfamiliar  with  this  subject.  It  has  been 
thought  well  to  repeat  in  this  place  a few  explanatory  remarks  concerning 
technical  terms  met  with  in  statements  of  fertilizer  analyses,  and  to  say  a 
few  words  about  the  fertilizing  elements  on  which  we  have  to  depend  for 
maintaining  or  restoring  the  fertility  of  our  land. 

The  main  fertilizing  ingredients  which  it  may  be  essential  to  supply  in 
crop  growing,  are  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  and  potash. 

Nitrogen  may  be  present  in  fertilizers  in  three  different  forms,  as  ni- 
trates, ammonia , or  organic  compounds.  The  first  two  forms  of  nitro- 
gen are  of  immediate  value  to  crops,  since  they  are  easily  soluble  and  may 
be  readily  assimilated  by  plants.  Organic  nitrogen  is  the  form  of  nitrogen 
found  in  fertilizers  of  vegetable  or  animal  origin.  Some  of  these,  like 
leather-  or  woolen  scraps,  hoofs,  horn  shavings,  etc.,  possess  very  little 
value  as  fertilisers,  being  insoluble  and  but  slowly  decomposed  in  the  soil. 
The  fertilizer  laws  of  many  states  do  not  recognize  nitrogen  contained  in 
materials  of  this  kind  as  of  any  value.  A vailable  nitrogen  means  nitrogen 
supplied  in  nitrates,  ammonia  salts,  and  organic  compounds  of  easily  de- 
composable character,  like  dried  blood,  tankage,  cotton  seed  meal,  etc. 

The  nitrogenous  fertilizers  met  with  in  this  state  are  nitrate  of  soda, 
tankage,  and  dried  blood.  The  first  mentioned  fertilizer  is  mostly  used  by 
market  gardeners  and  florists,  and  is  of  great  value  in  stimulating  plant 
growth.  Nitrogen  is  the  most  costly  ingredient  of  artificial  fertilizers. 
Certain  kinds  of  plants,  like  the  clovers,  alfalfa,  vetches,  and  other  species 
of  the  legume  family,  are  able  through  the  agency  of  microscopic  organisms, 
to  transform  the  free  nitrogen  of  the  air  to  organic  nitrogenous  compounds, 
which  may  be  used  for  the  nutrition  of  farm  animals  and  thus  indirectly, 
or  indeed  directly,  contribute  to  the  supply  of  nitrogenous  plant  food  ini 


4 


Bulletin  No.  81. 


the  soil.  The  farmer  adopting  a system  of  crop  rotation  in  which  some 
clover  or  other  legumes  are  included  may  therefore  avoid  a cash  outlay  for 
nitrogenous  fertilizers,  and  need  only  see  that  the  potash-  and  phosphoric- 
acid  contents  of  his  land  are  not  unduly  reduced  through  continuous 
cropping. 

Phosphoric  acid  is  found  in  different  forms  in  the  commercial  fertil- 
izers offered  for  sale  in  this  state,  viz.:  in  combinations  with  calcium,  iron, 
or  aluminum,  some  of  which  are  soluble,  and  some  insoluble.  We  distinguish 
in  fertilizer  analysis  between  soluble , reverted  and  total  phosphoric 
acid.  Mono-calcium  phosphate  (containing  soluble  phosphoric  acid)  is 
soluble  in  water;  di- calcium  phosphate  (containing  reverted  phosphoric 
acid)  is  insoluble  in  water,  but  soluble  in  a strong,  hot  solution  of  ammon- 
ium citrate,  while  the  tri  calcium  phosphate  (containing  insoluble  phos- 
phoric acid)  is  insoluble  in  either  of  these  liquids.  The  phosphoric  acid 
contained  in  raw  animal  bones,  or  bone  meal,  is  in  the  form  of  tri-calcium 
phosphate.  When  applied  to  the  soil  in  a fine  ground  condition,  it  is 
gradually  dissolved  by  the  juices  of  the  plant  roots  and  thus  rendered 
available  to  plants.  Coarse-ground  bone,  on  the  other  hand,  is  but  slowly 
decomposed  in  the  soil  and  therefore  of  less  value  for  crop  production. 
Superphosphates  contain  both  water-soluble  and  citrate-soluble  phos- 
phoric acid.  Broadly  speaking,  the  water-soluble  and  the  citrate-soluble 
phosphoric  acid  are  of  about  equal  value  to  plants.  The  phosphoric  acid 
in  basic  slag  (odorless  phosphate)  is  largely  soluble  in  ammonium-citrate 
solution.  Available  phosphoric  acid  means  the  sum  of  the  water-soluble 
and  the  reverted  phosphoric  acid,  and  represents  the  phosphoric  acid  o£ 
immediate  value  to  plants.  The  results  of  the  analyses  are  calculated  on  a 
basis  of  the  content  of  phosphoric  anhydrid  (P305). 

Potash  is  freely  soluble  in  water  in  the  compounds  used  as  potassic  fer- 
tilizers. There  are  several  kinds  of  potash  fertilizers,  as  potassium  sulfate, 
muriate,  silicate,  and  potassium-magnesium  carbonate  and  sulfate,  etc. 
Since  muriates  (chlorids)  have  an  injurious  effect  on  the  quality  of  certain 
crops,  notably  tobacco  and  potatoes,  the  use  of  potash  salts  free  from 
muriate  is  in  some  cases  desirable  or  even  essential.  Wood  ashes  con- 
tain potash  mainly  in  the  form  of  carbonate.  The  results  of  the  analyses 
are  figured  on  a basis  of  the  content  of  potassium  oxid  (K20). 

The  methods  of  analysis  followed  in  the  chemical  work  of  our  Station 
are  those  adopted  by  the  Association  of  Official  Agricultural  Chemists;  the 
methods  are  revised  from  year  to  year  at  the  annual  conventions  of  this 
Association. 

VALUATION  OF  FERTILIZERS. 

The  cost  of  commercial  fertilizers  in  the  market  is  governed  by  the  laws 
of  supply  and  demand,  as  is  that  of  all  other  commodities.  Raw-materials 
and  chemicals,  containing  one  or  two  fertilizing  ingredients  furnish  data 
for  the  calculation  of  the  average  cost  of  these  ingredients  in  commercial 


Commercial  Fertilizers. 


5 


fertilizers.  Since  the  prices  of  the  different  fertilizing  materials  vary 
somewhat  from  time  to  time  according  to  the  condition  of  the  market,  the 
calculations  must  be  revised  at  intervals.  The  average  retail  prices  of 
raw-materials  and  chemicals  in  the  large  eastern  fertilizer  markets  for  the 
six  months  preceding  March  each  year  are  calculated  by  a number  of  east- 
ern experiment  stations,  and  the  cost  of  the  different  fertilizing  ingredients 
which  commercial  fertilizers  on  the  market  contain,  is  obtained  on  the  basis 
of  these  figures;  these  values  will  nearly  correspond  with  the  prices  of  fer- 
tilizing materials  in  our  main  fertilizer  markets,  and  may  be  used  for  the 
purpose  of  comparing  approximately  the  value  of  the  various  fertilizers 
offered  for  sale  in  this  state. 

The  trade  values  of  fertilizing  ingredients  in  raw-materials  and  chemi- 
cals adopted  for  the  current  year  are  given  in  the  following  schedule. 


Nitrogen—  Cents  per  lb. 

in  ammonia  salts 17 

in  nitrates 13 % 

Organic  Nitrogen  — 

in  dry  and  fine-ground  fish,  meat,  blood,  and  in  high-grade  mixed  fertilizers.  15J4 

in  fine  bone  and  tankage 15% 

in  coarse  bone  and  tankage 10y2 

Phosphoric  Acid  — 

soluble  in  water 1% 

soluble  in  ammonium-citrate  solution 4 

in  dry  fine-ground  fish,  bone  and  tankage 4 

in  coarse  bone  and  tankage 3 

in  cottonseed  meal,  linseed  meal,  castor  pomace  and  wood  ashes 4 

insoluble  (in  ammonium-citrate  solution)  in  mixed  fertilizers 2 

Potash  — 

as  high-grade  sulfate,  and  in  forms  free  from  muriate 5 

as  muriate 414 


In  order  to  obtain  the  valuation  prices  of  100  lbs.  of  the  fertilizers  licensed 
for  sale  in  our  state,  the  percentages  of  valuable  fertilizing  components  are 
in  each  case  multiplied  by  the  prices  given  in  the  preceding  schedule; 
to  this  actual  cost  of  the  fertilizing  ingredients  contained  in  each  fertilizer 
should  be  added  the  expense  of  placing  the  fertilizers  on  the  market;  this 
expense  will  vary  considerably  according  to  local  and  other  conditions; 
the  Pennsylvania  Department  of  Agriculture  estimates  the  expense  as 
follows: 

Mixing $1.00  per  ton. 

Bagging 1.00  per  ton. 

Agent’s  commission 20  per  cent,  of  retail  cash  value 

of  ingredients. 

Freight $2.00  per  ton. 

The  approximate  value  of  the  various  licensed  fertilizers  may  be  ascer- 
tained by  this  method  of  calculation,  and  the  purchaser  may  thus  learn 
whether  or  not  the  price  asked  for  a certain  fertilizer  is  about  what  it 
is  worth. 


6 


Bulletin  No.  81. 


It  must  be  remembered,  however,  that  the  valuation  placed  on  the  vari- 
ous fertilizers  by  this  method  is  a commercial , and  not  an  agricultural 
one.  It  shows  the  average  retail  cash  price  of  the  different  fertilizing  ingre- 
dients plus  the  cost  of  placing  the  fertilizer  on  the  market;  the  agricul- 
tural value  of  a fertilizer  depends  on  a number  of  conditions  beyond  the 
control  of  the  seller,  such  as  the  need  of  the  soil  or  the  crop,  of  the  particu- 
lar fertilizing  ingredient  or  ingredients  in  question:  the  judgment  used  in 
applying  the  same,  as  to  methods,  time  and  quantities;  conditions  of 
weather,  etc.;  the  agricultural  value  of  a fertilizer,  in  other  words,  will 
vary  according  to  the  season  and  according  to  the  intelligent  application 
of  the  fertilizer;  one  farmer  may  derive  full  benefit  from  the  use  of  a fertil- 
izer, while  to  another  it  may  be  money  thrown  away.  It  is  therefore  evi- 
dent that  only  a commercial  valuation  of  fertilizers  is  ever  possible;  this 
will  enable  persons  to  compare  the  different  fertilizers  offered  for  sale,  and 
will  assist  them  in  deciding  which  are  the  most  economical  ones  for  their 
special  purpose. 

ANALYSES  OF  LICENSED  FERTILIZERS  IN  WISCONSIN  DURING  19C0. 


The  following  manufacturers  have  taken  out  a license  for  the  sale  of  the 
brands  of  fertilizers  given,  in  this  state  during  the  current  year,  in  accord- 
ance with  Wisconsin  Statutes  of  1893,  sec.  1491c. 


Sta- 

tion 

No. 

Name  of  Manufacturer. 

Name  of  Brand. 

34 

Darling  & Co.,  Chicago,  111  

Darling’s  Tobacco  Special. 

35 

Darling  & Co.,  Chicago,  111 

Darling’s  Vegetable  and  Lawn  Fer- 
tilizer. 

36 

Darling  & Co.,  Chicago,  111 

Darling’s  Chicago  Brand. 

37 

Currie  Bros  , Milwaukee,  Wis 

Currie’s  Complete  Fertilizer  for 
Lawns,  Hay  and  Pasture. 

38 

Milwaukee  Tallow  and  Grease  Co.,  Milwau- 

kee, Wis 

Milwaukee  Tallow  and  Grease  Co.’s 
Bone  Meal. 

39 

Armour  Fertilizer  Works,  Chicago,  111 

Bone  Meal. 

40 

Armour  Fertilizer  Works,  Chicago,  111 

Ammoniated  Bone  and  Potash. 

The  Station  analyses  of  the  brands  given  are  shown  in  the  following 
table.  According  to  Wisconsin  Statutes  of  1898,  section  1491c,  each  manu- 
facturer “ shall  affix  to  every  package  of  fertilizer  sold  ...  a state- 
ment of  the  following  fertilizing  constituents,  namely:  The  percentage  of 
nitrogen  in  an  available  form,  of  potash  soluble  in  water,  and  of  availa- 
ble phosphoric  acid,  soluble  and  reverted,  as  well  as  total  phosphoric 
acid.”  The  guaranteed  composition  of  the  licensed  fertilizers  is  given 
in  the  table  in  connection  with  the  results  of  our  analyses  of  the  samples 
furnished  by  the  manufacturers  in  compliance  with  the  state  fertilizer  law. 


Analysis  of  licensed  commercial  fertilizers  in  Wisconsin,  1900. 


Commercial  Fertilizers. 


CO 

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H 

O 

a* 


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Nitrogen. 

Guar- 

anteed. 

Pr.  ct 

3.3 

3.3 

2.0 

5.1 

4.0 

2.5 

2 4 

Found 

Pr.  ct. 

3.36 

3.48 

2.23 

5.13 

4.20 

4.10 

2.10 

Moist- 

ure. 

Pr.  ct. 

5.00 

9.30 

4.50 

2.00 

5.00 

4.90 

7.84 

> O 


a £ 

O P 

z£ 


rr  OP 
§ CQ  << 


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to'5Z 


TO  CO  CO  CO 


7 


8 


Bulletin  No.  81. 


The  mechanical  analysis  of  the  samples  of  bone  meal  included  among 
the  licensed  brands  of  fertilizers  gave  the  following  results, thetpo»tion  pass- 
ing through  a sieve  of  /o  inch  mesh  being  designated  as  fine-ground , and 
that  remaining  on  such  a sieve  as  coarse. 

Mechanical  analysis  of  bone  meal. 


Sta- 

tion 

No. 

Brand. 

Fine- 

ground 

Coarse. 

Per  ct. 

Per  ct. 

38 

Milwaukee  Tallow  and  Grease  Co.’s  Bone  Meal 

89 

11 

39 

Bone  Meal 

59 

41 

Fertilizer  inspection.  It  is  impossible  to  tell  from  tue  appearance  or 
odor  of  a commercial  fertilizer  whether  it  contains  a large  amount  of  val- 
uable fertilizing  ingredients  or  only  a very  small  amount.  There  is  there- 
fore a strong  temptation  for  irresponsible  parties  to  make  and  sell  inferior 
or  eve.n  valueless  goods  as  standard  fertilizing  articles;  so  much  so,  that 
it  has  been  found  necessary  in  all  states  where  the*  fertilizer  business  has 
grown  to  be  of  any  importance,  that  the  state  should  in  some  way  supervise 
their  sale.  Laws  regulating  the  sale  of  commercial  fertilizers  are  at  the 
present  time  in  force  in  a large  majority  of  the  states  in  the  Union.  The 
Wisconsin  fertilizer  law  which  was  passed  by  the  legislature  in  1895  is  given 
in  full  in  the  following  pages.  According  to  the  provisions  of  the  law, 
all  commercial  fertilizers  sold  in  this  state  at  a cost  exceeding  $10.00  per 
ton  are  to  be  licensed.  They  must  be  sold  on  a guarantee  of  certain 
amounts  of  valuable  fertilizing  ingredients  contained  therein,  and  the 
director  of  the  experiment  station,  on  whom  is  laid  the  duty  of  seeing  to  it 
that  the  law  is  enforced,  is  authorized,  in  person  or  by  deputy,  to  take 
samples  of  all  commercial  fertilizers  sold  in  this  state  which  come  within 
the  scope  of  the  law.  In  case  of  licensed  fertilizers  it  may  thus  be  ascer- 
tained whether  these  come  up  to  the  guaranteed  composition,  and  when  it 
is  found  that  parties  are  selling  fertilizers  without  complying  with  the  pro- 
visions of  the  law,  the  offenders  may  be  brought  before  the  proper  legal 
authorities  and  convicted  according  to  section  149 Id  of  Wisconsin  Statutes 
of  1898.  This  section  imposes  a fine  of  $100.00  for  the  first  offense  and 
$200.00  for  each  subsequent  offense. 

It  is  hoped  that  all  dealers  in  commercial  fertilizers  in  the  state  will 
comply  with  the  law  in  all  particulars,  and  that  they  as  well  as  purchasers 
of  such  fertilizers,  will  assist  in  the  enforcement  of  the  law  by  giving 
notice  of  violations  of  the  same.  A strict  compliance  with  the  law  is  for 
the  best  interests  of  all  honest  dealers  and  consumers  alike.  Only  firms 
that  live  up  to  the  requirements  of  the  law  and  have  taken  out  licenses  for 
the  sale  of  their  brands  of  fertilizers  should  be  patronized;  the  law  does 
not  offer  purchasers  any  protection  against  dealers  in  other  states  who  sell 
inferior  or  fraudulent  goods. 


Commercial  Fertilizers. 


9 


THE  WISCONSIN  FERTILIZER  LAW. 


[Sections  1494c,  1494d  and  1494c,  Wisconsin  Statutes  of  1898.  J 


Section  1494c.  Every  person  who  shall,  in  this  state,  sell  or  expose  for 
sale  any  commercial  fertilizer  or  any  material  used  for  fertilizing  purposes, 
the  price  of  which  exceeds  ten  dollars  per  ton,  shall  affix  to  every  package 
of  such  fertilizer  or  material,  in  a conspicuous  place  on  the  outside  thereof, 
a plainly  printed  statement  clearly  and  truly  certifying  the  number  of  net 
pounds  therein,  name  or  trade-mark  under  which  the  article  is  sold,  name 
of  the  manufacturer  or  shipper,  place  of  manufacture,  place  of  business 
of  the  manufacturer  and  of  the  following  fertilizing  constituents,  namely: 
The  percentage  of  nitrogen  in  an  available  form,  of  potash  soluble  in  water 
and  of  available  phosphoric  acid,  soluble  and  reverted,  as  well  as  total 
phosphoric  acid.  Every  such  person  shall  also  file  with  the  director  of 
the  agricultural  experiment  station  of  the  university  of  Wisconsin,  in  the 
month  of  December  in  each  year,  a certified  copy  of  such  statement  for 
every  such  fertilizer  or  material  bearing  a distinguishing  brand  or  trade- 
mark and  which  he  sells  or  exposes  for  sale,  which  copy  shall,  when  re- 
quired by  such  director,  be  accompanied  by  a sealed  glass  jar  or  bottle 
containing  at  least  one  pound  of  such  fertilizer  or  material,  and  an  affi- 
davit that  such  sample  corresponds,  within  reasonable  limits,  to  the  fer- 
tilizer or  material  which  it  represents  in  the  percentage  of  the  aforesaid 
constituents,  which  affidavit  shall  apply  to  the  remaining  portion  of  the 
then  calendar  year.  Additional  brands  of  such  fertilizer  or  material  may 
be  offered  for  sale  during  the  year,  provided  samples  and  affidavits  are  so 
filed  at  least  one  month  before  they  are  offered,  in  which  case  an  analysis 
fee  of  double  the  usual  amount  must  be  paid.  A deposit  of  the  sample  of 
fertilizer  shall  be  required  by  said  director  unless  the  person  selling  or  offer- 
ing for  sale  a fertilizer  or  material  within  this  section  shall  certify  that  its 
composition  for  the  succeeding  year  is  to  be  the  same  as  given  in  the  last 
previously  certified  statement,  in  which  case  the  furnishing  of  a sample 
shall  be  at  the  discretion  of  said  director. 

Section  1494d.  Said  director  shall  analyze~or  cause  to  be  analyzed  all 
such  samples  and  publish  the  results  of  such  analysis  in  a bulletin  or  re- 
port on  or  before  the  first  day  of  the  next  succeeding  April.  Every  manu- 
facturer, importer,  agent  or  seller  of  any  such  fertilizer  or  material  shall 
pay  annually  to  said  director  for  each  brand  thereof  sold  within  this  state 
the  sum  of  twenty-five  dollars,  and  upon  doing  so  and  complying  with  the 
other  provisions  of  law  shall  receive  from  him  a certificate  of  such  com- 
pliance which  shall  be  a license  for  the  sale  of  each  brand  thereof  within 
the  state  for  the  calendar  year  for  which  such  fee  is  paid.  All  moneys  re- 
ceived by  said  director  pursuant  to  this  section  shall  be  paid  into  the 
treasury  of  said  station.  Any  person  who  shall  sell  or  expose  for  sale  any 
commercial  fertilizer  or  material  used  for  fertilizing  purposes  which  is 
within  the  provisions  of  the  preceding  section  without  complying  with  the 
foregoing  provisions  or  which  contains  a substantially  smaller  percentage 
of  fertilizing  constituents  than  are  indicated  by  the  printed  statement 
thereon  shall  be  punished  by  a fine  of  one  hundred  dollars  for  the  first 
offense  and  of  two  hundred  dollars  for  each  subsequent  offense. 

Section  1494e.  Said  director  shall  annually  analyze  or  cause  to  be  ana- 
lyzed at  least  one  sample  of  every  fertilizer  or  material  used  for  fertilizing 
purposes  sold  or  exposed  for  sale  under  the  two  preceding  sections  and  en- 
force their  provisions  by  prosecuting  or  causing  the  prosecution  of  every 
person  who  shall  violate  them.  He  may  in  person  or  by  deputy,  on  tendering 
the  value  thereof,  take  a sample,  not  exceeding  two  pounds,  for  said  analysis 
from  any  lot  or  package  of  fertilizer  or  any  material  used  for  fertilizing 


10 


Bulletin  No.  81. 


purposes  which  may  be  in  the  possession  of  any  manufacturer,  importer, 
agent  or  dealer  in  this  state;  said  sample  shall  be  drawn  in  the  presence 
of  the  person  from  whom  taken  or  his  representative,  be  taken  from  a par- 
cel or  a number  of  packages  which  shall  not  be  less  than  ten  per  centum 
of  the  whole  lot  sampled,  be  thoroughly  mixed  and  divided  into  two  equal 
samples,  placed  in  glass  vessels  and  carefully  sealed  and  a label  placed  on 
each,  stating  the  name  or  brand  of  the  fertilizer  or  material  sampled,  the 
name  of  the  party  from  whose  stock  the  sample  was  drawn,  the  time  and 
place  of  such  taking;  said  label  shall  be  signed  by  the  director  or  his 
deputy  and  such  person  or  his  representative  at  the  drawing  and  sealing 
of  said  samples;  one  of  said  duplicate  samples  shall  be  retained  by  the  di- 
rector and  the  other  by  the  party  whose  stock  was  sampled;  the  sample 
retained  by  the  director  shall  be  for  comparison  with  the  certified  state- 
ment named  in  section  1494c.  The  result  of  the  analysis  of  the  sample  or 
samples  so  procured  shall  be  reported  to  the  person  requesting  the  analysis 
and  be  published  in  a report  or  bulletin  to  be  issued  within  a reasonable 
time. 


LIBRARY 

Of  THE 


No.  82 


UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN. 


Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


BULLETIN  NO.  82. 


EXPERIMENTS  IN  GRINDING  WITH  SMALL  STEEL 
FEED  MILLS. 


MADISON . WISCONSIN.  APRIL.  1900. 


|af“The  Bulletins  and  Annual  Reports  of  this  Station  are  sent  free  to  all 
residents  of  this  State  upon  request . 


Democrat  Printing  Company,  State  Printer,  Madison,  Wis. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN 


AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 


BOARD  OF  REGENTS. 

PRESIDENT  of  the  UNIVERSITY,  ex-officio. 

STATE  SUPERINTENDENT  of  PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION,  bx-officio. 
State-at-large,  GEORGE  W.  PECK,  Milwaukee. 

State- at-large,  WILLIAM  F.  VILAS,  Madison. 

First  District,  OGDEN  H.  FETHERS,  Janesville. 

Second  District,  B.  J.  STEVENS,  Madison. 

Third  District,  JOHN  E.  MORGAN,  Spring  Green. 

Fourth  District,  GEORGE  H.  NOYES,  Milwaukee. 

Fifth  District,  JOHN  R.  RIESS,  Sheboygan. 

Sixth  District,  C.  A.  GALLOWAY,  Fond  du  Lac. 

Seventh  District,  BYRON  A.  BUFFINGTON,  Ean  Claire. 

Eighth  District,  ORLANDO  E.  CLARK,  Appleton. 

Ninth  District,  GEORGE  F.  MERRILL,  Ashland. 

Tenth  District,  J.  H.  STOUT,  Menomonle. 

Officers  of  the  Board  of  Regents. 

GEORGE  H.  NOYES,  President.  I STATE  TREASURER,  Ex-Officio  Treasurer 
J.  H.  STOUT,  Vice-President.  | E.  F.  RILEY,  Secretary,  Madison. 


Agricultural  Committee. 

Regents  CLARK,  STOUT,  FETHERS,  RIESS,  MORGAN  and  PRESIDENT  ADAMS. 


OFFICERS  OF  THE  STATION; 

THE  PRESIDENT  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY. 

W.  A.  HENRY,  Director 

S.  M.  BABCOCK,  ---------  Chief  Chemist 

F.  H.  KING,  .....  ....  Physicist 


E.  S.  GOFF,  - 
W.  L.  CARLYLE, 

F.  W.  WOLL, 

H.  L.  RUSSELL, 

E.  H.  FARRINGTON, 

A.  R.  WHITSON,  - 
A.  G.  HOPKINS,  - 
ALFRED  VIVIAN, 

E.  G.  HASTINGS, 

R.  A.  MOORE,  - 
U.  S.  BAER,  - 
FREDERIC  CRANEFIELD, 
LESLIE  H.  ADAMS, 

IDA  HERFURTH, 

EFFIE  M.  CLOSE, 


Horticulturist 

- Animal  Husbandry 

Chemist 
Bacteriologist 
Dairy  Husbandry 

- Assistant  Physicist 

- Veterinarian 

- Assistant  Chemist 
Assistant  Bacteriologist 

Assistant  to  Director 
Dairying 
Assistant  Horticulturist 

- Farm  Superintendent 

- Clerk 
Librarian 


FARMERS’  INSTITUTES. 

GEORGE  McKERROW,  --------  Superintendent 

HATTIE  V.  STOUT,  ......  Clerk  and  Stenographer 

General  Offices  and  Departments  of  Agricultural  Chemistry,  Animal  Hus* 
ban  dry.  Bacteriology,  Farmers’  Institutes  and  Library,  in  Agricultural  Hall, 
near  University  Hall,  on  Upper  Campus. 

Dairy  Building  and  joint  Horticulture-Physics  Building,  west  end  of  Obser- 
vatory Hill,  adjacent  to  Horticultural  Grounds  and  Experiment  Farm. 
Telephone  to  Station  Office,  Dairy  Building  and  Farm  Office. 


Fig.  1.  Showing  the  exposure  of  the  12-foot  and  16-foot  geared  Aermotor  windmills  with  which  the  grinding  trials  of  Tables  I and  II 
were  made.  The  18  sails  of  the  12-foot  wheel  are  each  46  inches  long  and  7^  inches  wide  at  the  inner  end  and  19 ^ inches  at  the 
outer  end.  Tower  90  feet  high. 


EXPERIMENTS  IN  GRINDING  WITH  SMALL  STEEL 

FEED  MILLS. 


F.  H.  KING  and  J.  A.  JEFFERY. 

This  bulletin  records  an  effort  to  determine  the  rate  at  which  feed  for 
stock  on  the  farm  may  be  ground  with  several  of  the  types  of  small  steel 
mills  now  on  the  market;  the  power  required  to  run  them;  and  the  approx- 
imate cost  of  grinding. 

Something  over  400  trials  have  been  made,  whose  results  are  recorded  in 
the  tables  which  follow.  These  were  made  with  eight  different  mills, 
driven  by  two  sizes  of  engines  and  two  sizes  of  geared  windmills,  grinding 
corn,  oats,  corn  and  oats,  oats  and  rye. 

THE  MILLS  USED. 

All  of  the  feed  grinders  tested  were  of  the  metal  type,  using  steel  burrs, 
as  follows:  (1)  The  O.  Aermotor  grinder,  represented  in  Fig.  7,  used  only 
with  the  12-foot  geared  Aermotor  windmill;  (2)  The  N Aermotor  grinder, 
designed  for  U9e  with  the  16-foot  geared  Aermotor  windmill,  and  repre- 
sented in  Fig.  11;  (3)  The  No.  3 Appleton  Prize  Pulley  Mill,  represented  in 
Fig.  14  and  manufactured  at  Batavia,  111.;  (4)  the  No 2.  Bowsher,  Fig.  16, 
manufactured  at  South  Bend,  Indiana  ; (5)  The  Giant,  Fig.  18.  made  at  Ke- 
waunee, Wisconsin;  (6)  No.  0 Ideal,  Fig.  19,  made  at  Freeport,  Illinois;  (7). 
The  No.  6 Smalley  Monarch,  Fig.  21,  manufactured  at  Manitowoc,  Wiscon- 
sin, and  (8)  the  Vessot,  Little  Champion,  Fig.  23,  manufactured  at  Joliet, 
Province  of  Quebec,  and  at  Watertown,  N.  Y.  These  mills  were  all  new 
except  No.  2,  obtained  direct  from  the  manufacturers  expressly  for  these 
trials  and  in  shape  ready  for  use. 

POWERS  USED. 

The  powers  used  to  drive  the  several  grinders  were  (1)  a 5 horse-power 
horizontal  Fairbanks  gas  engine;  (2)  a 234  horse  power  Webster  vertical 
gas  engine,  (3)  a 16  foot  geared  aermotor  windmill  and  (4)  a 12-foot  geared 
and  roller  bearing  aermotor  windmill,  the  two  mounted  as  shown  in  Fig. 
1,  the  12-foot  mill  being  upon  a 90-foot  tower. 

The  two  engines  were  able  to  show  very  nearly  their  rated  capacity  by 
brake  tests  made  upon  the  counter  shaft  from  which  all  of  the  mills  ex- 
cept No.  1 were  driven.  An  adjustable  platform  was  provided  upon  which 
the  several  mills  could  be  placed  so  as  to  be  driven  under  every  way  like 


Grinding  ivith  Small  Steel  Feed  Mills , 


5 


ad£&4)gejj33)S 


Fig.  2.  Showing  the  four  grades  into  which  the  meal  was  sorted  in  order  to 
compare  the  work  done  in  grinding. 


6 


Bulletin  No.  82. 


Fig.  3.  Showing  meal  of  “fine”  grade,  natural  size.  This  grade  contains  81.2 
per  cent,  of  No.  4,  or  finest  meal.  18.2  per  cent,  of  No.  3,  .5  per  cent,  of 
No.  2,  and  .1  per  cent,  of  the  coarsest  meal  No.  1. 

conditions.  The  fuel  used  by  the  engine  was  the  city  illuminating  gas, 
costing  $1.25  per  1,000  cubic  feet,  and  the  amount  used  was  measured 
with  a meter  placed  next  to  the  engines.  The  wind  velocities  under  which 
the  windmill  trials  were  made  were  obtained  with  the  aid  of  a Robinson 
anemometer  No.  329  belonging  to  the  U.  S.  Weather  Bureau,  placed  as 
shown  in  Fig.  1. 


METHODS  OF  MAKING  THE  TRIALS. 

In  each  trial  an  effort  was  made  to  regulate  the  feed  so  as  if  possible  to 
fully  load  the  power  which  was  being  used  at  the  time.  This,  however, 
could  not  always  be  done  with  the  5 H.  P.  engine,  especially  when  the 
coarser  grades  of  meal  were  being  ground.  The  usual  practice  was  to  start 
the  mill  with  grain  enough  in  the  hopper  to  get  it  regulated  and  adjusted  to 
the  engine  and,  at  a signal,  as  the  last  of  this  left  the  hopper,  a weighed 
quantity  of  grain  was  placed  in  the  mill  and  the  exact  time  required  to  run 
it  through  noted,  together  with  the  amount  of  gas  consumed  or  the  miles 
of  wind  passing  the  windmill. 


Grinding  with  Small  Steel  Feed  Mills. 


7 


Fig.  4.  Showing  meal  of  “medium”  grade,  natural  size.  This  grade  contains 
59  per  cent,  of  No.  4 meal,  38.4  per  cent,  of  No.  3 meal,  1.9  per  cent,  of 
No.  2 and  .7  per  cent,  of  the  size  of  meal  No.  1. 

A sample  of  the  meal  in  each  trial  was  taken  for  grading,  as  described 
in  another  place,  and  for  determining  the  per  cent,  of  moisture  in  the 
grain  at  the  time  of  grinding.  These  data  will  be  found  given  in  the  sev- 
eral tables  for  the  different  mills. 

It  was  early  found  to  be  practically  impossible  to  closely  duplicate  in 
degree  of  fineness  of  meal  a given  trial  with  either  of  the  grinders  used, 
and  this,  among  other  things,  made  it  necessary  to  make  the  trials  short 
and  to  take  a sample  of  the  meal  ground  at  each  trial,  to  be  graded.  The 
per  cent,  of  moisture  in  the  meal  ground  was  determined  for  each  of  the 
trials  made.  As  nearly  all  of  the  determinations  showed  that  the  mois- 
ture ranged  between  11  and  11  per  cent,  it  has  been  thought  best  not  to 
take  the  space  necessary  to  publish  the  individual  results.  There  was  a 
single  trial,  No.  252,  as  high  as  17  77  per  cent,  and  another  as  low  as  6.88, 
No.  325.  No  others  were  as  low  as  10  per  cent,  or  higher  than  11.96  per 
cent. 

To  secure  a reliable  basis  of  judgment  for  estimating  the  amount  of 


8 


Bulletin  No.  82. 


Fig.  5.  Showing  meal  of  “coarse”  grade,  natural  size.  This  grade  contains  24.7 
per  cent,  of  the  finest  meal,  No.  4,  28.6  per  cent,  of  No.  3,  24.1  per  cent,  of 
No.  2,  and  27.6  per  cent,  of  the  coarsest  meal,  No.  1. 


work  done  in  each  grinding  trial  it  was  necessary  to  know  the  degree  of 
fineness  of  meal  produced  as  well  as  the  am’ount  ground  in  a unit  of  time* 
In  order  to  compare  the  fineness  of  grinding  in  the  different  trials  100 
grams  of  meal  from  each  lot  was  sorted  with  the  aid  of  three  sieves,  into 
four  grades  as  represented  in  Fig.  2.  The  first  degree  of  fineness  was 
such  as  would  not  pass  a screen  of  8 meshes  to  the  inch;  the  second  that 
passing  a screen  of  8 but  stopped  by  one  of  10  meshes;  the  third  that 
which  would  pass  a screen  of  10  meshes  but  be  stopped  by  one  of  16  meshes 
to  the  inch,  while  the  fourth  grade  was  that  passing  the  screen  of  16 
meshes  to  the  inch. 

In  the  trials  of  grinding  corn  an  effort  was  made  to  produce  four  grades 
of  meal  (1)  very  coarse,  suitable  for  feeding  sheep,  (2)  coarse,  and  (3)  med- 
ium, suitable  for  cattle,  and  (4)  fine,  suitable  for  hog  feeding.  The  per 
cent,  of  each  degree  of  meal  found  in  each  of  these  four  grades  is  given 
in  the  table  below  and  represented  in  Figs.  3,  4,  5 and  6: 


Grinding  with  Small  Steel  Feed  Mills . 


9 


Fig.  6.  Showing  meal  of  “very  coarse”  grade,  natural  size.  This  grade  con- 
tains 9.2  per  cent,  of  the  finest  meal,  No.  4,  11.1  per  cent,  of  No.  3,  10.5  per 
cent,  of  No.  2,  and  69.2  per  cent,  of  the  coarsest  meal,  No.  1. 


Grade  of  meal. 

Per  cent,  by  weight  of  each  degree  of 
fineness  of  meal. 

1 

2 

3 

4 

Very  coarse 

69.2 

10.5 

11.1 

9 2 

Coarse 

27.6 

24.1 

28.6 

24.7 

Medium 

.7 

1.9 

38.4 

59.0 

Fine 

.1 

.5 

18.2 

81.2 

GRINDING  TRIALS  WITH  THE  O.  AERMOTOR  GRINDER  AND  12-FOOT  ROLLER- 
BEARING AERMOTOR  WINDMILL. 

The  grinding  trials  with  this  grinder  were  all  made  with  the  12-foot  mill 
mounted  and  located  as  represented  in  Fig.  1.  This  mill  is  mounted  upon 
a 90-foot  tower  standing  50  feet  to  the  northwest  of  the  tower  carrying  the 
16-foot  mill  shown  in  the  illustration.  At  the  foot  of  the  tower  was  a tem- 
porary building  containing  a bin  arranged  so  that  the  grain  may  feed  by 


10 


Bulletin  No.  82. 


Fig.  7.  Showing  O Grinder  used  with  the  12-foot  windmill  and  a portion  of 
the  large  hopper  or  bin  used  for  self-feeding. 

gravity  automatically  into  the  mill  as  shown  in  Fig.  7,  the  meal  dropping 
upon  the  floor. 

Several  trials  were  made  with  long  runs,  feeding  from  the  hopper,  but 
it  was  early  found  that  shorter  trials  would  give  a much  more  accurate 
measure  of  the  capacity  of  the  mill  with  different  wind  velocities,  and  the 
table  on  page  17  contains  the  results  of  48  trials,  mostly  of  corn.  Some  of 
these  trials  are  based  upon  the  amount  of  meal  ground  by  the  passage  of 
a single  mile  of  wind  through  the  mill,  as  measured  by  one  of  the  U.  S. 
Weather  Bureau  Anemometers.  Other  trials  were  of  5,  10,  and  15  min- 
utes duration,  while  others  continued  through  8 consecutive  hours. 

During  8 hours  of  Jan.  20;  7 hours  35  min.  of  Jan.  21,  and  4 hours  22 
min.  of  Jan.  23,  there  were  ground  7,816  lbs.,  or  139.57  bushels  of  corn  dur- 
ing 19  hours  and  57  minutes,  and  with  a movement  of  339.3  miles  of  wind 
through  the  windmill.  When  the  trial  began  the  wind  was  blowing  at  the 
rate  of  7.25  miles  per  hour,  and  wThen  it  closed  the  rate  was  19.6  miles  per 
hour.  During  the  first  eight  hours  the  highest  wind  velocity  was  13.5 
miles;  during  the  second  interval  the  wind  ranged  between  15.5  and  25.5 
miles  per  hour,  and  on  the  third  day  the  velocities  started  with  10.5  miles 
and  closed  with  20.9  miles  per  hour.  The  average  wind  velocity  was  per- 


Grinding  with  Small  Steel  Feed  Mills.  11 

haps  17  miles  per  hour,  and  the  grade  of  meal  between  the  “medium”  and 
“coarse.” 

The  most  rapid  grinding  of  corn  done  with  this  windmill  and  grinder 
was  at  the  rate  of  about  25  bushels  per  hour  with  a wind  velocity  of  31.8 
miles,  the  meal  being  a little  coarser  than  “medium.”  Corn  and  oats  were 
ground  at  the  rate  of  110.3  lbs.  per  hour  with  the  wind  at  26.18  miles 
With  a wind  velocity  of  26.67  miles  oats  were  ground  at  the  rate  of  about 
5.5  bushels  per  hour  and  rye  at  the  rate  of  15.35  bushels  with  the  wind 
25.35  miles.  The  rye  w7as  ground  a little  finer  than  “medium”  and  the  oats 
a little  coarser. 

RELATION  OF  WIND  VELOCITY  TO  THE  AMOUNT  OF  CORN  GROUND. 

In  Fig.  8 there  have  been  plotted  each  of  the  trials  of  corn  grinding 
made  with  the  12-foot  windmill  and  the  O grinder,  and  it  will  be  seen  that 
although  there  is  a large  irregularity  in  the  amount  ground  with  the  differ- 
ent wind  velocities  there  is  nevertheless  a tendency  for  the  amounts  to  in- 
crease systematically  with  the  wind  velocity.  The  curve  A A.  shows  where 
all  of  the  observed  rates  of  grinding  should  fall  if  the  amounts  ground  in- 
creased with  the  square  of  the  velocity  of  the  wind.  This  curve  is 
constructed  from  the  computed  mean  amount  ground  at  16  miles  per 
hour,  using  the  amount  ground  at  15.999  miles  per  hour  with  the 
amounts  computed  for  16  miles  from  the  observed  amounts  ground  at 
15.32' and  16.6  miles,  which  gives  216.3  lbs.  But  in  computing  the  amounts 
which  should  be  ground  at  the  different  wind  velocities  from  this  value  no 
corrections  have  been  made  for  resistance  to  be  overcome  in  the  mill  itself 
nor  for  any  differences  in  the  degree  of  fineness  of  the  meal  ground.  It 
will  be  seen  that  below  16  miles  per  hour  the  amounts  ground  are  too 
small,  while  above  they  are  mostly  too  large. 

To  obtain  a correction  for  the  differences  in  amount  of  work  done  due 
to  the  varying  degree  of  fineness  of  meal  ground  a large  number  of  the 
trials  made  with  the  several  grinders  when  driven  by  the  2 34  H.  P.  engine 
have  been  classified  according  to  the  fineness  of  the  meal  and  the  mean 
amounts  of  meal  ground  per  hour  taken  as  expressing  the  rate  of  work 
necessary  to  produce  the  several  grades  of  meal.  By  taking  as  a standard 
the  amount  of  meal  ground  when  the  finest  grade  was  45  per  cent,  of  the 
whole  the  following  ratios  were  found: 


Per  cent,  of  finest  grade 85  80  75  70  65  60  55 

Ratio 19.2  16.95  14.70  14.26  13.80  12.32  11.84 

Percent 50  45  39.37  33.75  28.12  20  15  10 

Ratio 10.92  10  00  9.78  9.57  9.35  7.76  5.22  3.94 


These  ratios  have  been  used  to  compute  the  amounts  of  meal  which 
might  have  been  ground  of  a single  grade  a little  coarser  than  the  “medium,” 
that  is,  containing  45  per  cent,  of  the  finest  degree.  These  amounts  are 
plotted  in  Fig.  9,  and  are  given  in  the  table  which  follows: 


12 


Bulletin  No.  82. 


Grinding  with  Small  Steam  Feed  Mills. 


13 


Table  showing  the  observed  amounts  of  meal  ground  under  different 
ivind  velocities  but  computed  to  a single  grade. 


Wind, 

Meal, 

Wind, 

Meal, 

Wind, 

Meal. 

Wind, 

Meal, 

miles  per 

lbs.  per 

miles  per 

lbs.  per 

miles  per 

lbs.  per 

miles  per 

lbs.  per 

hour. 

hour. 

hour. 

hour. 

hour. 

hour. 

hour. 

hour. 

7.25 

18.52 

13.3 

88  73 

18.65 

418.9 

22- 1 

776.5 

9.2 

63.01 

13  89 

155.6 

18.80 

450.3 

23.5 

800.9 

9.84 

30  0 

14.34 

199.8 

19  26 

510.4 

23  53 

739.4 

10.4 

108.0 

14  41 

189.8 

19  6 

444  2 

25  95 

1024.0 

11.0 

130  2 

15  32 

237.5 

19.78 

570.5 

26  48 

878.5 

12.0 

76  06 

15  999 

239.0 

20.8 

459.8 

26.52 

1159.0 

12.8 

226.3 

16.6 

219.0 

20.8 

641.6 

28.35 

547.7 

12.99 

101  0 

17  46 

644.8 

20  93 

554.3 

31.296 

1571.0 

13.28 

134.9 

18.3 

739.6 

21.0 

820  8 

31  8 

1348.0 

13.285 

127  4 

18.37 

458  0 

21  3 

564  8 

32  2 

35.6 

1076.0 

1288.0 

When  these  values  are  plotted  as  shown  in  Fig.  9 and  a computed  curve 
A.  A.  constructed  it  again  appears  that  the  amounts  ground  at  veloci- 
ties higher  than  16  miles  per  hour,  the  one  taken  as  the  standard,  are 
larger  than  those  computed;  while  those  produced  at  lower  velocities 
are  lower.  This  is  as  should  be  expected  because  the  resistence  to  be 
overcome  in  the  windmill  itself  is  nearly  the  same  at  all  wind  velocities 
and  hence  is  a much  larger  proportion  of  the  total  work  which  may  be 
done  at  the  lower  speeds  than  at  the  higher  ones.  The  value  used  for  the 
amount  ground  at  16  miles  per  hour,  in  computing  this  curve,  is  a mean 
determined  by  computing  the  amount  ground  at  16  miles  per  hour  from 
the  amounts  ground  at  all  the  observed  trials. 

It  was  found  by  observation  that  there  was  required  between  5 miles  and 
6.6  miles  of  wind  to  run  this  windmill  and  empty  grinder  and  when  6.25 
miles  is  subtracted  from  16  miles,  to  obtain  the  effective  wind  velocity 
at  16  miles,  and  this  is  used,  with  the  amount  of  grain  ground  by  it, 
to  compute  the  amounts  of  grain  which  should  be  ground  at  the  other 
effective  velocities  between  7 miles  and  36  miles  per  hour,  the  curve  B.  B. 
is  obtained,  and  it  will  be  seen  that  it  agrees  fairly  well  wTith  the  observed 
rates  of  grinding,  although  assuming  that  the  effective  energy  of  the 
mill  increases  with  the  square  of  the  wind  velocity.  It  may  be  that  this 
curve  is  a little  too  steep  and  that  we  should  have  deducted  but  6 or 
possibly  5.8  miles  from  the  observed  wind  velocity  to  obtain  the  effective 
velocity  for  this  particular  mill. 


THE  AMOUNT  OE  CORN  WHICH  MAY  BE  GROUND  IN  A YEAR  BY  THE  12  FOOT 
MILL  AND  THE  O GRINDER. 

In  bulletin  68,  of  this  station,  page  24,  there  is  given  the  number  of 
hours  during  the  year  March  6,  1897  to  March  6, 1898  when  the  wind  veloc- 
ities were  9,  10,  11,  12  etc.  up  to  30  miles  per  hour.  If  these  are  used  with 
the  amounts  of  corn  ground  with  these  different  velocities  by  the  12-foot 
windmill,  as  shown  by  the  curve  B.  B.,  Fig.  9,  the  results  given  in  the 
next  table  will  be  found. 


Bulletin  No.  82, 


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Grinding  with  Small  Steel  Feed  Mills . 


15 


Table  showing  the  amount  of  corn  which  could  have  been  ground  by 
the  12-foot  aermotor  windmill  during  the  year,  from  March  6, 1897 , 
to  March  6 , 1898 , with  all  winds  from  9 miles  to  30  miles  per  hour. 


Wind, 
miles  per 
hour. 

No.  of 
hours  of 
wind. 

Amount 
ground 
per  hour. 

Total 

meal 

ground. 

Wind, 
miles  per 
hour. 

No.  of 
hours  of 
wind. 

Amount 
ground 
per  hour. 

Total 

meal 

ground. 

9 

480 

lbs. 

20  61 

lbs. 

98,910 

20 

195 

lbs. 

515.10 

lbs. 

100,400 

10 

559 

38.31 

21,410 

21 

144 

592.8 

85,360 

11 

495 

61.46 

30,430 

22 

114 

675.9 

77,050 

12 

425 

90  07 

38,280 

23 

112 

764.4 

85,610 

13 

406 

124  10 

50, 400 

24 

92 

858.4 

78,970 

14 

401 

164.00 

65,770 

25 

71 

957.8 

68,010 

15 

341 

208  60 

71,130 

26 

70 

1,063  0 

74,390 

16 

328 

259  00 

84,950 

27 

57 

1,173.0 

66,870 

264 

314.90 

83, 120 

28 

44 

1,289.0 

56, 710 

18 

223 

376.10 

83,850 

29 

40 

1,410.0 

56,400 

19 

193 

442.90 

85, 480 

30 

33 

1,537.0 

50, 710 

The  total  footing  of  this  table  shows  the  amount  of  grinding  equal  to 
27,010  bushels  of  corn  or  an  average  of  about  75  bushels  per  day  for  the 
entire  year.  It  will  be  seen  from  an  inspection  of  Fig.  9 that  of  the  35 
trials  there  plotted  between  the  wind  velocities  of  9 and  30  miles,  only  14 
of  them  are  less  than  the  amounts  computed,  and  from  this  it  follows  that 
the  table  gives  an  under  rather  than  an  over  estimate  of  the  grinding 
efficiency  of  the  mill  if 't  had  been  kept  at  work  for  the  whole  of  the  year 
under  consideration.  Jt  is  true,  however,  that  the  amount  of  wind  during 
the  year  in  question  was  somewhat  above  the  average,  and  on  this  account 
the  year’s  work  is  larger  than  it  would  otherwise  be. 


MINIMUM  AMOUNT  OF  GRINDING  PER  YEAR. 

The  minimum  amount  of  grinding  this  mill  could  be  expected  to  do 
could  hardly  be  less  than  would  be  given  by  supposing  that  the  total 
number  of  hours  of  wind  shown  in  the  table  above,  between  9 miles  per 
hour  and  30  miles,  was  divided  equally  between  the  seven  velocities  9 to 
15  miles  per  hour.  Computing  from  this  supposition  the  results  in  the 
next  table  would  be  given: 


Miles  per  hour. 

No  of  hours  of  wind. 

Amount  of  corn 
ground  per  hour. 

Total  meal  ground. 

9 

727 

Lbs. 

20.6 

Lbs. 

14,980 

10 

727 

38.31 

27,850 

11 

727 

61.46 

44,680 

12 

727 

90.07 

65,490 

13 

727 

124.10 

90,220 

14 

727 

164.00 

119,200 

15 

727 

208.60 

151,650 

Total  for  year 

514,070 

9, 180  bushels 

1G 


Bulletin  A o. 


It  is  clear  from  these  figures  that  this  12-foot  windmill,  when  set  up  so 
as  to  work  continuously  and  automatically,  is  capable  of  grinding  feed 
enough  for  a large  number  of  animals.  If  no  provision  is  made  for  grind- 
ing continuously  or  automatically  it  is  still  possible  to  do  considerable 
work  by  following  the  practice  of  grinding  each  day  when  the  wind  veloc- 
ities between  7 A.  M.  and  6 P.  M.  are  more  than  15  miles  per  hour.  The 
records  in  bulletin  68  show  that  between  Oct.  1 and  May  1 there  were  87 
days  when  a man  could  attend  the  mill  and  grind  10  hours  with  a wind 
velocity  not  less  than  15  miles  per  hour,  and  much  of  the  time  higher  than 
this.  He  should  therefore  be  able  to  grind  more  than  46  bushels  per  day 
and  on  the  average  more  than  100  bushels  per  week.  The  87  grinding 
days,  during  the  7 months,  places  the  grinding  days,  on  the  average  more 
than  two  per  week,  and  if  it  is  supposed  that  this  is  twice  too  high  it  would 
still  be  possible  on  the  average  to  take  advantage  of  high  winds  during  the 
working  hours  and  grind  about  50  bushels  of  corn,  or  2,800  lbs.  per  week. 
Counting  the  man’s  time  who  tends  the  mill  $1.00  per  day,  the  cost  of 
grinding  would  be  only  about  3%  cents  per  cwt. 

TRIALS  WITH  OTHER  GRINDERS  AND  THE  12-FOOT  WINDMILL. 

Several  trials  were  made  with  the  12-foot  windmill  a9  a motive  power  for 
the  other  grinders,  and  the  observed  rates  of  grinding  with  these,  together 
with  the  grades  of  meal  produced  by  them,  will  be  found  in  the  general 
tables  under  the  respective  mills. 


Fig.  10.  Showing  the  pulley  for  driving  other  machinery  from  the  12-foot  wind- 
mill, the  one  used  in  making  the  trials  with  the  other  feed  mills. 

The  rates  of  grinding  corn,  computed  to  standard  grade,  are  plotted  in 
Pig.  9.  Referring  to  this  figure  it  will  be  seen  that  generally  the  12-foot 
windmill  has  not  been  able  to  produce  as  much  meal  with  them  as  it  did 
with  the  O.  grinder  designed  especially  for  this  power. 

It  should  be  said  that  the  O.  grinder  was  driven  directly  from  the  driv- 
ing shaft  of  the  windmill  as  shown  in  Fig.  3,  while  the  other  mills  were 


Grinding  with  Small  Steel  Feed  Mills, 


17 


driven  from  a 14^  inch  pulley  attached  to  the  vertical  shaft  of  the  wind- 
mill as  represented  in  Fig.  10;  this  arrangement  would  of  course  entail 
some  loss  through  the  belt,  but  it  should  also  be  said  as  an  offset  to  this 
that  the  rate  of  feeding  of  the  several  mills  was  carefully  regulated  by  hand 
so  as  to  get  the  maximum  results.  Had  this  not  been  done  the  results 
would  have  been  smaller.  With  both  the  Aermotor  grinders  there  is  a cen- 
trifugal feed  which  is  not  only  simple  and  automatic  but  delivers  the 
grain  at  a rate  rigidly  proportional  to  the  speed  with  which  the  burrs  are 
driven.  With  none  of  the  other  mills  used  is  the  rate  of  feeding  so  rigidly 
and  promptly  controlled,  and  on  this  account  hand  regulation  for  these 
trials,  in  order  to  secure  maximum  results,  was  imperative. 


Table  I. — Showing  results  of  trials  in  grinding  grain  with  the  O 
Aermoter  grinder. 


No. 

of 

trial. 

Grain 

ground. 

Power  used. 

Texture  of  Meal  Ground. 

Meal 

ground 

per 

hour. 

Miles 

of 

wind 
pr.  hr. 

l. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

Pr.  ct. 

Pr.  ct. 

Pr.  ct. 

Pr.  ct. 

Lbs. 

96 

Corn  

12-ft.  windmill. 

0.7 

2.8 

38  4 

58.2 

73.33 

13.3 

97 

0.7 

2.7 

38.4 

58.2 

90.97 

12.99 

98 

0.7 

2.7 

38.4 

52.2 

26.55 

9.84 

99 

Corn 

0 8 

5.3 

47. 

46.9 

134.5 

13.28 

100 

Corn 

do 

0.8 

5.3 

47. 

46.9 

189.2 

14.41 

101 

Corn 

do 

0 8 

5 3 

47. 

46.9 

236.8 

15.32 

102 

Corn 

do 

0.8 

5.3 

47. 

46.9 

155.1 

13.89 

10:1 

Corn 

0.8 

5.3 

47. 

46  9 

456.6 

18.37 

104 

Corn 

do 

0 8 

5.3 

47 

46  9 

447.6 

18.65 

105 

Corn 

do 

0 8 

5 3 

47. 

46  9 

568.8 

19.78 

195 

Corn 

. . do 

0 6 

2.3 

•'7.6 

69  5 

397.5 

21.30 

200 

Corn 

do 

0.5 

1.5 

23.3 

74.7 

504.0 

23.53 

202 

Corn 

1.2 

3.3 

35.8 

59.7 

714.8 

26.48 

204 

Corn 

2 3 

6.7 

41  2 

49  8 

468.3 

19.26 

206 

Corn 

14.6 

23.1 

40  6 

21.7 

651.5 

20.93 

207 

Corn 

30.4 

22.8 

31.2 

15.6 

1,005.0 

28  35 

352 

Corn 

5 4 

13.4 

46.1 

35.1 

19.25 

7.25 

353 

Corn 

5.4 

13.4 

46  1 

35.1 

65.5 

9.2 

354 

Corn 

5.4 

13.4 

46  1 

35.1 

1 5.25 

11. 0 

355 

Corn 

do  

5.2 

14  0 

43.5 

37  3 

474.5 

20.8 

356 

Corn 

5.2 

14.0 

43  5 

37.3 

826.5 

23.5 

357 

Corn 

5.2 

14  0 

43.5 

37  3 

763.25 

18.3 

358 

Corn  

7.0 

17.3 

44.2 

31  5 

114.0 

10.4 

359 

Corn 

7.0 

17  3 

44.2 

31.5 

239.0 

12  8 

360 

Corn 

7.0 

17.3 

44  2 

31.5 

475.5 

18.8 

361 

Corn 

7.0 

17.3 

44.2 

31.5 

677  5 

20.8 

362 

Corn 

7.0 

17.3 

44  2 

31.5 

469.1 

19.6 

363 

Corn 

4.7 

11.0 

43  0 

41.3 

832  5 

21*0 

364 

Corn 

4.7 

11.0 

43  0 

41. 3 

654.0 

17  46 

365 

Corn 

5.4 

17  2 

44.0 

33  4 

1,348.0 

35.6 

366 

Corn 

4 9 

11  0 

43  4 

40  7 

1,098  0 

32  2 

367 

Corn 

3 9 

11  0 

41.2 

43.9 

780.0 

22  1 

368 

Corn 

3.5 

14  9 

46  7 

34.9 

1,401.0 

31.8 

369 

Corn 

do  

2.7 

10.7 

46.9 

39.7 

223.5 

16.6 

370 

Corn 

1 .5 

2.6 

35  9 

60.0 

831.0 

25.95 

371 

Corn 

do 

0.8 

3 5 

36  9 

58.8 

949.2 

26.52 

372 

Corn 

do 

1.8 

4.8 

40  4 

53.0 

66  72 

12. 

373 

Corn 

1 2 

4 6 

40  2 

54  0 

109  32 

13  285 

374 

Corn 

do 

1.0 

2 7 

33.8 

62.5 

183.0 

15.999 

375 

Corn 

0.9 

2.2 

31  0 

65.9 

142.68 

14.34 

376 

Corn 

0 4 

0 9 

23  7 

75  0 

1,068  0 

31  296 

192 

Corn  and  oats  . 

4 8 

5.8 

40.8 

48 '6 

’410.3 

26*48 

110 

Oats 

. . do  . . . 

15.7 

11.0 

36.7 

42.6 

174.7 

26.67 

111 

Oats 

15.7 

11  0 

36^7 

42^6 

123^8 

19.46 

112 

Oats 

do  ... 

15.7 

11.0 

36  7 

42*6 

166.0 

23  38 

193 

Oats 

11.6 

10.3 

41  4 

36 ’7 

156  0 

24.0 

235 

Rye 

do 

0 7 

2 9 

38.9 

57  5 

859  4 

25  35 

236 

Rye 

0.9 

2.9 

38.6 

57^6 

766.7 

25.18 

18 


Bulletin  No.  82. 


RATE  OF  GRINDING  OTHER  GRAIN. WITH  THE  12-FOOT  WINDMILL. 

Some  grinding  of  other  grains  than  corn  with  the  12-foot  windmill  was 
also  done,  but  the  number  of  trials  was  limited.  With  corn  and  oats,  half 
and  half  by  measure,  the  rate  was  4,103  lbs.  per  10  hours  with  a wind  of 
26.48  miles  per  hour.  This  is  9314  bushels  per  day  of  10  hours. 

In  grinding  clear  oats  four  trials  were  made  with  wind  velocities  of 
19, 46;  23.38;  24  and  26.67  miles  per  hour,  and  10  hours  work  at  the  observed 
rates  would  represent  a grinding  of  38.7;  50.2;  45.6  and  54.6  bushels  re. 
spectively.  At  wind  velocities  of  25.35  and  25.18  miles  per  hour  rye  was 
ground  at  the  rates  of  153.4  and  136.8  bushels  per  10  hours. 


GRINDING  TRIALS  WITH  THE  N GRINDER  AND  THE  16-FOOT  GEARED 
AERMOTOR  WINDMILL. 

The  windmill  and  grinder  used  in  these  trials  are  the  same  as  those  re- 
ferred to  in  Bulletin  68  of  this  Station,  p.  22,  and  the  results  of  the  several 
trials,  including  some  of  those  reported  in  Bulletin  68,  are  given  in  Table 
II.  The  grinder  is  represented  in  Fig.  11,  and  the  burrs  in  Fig.  12. 


Table  II. — Showing  results  of  trials  in  grinding  grain  with  the  N. 
Aermotor  grinder. 


ttH 

O 

6 

Grain 

ground 

Power  used. 

Size 

of 

pul- 

ley. 

Texture  of  Meal  Ground. 

Meal 

ground 

per 

hour. 

Gas  used  per 
hour . 

1. 

3. 

3. 

4. 

pr.  ct. 

pr.  ct. 

pr.  ct. 

pr.  ct. 

lbs. 

389 

Corn . . 

5 H.  P.  engine.. 

16 

in. 

10.1 

15.7 

39.3 

34.9 

1,0U0.0 

390 

Corn . . 

5 H.  P.  engine.. 

16 

in. 

10.96 

18.5 

41.16 

29.38 

1,422.0 

246 

Corn . . 

2y2  H.  P.  engine 

12 

in. 

0.2 

0.6 

11.0 

88.2 

284  5 

66.88 

cu.  ft. 

259 

Corn . . 

do 

12 

in. 

0.2 

1.0 

21.5 

77.3 

290.3 

66.04 

cu.  ft. 

260 

Corn . . 

do 

12 

iu. 

0.3 

1.1 

19.2 

79.4 

296.3 

59.26 

cu.  ft. 

391 

Corn 

Ho 

9 

in. 

10.0 

610.8 

79  2 

cu.  ft. 

392 

Corn 

Ho 

9 

in. 

37.6 

696.1 

66  4 

cu.  ft. 

106 

Corn . . 

16  ft.  windmill.. 

12 

in. 

1.2 

3.4 

39.0 

56.4 

525.3 

34.29 

miles. 

107 

Corn 

. . . do 

12 

in. 

1.2 

3.4 

39.0 

56.4 

397 . 5 

28  8 

miles. 

108 

Corn . . 

do  

12 

in. 

17.2  1 

19  4 

37  5 

25.9 

813.9 

34.29 

miles. 

194 

Corn 

Ho 

12 

in. 

1.0  i 

4.0 

39.0 

56.0 

257 . 9 

22.93 

miles. 

199 

Corn 

. . do 

16 

in. 

2 5 

5.4 

41.0 

51.1 

352.6 

22.78 

miles. 

201 

Corn . . 

do 

16 

in. 

4.7 

10.4 

43.7 

41.2 

496  5 

21.82 

miles. 

203 

Corn . . 

do 

16 

in. 

9.8 

17.1 

39.8 

33  3 

646  5 

22.93 

miles. 

205 

Corn . . 

do 

16 

in. 

58.9 

15.2 

12.7 

13.2 

795.6 

23.84 

miles. 

377 

Corn . . 

do 

9 

in. 

3 3 

3.4 

24.3 

69.0 

15.1 

8.25 

miles. 

378 

Corn.. 

do 

9 

in. 

3.3 

3.4 

24.3 

69.0 

107.18 

11.5 

miles. 

379 

Corn 

do 

9 

in. 

3.3 

3.4 

21.3 

69  0 

156.0 

13.398 

miles. 

380 

Corn 

do 

9 

in. 

3.3 

3.4 

24.3 

69  0 

195.4 

18.18 

miles. 

381 

Corn . . 

do 

9 

in. 

3.3 

3.1 

24.3 

389. 2 

23.6 

miles. 

382 

Corn . . 

do 

9 

in. 

3.3 

3.4 

24.3 

69  0 

431.1 

25.0 

miles. 

383 

Corn . . 

do 

9 

in. 

3.3 

3.4 

24.3 

69.0 

993.2 

34  8 

miles. 

384 

Corn . . 

do 

16 

in. 

no 

t deter 

mined. 

295.0 

16.74 

miles. 

385 

Corn 

. _ . do 

16 

in. 

44.0 

11.69 

miles. 

386 

Corn 

Ho 

16 

in 

750.0 

24.00 

miles. 

387 

Corn 

. . . Ho 

16 

in. 

774.2 

18.46 

miles. 

388 

Corn . . 

do 

16 

in. 

10.1 

15.7 

39.3 

34.9 

300.0 

16.40 

miles. 

190 

Corn& 

oats  . 

do 

12 

in. 

3.8 

9.0 

37.3 

49.9 

187.2 

20  58 

miles. 

41 

Oats.. 

do 

16 

in. 

22.2 

10.7 

36.8 

30.3 

81  1 

13.68 

miles. 

109 

Oats.. 

do 

12 

in. 

17.7 

13.0 

37.6 

31.7 

309.8 

27.27 

miles. 

191 

Oats.. 

do 

12 

in. 

8.9 

13.1 

44.0 

34.0 

117  0 

17.76 

miles. 

276 

Rye  .. 

5 H.  P.  engine.. 

12 

in. 

0.5 

2.7 

41.4 

55.4 

857.0 

115.7 

cu.  ft. 

277 

Rye  .. 

2*4  H P.  engine 

9 

in 

0.9 

4.4 

43.5 

51.2 

525.5 

65  66 

cu.  ft. 

222 

Rye  .. 

16-ft.  windmill. 

16 

in. 

0.6 

2.9 

32.4 

64.1 

395.4 

19.67 

miles. 

223 

Rye  . 

I 

do 

16 

iu. 

0.6 

3.5 

41  3 

54.6 

178.9 

22.37 

miles. 

Grinding  ivith  Small  Steel  Feed  Mills. 


19 


Referring  to  the  table  it  will  be  seen  that  the  most  rapid  grinding  was' 
done  with  the  5 H.  P.  engine  with  the  grade  of  meal  between  “coarse”  and1 
“medium.”  The  rate  of  grinding  was  254  bushels  of  corn  in  10  hours.  The 
same  engine  ground  rye  at  the  rate  of  153  bushels  in  10  hours  at  a cost  of 
$1.45  for  fuel,  less  than  one  cent  per  bushel 


Fig.  11.  Shows  the  X Aermotor  grinder  used  in  making  the  trials  of  Table  II, 

page  18. 


Fig.  12.  Shows  the  grinding  burrs  used  with  the  X and  O Aermotor  grinders  in 
making  the  trials  recorded  in  Tables  I and  II,  pages'  17  and  18. 


The  work  done  with  the  N.  grinder  driven  by  the  16-foot  windmill  has 
been  plotted  in  Fig.  13,  after  reducing  each  trial  to  standard  grade.  If 
reference  is  made  to  the  figure  it  will  be  seen  that  up  to  20  miles  per  hour 
of  wind  velocity  the  capacity  of  the  16-foot  windmill  has  been  materially 
greater  than  that  of  the  12-foot  wheel;  but  at  higher  velocities  the 


20 


Bulletin  No.  82. 


Fig.  13.  Showing  the  rates  of  grinding  with  the  16-foot  windmill.  The  solid  dots  show  the  observed  rates  of  grinding  with  the  N 
grinder  computed  to  a single  grade.  The  open  dots  with  arrow  points  show  the  amounts  ground  with  other  grinders  driven  by  the 
16-foot  windmill.  Curve  A shows  the  amounts  which  should  be  ground  if  the  rates  increased  with  the  square  of  the  wind  velocity. 


Grinding  ivith  Small  Steel  Feed  Mills. 


21 


reverse  is  true.  This  relation  of  the  amounts  of  work  done  by  the  two 
wheels  is  very  largely  due  to  the  fact  that  the  12-foot  mill  did  not  begin  to 
regulate  out  of  the  wind  until  a velocity  of  nearly  or  quite  30  miles  per 
hour  was  reached,  while  the  larger  mill  began  to  regulate  out  at  20  miles. 
It  was  exaggerated  still  further  by  the  fact  that  the  pulley  on  the  driving 
shaft  was  often  not  great  enough  to  permit  the  grinder  to  be  driven  at 
such  a speed  as  to  fully  load  the  mill. 

It  will  be  further  clear  from  a study  of  the  plotted  results  that  the  other 
types  of  grinders  were  here  also  less  efficient,  as  a rule,  with  the  windmill 
for  driving  power  than  was  the  N.  grinder. 

TRIALS  WITH  THE  NO.  3 APPLETON  PRIZE  PULLEY  GRINDER. 

The  No.  3 Prize  Pulley  feed  mill  used  in  these  trials  is  a light  compact 
simple  grinder  represented  in  Fig.  14,  and  the  steel  burrs  are  shown  in  Fig0 
15.  Nearly  70  trials  were  made  with  it  and  the  rates  of  grinding,  in  pounds 
per  hour,  together  with  the  cubic  feet  of  gas  used  with  each  engine,  or  the 
wind  velocity  under  which  the  grinder  was  driven  are  given  in  the  table 
which  follows.  In  the  same  table  are  given  the  grades  of  meal  produced 
together  with  the  size  of  the  pulley  on  the  counter-shaft  from  which  the 
grinder  was  driven.  The  counter  shaft  usually  made  from  450  to  500  revo- 
lutions per  minute  when  driven  by  either  of  the  engines. 

The  most  rapid  grinding  in  any  case  was  with  corn,  trial  No.  19,  at  the 
rate  of  44.8  bushels  per  hour  of  the  “ coarse”  grade,  at  a cost  of  18.84  cents 
for  fuel.  Ten  hours’  grinding  at  this  rate  wou  d cost  for  fuel  $1.88  for  448 
bushels  ground  with  the  5 H.  P.  engine.  The  slowest  grinding  of  corn 
with  the  same  engine  was  at  the  rate  of  146  bushels  in  ten  hours,  of  meal 
between  “ medium  ” and  “ fine,”  at  a cost  of  $1.65. 

With  the  234  H.  P.  engine  the  most  rapid  grinding  was  the  trial  No.  21, 
of  361  bushels  of  “ very  coarse  ” meal  at  a cost  of  $.93  for  fuel,  while  the 
slowest  was  57.6  bushels  of  fine  meal  per  ten  hours,  at  a cost  for  fuel  of 
$.82.  The  rates  at  which  corn  and  oats,  oats  and  rye  were  ground  will  be 
found  in  Table  III,  p.  23: 


22 


Bulletin  No.  82. 


Fig.  14.  Shows  the  No.  3 Appleton  Prize  Pulley  Grinder  used  in  making  the 
trials  in  Table  III,  page  23. 


Fig.  15.  Shows  the  grinding  burrs  of  the  Appleton  Prize  Pulley  Grinder  use  iu 
making  the  trials  in  Table  III,  page  23. 


©2 

o‘C 

15 

18 

19 

22 

335 

336 

337 

338 

339 

340 

341 

16 

17 

20 

21 

127 

128 

129 

130 

131 

132 

133 

134 

135 

283 

284 

235 

286 

287 

238 

311 

312 

313 

314 

331 

342 

343 

314 

345 

346 

347 

343 

349 

350 

30 

31 

196 

197 

198 

137 

175 

176 

23 

24 

25 

136 

138 

351 

32 

177 

266 

267 

233 

264 

265 

224 

225 


Grinding  with  Small  Steel  Feed  Mills, 


23 


. — Showing  results  of  trials  in  grinding  grain  with  the 
No.  3 Appleton  Prize  Pulley  Grinder. 


5 H. 


16-ft. 


>wer  used. 

Size 

of 

pul- 

ley. 

Texture  of  Meal  Ground. 

Meal 

ground 

per 

hour. 

Gas  used. 

1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

pr  ct. 

per  ct. 

per  ct. 

per  ct 

lbs. 

P.  engine  . 

16  in. 

0.2 

1.0 

29.2 

69.6 

929.4 

145.6  cu,  ft. 

. do 

16  in. 

16.6 

15.5 

32.0 

35.9 

1895.0 

138.9  cu.  ft. 

do 

16  in. 

27.8 

20.5 

25.4 

26.3 

2511.0 

150.7  cu.  ft. 

do 

l6  in. 

74.7 

9.3 

8.9 

7.1 

2400. 

96.01  cu.  ft. 

do 

16  in 

6.0 

13  3 

40.1 

40.6 

1768. 

132.6  cu.  ft. 

do 

16  in. 

1 0 

2.4 

30.0 

66.6 

822.8 

132.2  cu.  ft. 

do 

9 in. 

0.9 

2.3 

34.3 

62.5 

833.1 

133.7  cu.  ft. 

do 

9 in. 

0 5 

1.0 

25.0 

73.5 

904.0 

138.9  cu.  ft. 

. do 

16  in. 

0 5 

1.1 

22  5 

75.9 

964.7 

153.3  cu.  ft. 

. do 

14  in. 

0.5 

.9 

20.6 

78  0 

854.3 

137.3  cu.  ft. 

. do 

12  in. 

0.8 

1.7 

24.3 

73.2 

1028. 

146.9  cu.  ft. 

d.  P.  engine 

16  in. 

0.0 

0.2 

10  3 

89.5 

368.6 

87.24  cu.  ft. 

. do 

16  in. 

0.5 

2 1 

36.5 

60.9 

514.2 

65.15  cu.  ft. 

. do 

16  in. 

8.0 

13.1 

37.7 

41.2 

1026. 

74.01  cu  ft. 

. do 

16  in. 

71  9 

9.5 

10.0 

8.6 

20:18. 

74.71  cu.  ft. 

. do 

16  in. 

14.6 

16.7 

33.7 

35. C 

794  1 

84.70  cu.  ft. 

. do 

16  in. 

14.6 

16.7 

33.7 

35.0 

806.3 

77.91  cu.  ft. 

. do 

16  in 

0 3 

1.2 

25.7 

72.8 

435.2 

79.8  cu.  ft. 

. do 

14  in. 

0.5 

2 3 

32.5 

64.7 

519.2 

81  34  cu.  ft. 

. do 

14  in 

0.5 

2.3 

32.5 

64.7 

526.7 

77.27  cu.  ft. 

. do 

12  in. 

0.8 

2.8 

32.7 

63.7 

539.3 

75.49  cu.  ft. 

.do  

12  in. 

0.8 

2.8 

32.7 

63.7 

586.9 

76.31  cu.  ft. 

.do 

9 in. 

2.6 

6.8 

37.2 

53.4 

662.5 

75.09  cu.  ft. 

. do 

9 in. 

3.2 

8.1 

36.9 

51.8 

696.8 

76.65  cu.  ft. 

. do' 

9 in. 

1.4 

5.6 

36.3 

56.7 

533.3 

61.34  cu.  ft. 

. do 

14  in. 

0.2 

0.9 

23.3 

75.6 

444.4 

66.67  cu.  ft. 

. do 

16  in. 

2.7 

9 2 

39.7 

48.4 

626.0 

71.99  cu.  ft, 

. do 

14  in. 

0.9 

4.1 

37.8 

57.2 

393.4 

66.88  cu.  ft. 

. do 

12  in. 

2.6 

9.3 

39.4 

48.7 

590.1 

61.96  cu.  ft. 

. do 

9 in 

4.1 

9.2 

36.9 

49  8 

631.6 

66  31  cu.  ft. 

. do 

12  in. 

2.4 

6.4 

38.4 

52.8 

626.0 

61.18  cu.  ft. 

. do 

14  in. 

1.3 

4 5 

37.5 

56.7 

645.5 

71.99  cu.  ft. 

. do 

16  in. 

1.1 

3.7 

36.9 

58.3 

576.0 

69.12  cu.  ft. 

. do 

9 in 

3.0 

7.4 

37.8 

51.8 

585.6 

64.39  cu.  ft. 

. do  ........ 

16  in. 

0.3 

0.5 

20.4 

78.8 

322.8 

66.19  cu.  ft. 

. do  

12  in. 

0.6 

1.0 

12  3 

86  1 

357  5 

65.92  cu.  ft. 

. do 

12  in 

0.6 

1.1 

14.9 

83.4 

323. 

70  37  cu.  ft. 

. do 

14  in. 

0 7 

1 4 

21.9 

76.0 

358.7 

67.90  cu.  ft. 

. do 

12  in. 

1.4 

2.2 

26.7 

69.7 

421.8 

69.29  cu.  ft. 

. do 

16  in 

0.9 

1 7 

20.8 

76  6 

357.5 

67.67  cu.  ft. 

. do 

9 in. 

1.1 

2.8 

29.7 

66.4 

446.1 

7C.10  cu.  ft. 

. do 

16  in. 

1.0 

1.9 

21.4 

75.7 

365.0 

69.13  cu.  ft. 

. do 

16  in. 

1.1 

2.3 

32.1 

64.5 

489.4 

61  17  cu.  ft. 

. do 

16  in. 

1.0 

2.9 

30.9 

65.2 

454. 0 

58.37  cu.  ft. 

windmill. 

16  in. 

0.1 

0.5 

18.0 

81.4 

242.6 

15.45  miles. 

. do 

16  in. 

60  5 

11.9 

15.3 

12.3 

338  8 

15.31  miles. 

. do 

14  in. 

0.6 

2.4 

33.8 

63.2 

523.1 

21  30  miles. 

;.  windmill. 

0.5 

1.5 

32.8 

65.2 

449  0 

26.67  miles. 

. do 

0.5 

1.5 

32.8 

65,2 

596.7 

27.04  miles. 

H.  P.  engine 

16.5 

23.7 

34.0 

25.8 

729  7 

82.70  cu.  ft. 

;.  windmill. 

9 in. 

9.5 

7 4 

'36.7 

46.4 

171.6 

21.56  miles. 

. do 

16  in. 

11.7 

9.4 

37.0 

41.9 

420.3 

21.95  miles. 

P.  engine.. 

16  in 

17.4 

11.3 

31.8 

39.5 

459.5 

142.5  cu.  ft. 

E.  P.  engine 

16  in. 

7 4 

3.6 

26.9 

62.1 

158.1 

85.39  cu.  ft. 

. do 

16  in. 

22.4 

9.4 

36.0 

31.9 

364.9 

79.05  cu.  ft. 

. do  

24.5 

13.2 

30.7 

31.6 

321 . 5 

68.58  cu-  ft. 

. do 

25.8 

15.5 

30.0 

28.7 

368.6 

81 .98  cu.  ft- 

.do 

16  in. 

18.8 

11.5 

! 30. 

39.7 

159.1 

49.22  cu.  ft. 

;.  windmill. 

16  in. 

21.5 

28.5 

33.9 

16.1 

95.47 

15.8  miles. 

. do 

16  in. 

27.0 

15.7 

33.1 

24  2 

354.9 

22.93  miles. 

P.  engine.. 

16  in. 

2.0 

8.2 

53.0 

36.8 

1199. 

140.1  cu.  ft. 

. do 

16  in. 

0.4 

1.6 

31.4 

66.6 

837.1 

154.9  cu.  ft. 

E.  P.  engine 

9 in. 

0.0 

0.2 

21.0 

78.8 

103.2 

66.94  cu.  ft. 

. do 

14  in. 

0.5 

2.C 

38.0 

59.5 

311.7 

62.34  cu.  ft. 

. do 

18  in. 

0.2 

0.6 

23.8 

75.4 

211.7 

64.58  cu. ft. 

t.  windmill. 

14  in. 

0.1 

0.5 

23.5 

75.9 

166.8 

17.56  miles. 

. do 

14  in. 

0.3 

0.9 

26.2 

72.6 

153. 

17.14  miles. 

24 


Bulletin  No.  82. 


TRIALS  WITH  THE  NO.  2 BOWSHER  GRINDER. 

This  feed  mill  and  its  burrs  are  represented  in  Figs.  16  and  17,  and  in 
Table  IV  are  given  the  results  of  59  different  trials  made  in  our  laboratory. 


Fig.  16.  Shows  the  No.  2 Bowsher  Grinder  used  in  making  the  trials  in  Table 

IV,  page  25. 


Fig.  17.  Showing  grinding  burrs  of  No.  2 Bowsher  Grinder  used  in  making  the 
trials  of  Table  IV,  page  25. 

The  most  rapid  grinding  of  corn  with  this  mill  and  the  5 H.  P.  engine  is 
given  under  trial  No.  6,  where  a grade  between  “coarse”  and  “very 
coarse  ” was  ground  at  the  rate  of  58.8  bushels  per  hour  with  a cost  for 
fuel  of  16.725  cents,  or  $1.67  for  588  bushels,  or  a run  of  10  hours.  The 
slowest  grinding  of  corn  with  the  same  engine  was  trial  No.  1 where  “fine” 
meal  was  ground  at  the  rate  of  13  72  bushels  per  hour  at  a cost  of  17.6 
cents,  or  $1.76  for  a 10  hour  run,  grinding  137.2  bushels  of  fine  meal. 

With  the  2^4  H.  P.  engine  the  most  rapid  grinding  of  corn  was  trial 
No.  7 where  39  7 bushels  of  “ very  coarse  ” meal  were  ground  per  hour  at 


Grinding  with  Small  Steel  Feed  Mills . 


25 


a cost  of  11.05  cents,  or  397  bushels  in  10  hours  for  $1.11.  The  slowest 
grinding  of  corn  with  this  engine  and  mill  was  in  trial  No.  2,  3.8  bushels 
of  fine  meal  per  hour  at  a cost  for  fuel  of  7.72  cents,  or  at  the  rate  of  38 
bushels  in  10  hours  for  77  cents  as  the  price  for  fuel.  The  fastest  grinding 
for  the  same  grade  of  meal  and  engine  was  trial  No.  150,  where  6.84  bush- 
els were  ground  in  one  hour,  or  at  the  rate  of  68.4  bushels  in  10  hours,  at 
a cost  of  95.75  cents  for  fuel. 

Table  IV. — Showing  results  of  trials  in  grinding  grain  with  the 
No.  2 Bowsher  Grinder. 


1 No.  of 

1 trial. 

Grain 

ground 

Power  used. 

Size 

of 

pul- 

ley. 

Texture  of  Meal  Ground. 

Meal 
ground 
pr.  hr. 

Gas  used. 

l. 

2. 

3. 

4 

pr.ct. 

pr.  ct. 

pr.  ct. 

pr.  ct. 

lbs. 

1 

Corn . . 

5 H.  P.  engine  . 

16  in. 

0.1 

0.2 

17.2 

82.5 

768.3 

141.6  cu.ft. 

5 

Corn. 

do 

16  in. 

8.7 

21.3 

37.2 

32.8 

2,352  0 

175.8  cu.ft. 

6 

do 

61  8 

8 2 

12  0 

18  0 

3,292  0 

133.8  cu.  ft. 

9 

Corn . . 

do 

16  in. 

1.1 

5.1 

52.2 

41.6 

1,321.0 

128  2 cu.ft. 

159 

0 5 

2 o 

36.7 

60  8 

9>6.3 

157.8  cu.  ft. 

393 

9 0 

17.6 

39.6 

33.8 

1,832,4 

163.6  cu.  ft. 

395 

Corn . . 

do 

14  in. 

1.1 

2 5 

45  0 

62.4 

1,292.2 

139.2  cu.ft. 

396 

2 

2 4 

49  2 

48  2 

1 134  0 

121.1  cu.ft. 

2 

Corn.. 

2J4  H.  P engine 

16  in. 

1.9 

0 9 

17.8 

80^3 

212.6 

61.77  cu.  ft. 

3 

Corn 

do 

16  in. 

0.2 

0.3 

13.2 

86  3 

436  4 

84  55  cu.  ft. 

4 

4 9 

16.9 

21  .7 

56  5 

778  4 

53.5  cu.  ft. 

7 

77  5 

7 2 

8.4 

6^9 

2,226.0 

88.41  cu.  ft. 

8 

Corn . . 

0 9 

3 8 

53.8 

41.5 

837.3 

87.9  cu.  ft. 

150 

0 3 

0.4 

19.2 

80.1 

382.9 

76.6  cu.  ft. 

156 

0J2 

0.6 

19  6 

79.6 

338.0 

72.68  cu.  ft. 

157 

Corn . . 

do 

14  in. 

1.0 

0.7 

16.9 

81.4 

344.5 

74.08  cu.  ft. 

158 

Corn . . 

do 

16  in. 

0 3 

0.5 

26.4 

72.8 

375.0 

76.88  cu.  ft. 

160 

Corn . . 

do 

12  in. 

0 3 

1.2 

27.2 

71.3 

464.5 

74.33  cu.  ft. 

245 

Corn . . 

do 

14  in. 

0.2 

0.2 

10.8 

88.8 

269.7 

66  07  cu.  ft. 

289 

Corn . . 

do  . . _ 

9 in. 

0 9 

4.2 

49.5 

45.3 

654.5 

58.91  cu.  ft. 

290 

Corn.. 

do 

16  in. 

0.7 

3.9 

50  0 

45.4 

6t  0 . 6 

62.77  cu  ft. 

191 

Corn . . 

. . . do  . . „ 

14  in. 

0.9 

4.4 

50  6 

44.1 

685.7 

68.57  cu.  ft. 

292 

Corn . . 

do 

12  in. 

0 6 

3 5 

46.9 

48^0 

580.7 

72.58  cu.  ft. 

305 

Corn. 

do 

9 in. 

0 7 

3.0 

48.6 

47  7 

580.7 

69.68  cu.  ft. 

306 

Corn . . 

...  do 

16  in. 

0.4 

2.2 

41.2 

56.2 

571.4 

71.42  cu.  ft. 

307 

Corn . . 

do 

14  in, 

0.8 

2.8 

48.7 

47.7 

537.3 

64.48  cu.  ft. 

308 

Corn . . 

do 

14  in 

0.8 

3.8 

49.8 

45.6 

545.4 

73.36  cu.  ft. 

309 

Corn . . 

do 

12  in 

0.5 

3.4 

50.0 

46.1 

631 . 6 

66.31  cu.  ft. 

310 

Corn . . 

do 

12  in. 

0 6 

2 7 

42  7 

54  0 

637.1 

70.08  cu.  ft. 

29 

Corn . . 

16  ft.  windmill 

16  in. 

0.2 

0.9 

36.5 

62.4 

346.0 

21.19  miles. 

33 

Corn . . 

do 

16  in. 

0.2 

0.6 

28.9 

70.3 

239.2 

15.0  miles. 

34 

Corn . . 

do 

16  in. 

73  2 

7 2 

8 7 

10  9 

235.4 

13.28  miles. 

28 

Corn . . 

12  ft do... 

16  in. 

1.4 

8.2 

56.7  . 

33.7 

595.4 

20.81  miles. 

13 

Corn 

& cob. 

5 H.  P.  engine  . 

16  in 

7.6 

14.5 

48.3 

29.6 

642.9 

128.6  cu.  ft. 

14 

..  do  .. 

2Vt  H.  P.  engine 

16  in 

6 2 

11.4 

51.7 

30.7 

368  6 

88.45  cu.  ft. 

12 

..  do  .. 

16  ft.  windmill 

16  in. 

7.7 

10.5 

50.9 

30.9 

134.5 

15.86  miles. 

26 

. . do  . . 

do 

16  in. 

10  6 

12  7 

48.4 

28.3 

272.5 

18.95  miles. 

27 

..  do  .. 

12  ft.  windmill 

10.6 

12.7 

48.4 

28.3 

148.6 

16.51  miles. 

163 

Corn 

& oats 

5 H.  P.  engine. 

12  in. 

5.3 

7.3 

39.0 

48.4 

666.7 

130.0  cu.  ft. 

164 

. . do  . . 

do  . . . 

16  in. 

5 2 

6 5 

42.0 

46.3 

610.1 

146.4  cu.  ft. 

165 

. . do  . . 

do  .... 

16  in. 

5 2 

6 5 

42  0 

46  3 

610  1 

152.6  cu.  ft. 

161 

..  do  .. 

2H!H.  P.  engine 

12  in. 

2 5 

4.2 

38.5 

54.8 

201.6 

68.57  cu.  ft. 

162 

..  do  . . 

do  . . 

12  in. 

2 5 

4.2 

38  5 

54  8 

180.9 

65.11  cu.  ft. 

181 

..  do  .. 

16  ft.  windmill 

16  in! 

2.3 

3.4 

37.4 

56.9 

493.3 

23.08  miles. 

182 

..  do  .. 

do 

9 in. 

7.1 

8.5 

38.5 

45.9 

197.3 

18.46  miles. 

10 

Oats.. 

5 H P.  engine. 

16  in. 

16.9 

15.0 

45.9 

22.2 

526.7 

144.0  cu.  ft. 

11 

Oats . . 

2 Vi  H.  P.  engine 

16  in. 

13.2 

18  4 

44.5 

23  9 

417  0 

86.18  cu.  ft. 

151 

Oats . . 

do 

9 in. 

10  1 

10  0 

32.3 

47.6 

98.2 

72  70  cu.  ft. 

152 

Oats . . 

do 

9 in. 

28.2 

22  0 

29.5 

20  3 

288  1 

69  12  cu.  ft. 

153 

Oats . . 

do 

9 in 

28  2 

22.0 

29.5 

20.3 

310.3 

74.47  cu.  ft. 

154 

Oats. . 

22  0 

29  5 

36.5 

12.0 

354.6 

81.58  cu.  ft. 

155 

Oats . . 

22  0 

29.5 

36.5 

12.0 

301.2 

73.81  cu.  ft. 

35 

Oats . . 

16  ft.  windmill 

16  in. 

16.7 

24  5 

41.6 

17.2 

164.2 

18.0  miles. 

247 

Rye. .. 

5 H.  P.  engine. 

16  in. 

0 1 

0.5 

18.7 

80  7 

395.6 

136.5  cu.  ft. 

232 

Rye. .. 

H P.  engine 

9 in. 

0.2 

0 5 

24.5 

74  8 

150.0 

55.0  cu.  ft. 

261 

Rye . . . 

do  . . . 

9 in 

0.4 

1.2 

31.6 

66.8 

249  1 

66.02  cu.  ft. 

262 

Rve . . . 

do  . . . 

16  in. 

0 3 

1.0 

23.5 

75.2 

198.4 

64  47  cu.  ft. 

263 

Rye  . . 

do  .... 

14  in. 

0 4 

0 7 

27  5 

71  4 

227  1 

64.13  cu  ft. 

226 

Rye. .. 

16  ft.  windmill 

14  in. 

0.2 

0.8 

18.1 

80  9 

255.2 

24.49  miles. 

227 

Rye. .. 

14  in. 

0.7 

2.0 

38.2 

59.1 

381.0 

22.61  miles. 

26 


Bulletin  No.  82. 


TRIALS  WITH  THE  HAMACHEK  GIANT  GRINDER. 

This  feed  mill  is  represented  in  Fig.  18.  Fifty  trials  have  been  made 
with  it  and  these  are  given  in  Table  V,  page  27. 

The  most  rapid  grinding  of  corn  with  this  mill  was  in  trial  No.  53  with 
the  5 H.  P.  engine.  In  this  case  corn  was  ground  at  the  rate  of  31.11 
bushels  per  hour,  costing  for  gas  14.51  cents  or  at  the  rate  of  311.1  bushels 
in  10  hours  for  $1.45  for  fuel  when  the  grade  of  meal  ground  was  “very 
coarse  ” and  “coarse.”  The  slowest  rate  of  grinding  was  12.28  bushels 
per  hour  when  the  meal  was  90  per  cent,  of  the  finest  degree.  This  is  a 
rate  of  122.8  bushels  in  10  hours  with  a cost  for  fuel  of  $1.78. 


Fig.  18.  Showing  the  Hamacheck  Giant  Grinder  used  in  making  the  trials  of 

Table  V,  page  27. 


When  the  234  H.  P.  engine  was  used  the  most  rapid  grinding  was  at  the 
rate  of  126  bushels  in  10  hours  at  a cost  of  $1.03  for  fuel  and  where  the 
grade  of  meal  was  “coarse.”  The  finest  grinding  done  was  at  the  rate  of 
69.38  bushels  in  10  hours  when  the  fuel  cost  for  the  same  was  $1.02. 


Grinding  with  Small  Steel  Feed  Mills, 


27 


Table  V. — Showing  results  of  trials  in  grinding  grain  with  the 

Giant  Grinder. 


Is 

Grain 

ground 

Power  used. 

Size 
of  the 

Texture  of  Meal  Ground. 

Meal 

ground 

per 

hour. 

Gas  used  . 

*8 

6 

•55 

pul- 

ley. 

t. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

46 

Corn . . 

5 H.  P.  engine . . 

16  in. 

pr  ct. 
0.05 

pr.  ct. 
0.05 

pr  ct. 
14.5 

pr.  ct. 
85.4 

lbs 

955.7 

172.0  cu.  ft. 

47 

do 

16  in. 

0 2 

1 4 

46.8 

51.6 

1,385.0 

775.4 

105.1  cu.  ft. 

49 

16  in. 

trace 

0.1 

18.4 

81  5 

141.3  cu.  ft. 

52 

16  in. 

trace 

0.4 

36.9 

62  7 

1,317 

171.2  cu.  ft. 

53 

do 

16  in. 

55.2 

10.2  . 

14.4 

20.2 

1,742.0 

116.1  cu.  ft. 

65 

14  in. 

trace 

0 1 

9 3 

90.6 

687.9 

142.1  cu.  ft. 

66 

do 

14  in. 

trace 

0.1 

9 3 

90  6 

696.8 

139.4  cu.  ft. 

67 

do  

14  in. 

0.1 

0 1 

8.3 

91  5 

900.6 

156.0  cu.  ft. 

397 

do 

14  in. 

1. 

2 5 

49.0 

48.4 

1,095.4 

118.1  cu.  ft. 

398 

14  in. 

1 5 

6 0 

59.2 

33  3 

1,008.0 

1,039.2 

1,039.2 

108.0  cu.  ft. 

399 

14  in. 

.1 

2.4 

44.7 

52.8 

115.6  cu.  ft. 

400 

Corn . . 

14  in 

.4 

3.7 

56.9 

39  0 

120.6  cu.  ft. 

45 

Corn.. 

uVi  H.  P.  engine 

16  in. 

0.1 

0.1 

15.1 

84.7 

404.5 

80.91  cu.  ft. 

48 

do -.. 

16  in. 

trace 

0.4 

31.5 

68.1 

596.6 

81.55  cu.  ft. 

50 

do 

16  in. 

trace 

0 1 

13.9 

86.0 

392.7 

81 . 17  cu.  ft. 

51 

Corn . . 

do 

16  in. 

trace 

0.4 

39.1 

60  5 

388.5 

81.58  cu.  ft. 

54 

Corn . . 

do 

16  in 

50  2 

11.9 

14.8 

23.3 

705.8 

82.35  cu.  ft. 

;293 

Corn . . 

do  

12  in. 

0 3 

1 3 

41.0 

57.4 

518.0 

62 . 16  cu.  ft. 

294 

Corn . . 

do 

1 4 in. 

0.4 

2.4 

48.5 

48.7 

541  3 

67.66  cu.  ft. 

295 

Corn . . 

do  

16  in. 

0.4 

1.2 

42  8 

55.6 

503.5 

70.50  cu.  ft. 

296 

Corn . . 

do  

•9  in 

0.3 

2.1 

47  7 

49.9 

521.7 

57 .38  cu.  ft. 

301 

Corn . . 

do  

12  in. 

12 

4.0 

51.2 

43.7 

533.3 

64  0 cu.  ft. 

303 

Corn . . 

do 

14  in 

0.8 

3.2 

50.3 

45  7 

580.7 

63.87  cu.  ft. 

303 

Corn.. 

do 

16  in. 

0.7 

2 9 

47.0 

49.4 

585.3 

67.32  cu.  ft. 

304 

Corn . . 

do 

9 in. 

0.7 

n.:) 

50.1 

46.9 

595.0 

65.45  cu.  ft. 

332 

Corn . . 

do 

12  in. 

0.8 

2.7 

47.5 

49.0 

545.4 

68  17  cu.  ft. 

333 

Corn . . 

do 

12  in. 

0 9 

3.2 

45.7 

50  2 

541  3 

67 . 66  cu.  ft. 

42 

Corn.. 

16-ft.  windmill. 

16  iu. 

0.2 

l’l 

37.3 

61.4 

120.1 

13.64  miles. 

189 

Corn . . 

do 

16  in. 

0.2 

0.6 

29  6 

69.6 

368.8 

20.81  miles. 

213 

Corn . . 

12-ft  windmill. 

0.1 

0 3 

17.9 

81.7 

148  9 

17.73  miles. 

214 

Corn . . 

do 

0.3 

1.6 

45.0 

53.1 

lb9.4 

19.26  miles. 

183 

Corn  & 
oats  . 

16-ft.  windmill. 

9 in. 

3.0 

3.2 

35.0 

58.8 

249.1 

15  26  miles. 

184 

..  do  .. 

do 

16  in. 

3.3 

4.2 

37.2 

55.3 

397.3 

18  18  miles. 

185 

..  do  .. 

do 

14  iu. 

3.0 

4.8 

36.2 

56.0 

380.2 

19.04  miles. 

.186 

. . do  . . 

do  

12  in 

3 0 

4.2 

34.2 

58  6 

327.0 

16.59  miles. 

36 

Oats  .. 

5 H.  P.  engine . . 

16  iu. 

12.5 

4.1 

28  8 

54.6 

208.9 

124. 6 cu.  ft. 

39 

Oats  . . 

do 

16  in. 

8.5 

7.5 

43  5 

40.5 

366.1 

112.3  cu.  ft 

43 

Oats  .. 

do 

16  in. 

11 .7 

16.2 

37.1 

35.0 

256 . 5 

101 .8  cu.  ft 

37 

Oats  .. 

2 lA  H.  P.  engine 

16  in. 

6.2 

6 7 

39.0 

48.1 

174.8 

76.31  cu.  ft. 

38 

Oats  . . 

do 

16  in 

11.7 

10.4 

34  6 

43.3 

332  3 

87.5  cu.  ft. 

44 

Oats  .. 

do 

16  in. 

10.1 

11.3 

43.6 

35.0 

242.7 

79  39  cu.  ft. 

40 

Oats  .. 

16-ft.  windmill. 

16  in. 

10. 4 

8 o ; 

40.2 

41.2 

71.45 

14.0  miles. 

187 

Oats  . . 

do 

12  in. 

7.5 

7 7 

39  4 

45  4 

122.9 

17.82  miles. 

188 

Oats  . . 

do 

16  in 

7.0 

7 7 

39. 2 

46.1 

200  3 

18  37  miles. 

268 

Rye. .. 

5 H.  P.  engine . . 

16  in 

0.1 

0.1 

8.2 

91.6 

385.1 

U1.3  cu.  ft. 

269 

Rye. .. 

do 

16  in. 

0.1 

0.3 

14.1 

85  5 

553  9 

127.4  cu.  ft. 

231 

Rye... 

2V*  H.  P.  engine 

9 in. 

0.3 

- 0.6 

13.1 

86  0 

152.2 

60.12  cu.  ft. 

270 

R ve . . . 

do 

16  in. 

0.2 

0.4 

12  9 

86  5 

255.4 

61. 57  cu.  ft. 

271 

Rye. . . 

do 

9 in 

0 2 

0.9 

23  2 

75 . 6 

245  7 

54.07  cu.  ft. 

.230 

Rye. .. 

16-ft.  windmill. 

14  in 

0.4 

0.7 

16  9 

82.0 

248.5 

17.56  miles. 

TRIALS  WITH  THE  STOVER  NO.  0 IDEAL  GRINDER. 

This  grinder  is  represented  in  Fig.  19  and  its  burrs  in  Fig.  20.  There 
■were  37  trials  made  with  this  mill  and  the  results  are  given  in  Table  VI, 
page  29.  It  will  be  seen  from  this  that  the  most  rapid  grinding  with  the 
5 H.  P.  engine  was  trial  No.  77  where  meal  a little  coarser  than  the 
“coarse”  grade  was  ground  at  the  rate  of  10  2 bushels  at  a cost  of 
16.88  cents.  This  gives  402  bushels  for  a 10-hour  day  with  a fuel  cost  of 
;$1.69.  The  slowest  grinding  with  the  5 H.  P.  engine  was  in  trial  No.  68. 


Bulletin  No.  82. 

during  which  meal  was  ground  at  the  rate  of  114.8  bushels  in  10  hours  at 
a cost  of  $1.31.  The  meal  of  this  trial  had  a grade  a little  finer  than 
“ medium.” 


Fig.  19.  Showing  the  Stover  No.  0 Ideal  Grinder  used  in  making  the  trials  in 

Table  VI,  page  29. 


Fig.  20.  Showing  the  grinding  burrs  of  the  Stover  No.  0 Ideal  Grinder  used  in 
making  the  trials  of  Table  VI,  page  29. 


With  the  234  H-  P.  engine  the  fastest  grinding  was  with  a grade  of  meal 
coarser  than  the  “coarse  ” and  the  rate  was  24.1  bushels  per  hour,  cost- 
ing for  fuel  10.69  cents.  Ten  hours  grinding  would  be  represented  by 

241  bushels  costing  $1.07.  The  slowest  grinding  was  done  in  trial  No. 

242  where  the  rate  was  53.25  bushels  of  meal  between  “ medium  ” and 
“ fine,”  in  10  hours  at  the  cost  for  fuel  of  89  cents. 


Grinding  with  Small  Steel  Feed  Mills . 


29 


Table  VI. — Showing  results  of  trials  in  grinding  grain  with  the  No. 

0 Ideal  Grinder. 


1 No.  of 

I trial. 

Grain 

ground 

Power  used. 

Size 

of 

pul- 

ley. 

Texture  of  Meal  Ground. 

Meal 
ground 
pr.  hr 

Gas  used. 

1. 

3. 

3. 

4. 

pr.ct. 

pr.  ct. 

pr.  ct. 

pr.  ct. 

lbs. 

68 

Corn . . 

5 H.  P.  engine.. 

16  in. 

0.9 

3.0 

34.4 

61.7 

642.9 

105.0  cu.  ft. 

73 

Corn . . 

do 

16  in. 

5.9 

12.6 

38.8 

42.7 

1,271.0 

148.3  cu  It. 

74 

6 8 

12.8 

38  8 

41  6 

1 Z56.0 

138  1 cu.  ft. 

77 

44.6 

14.4 

19.8 

21  2 

2,250  0 

135.0  cu.  ft. 

244 

9 in. 

1.3 

4.3 

29  5 

64.9 

6 >2.3 

162.7  cu.  ft. 

70 

Corn.. 

2*4  H.  P.  engine 

16  in. 

0.3 

1.1 

22.1 

76.5 

507  0 

? 91.26  cu.  ft. 

71 

0 3 

1.1 

22.1 

76  5 

603  3 

? 90.49  cu.  ft. 

72 

Corn . . 

do 

16  in. 

5.2 

10.7 

38  3 

45.8 

705.8 

72.95  cu.  ft. 

75 

Corn.. 

do 

16  in 

6.6 

12.3 

33.7 

47.4 

776  9 

82.87  cu.  ft. 

76 

Corn . . 

do 

16  in. 

50.8 

13  0 

18.5 

17  7 

1 , 35C . 0 

85.51  cu.  ft. 

139 

Corn . . 

do 

12  in. 

2.0 

5.2 

36.6 

56.2 

393  4 

66.88  cu.  ft. 

140 

Corn . . 

......  do 

12  in . 

2.0 

5.2 

36.6 

56.2 

581.1 

69  23  cu.  ft. 

141 

Corn . . 

do 

9 in 

3.4 

8 7 

43.5 

44.4 

399.9 

68.0  cu.  ft. 

142 

Corn.. 

do 

9 in. 

3 4 

8.7 

43.5 

44.4 

452.8 

76.98  cu.  ft. 

242 

Corn . . 

do 

9 in. 

1 0 

3.7 

29  9 

65.4 

298.2 

71.40  cu.  ft. 

80 

Corn . . 

16-ft.  windmill. 

16  in. 

2.0 

6.0 

37.7 

54.3 

34  96 

10  34  miles. 

82 

Corn . . 

do 

16  in. 

54.2 

11  6 

19.0 

15  2 

133.9 

10.62  miles. 

174 

Corn . . 

do 

16  in. 

1.5 

4 5 

34  5 

59.5 

507.2 

22  5 miles. 

209 

Corn . . 

12-ft.  windmill. 

3.3 

6 7 

33  2 

56.8 

194  0 

21.06  miles. 

210 

Corn . . 

0.9 

2.2 

26.3 

70.6 

415.0 

25.54  miles. 

172 

Corn 

& oats 

16-ft.  windmill 

9 in. 

12.2 

8.8 

32.7 

•46.3 

157.5 

22.5  miles. 

173 

. . do  . . 

do 

16  in. 

14  9 

12.6 

41  3 

31.2 

368.6 

20.34  miles. 

78 

Oats.. 

5 H.  P.  engine.. 

16  in. 

26.9 

14.1 

30.8 

28  2 

459.5 

159  3 cu.  ft. 

79 

Oats.. 

tVz  H.  P.  engine 

9 in. 

24.4 

15.7 

30.8 

29.1 

293.5 

75.34  cu.  ft. 

143 

Oats . . 

do 

9 in. 

25.5 

19.0 

29.6 

25.9 

231.5 

72.92  cu.  ft. 

149 

Oats . . 

do 

16  in. 

24  5 

18.6 

26  3 

30.6 

216  9 

74  82  cu  ft. 

81 

Oats.. 

16-ft.  windmill. 

9 in. 

29.5 

22.1 

31.2 

17.2 

35.31 

12.81  miles. 

145 

Oats.. 

do  . . . 

9 in. 

11.4 

13  6 

80.1 

44.9 

67.35 

16.75  miles. 

146 

Oats.. 

9 in. 

11  4 

13.6 

30.1 

44  9 

64.86 

16.22  miles. 

147 

Oats 

do 

16  in 

23.9 

14  6' 

33.7 

27  8 

55.64 

16.37  miles. 

148 

Oats . . 

..  do 

14  in. 

20.9 

15.4 

31.1 

32.6 

51.31 

13.79  miles. 

208 

Oats.. 

12-ft.  windmill 

16  ia. 

12.0 

18.4 

37.0 

32.6 

162  7 

24.00  miles. 

941 

Rye  .. 

5 H.  P.  engine 

9 in. 

1.0 

5.5 

37  0 

56.5 

608.2 

144.00  cu.  ft. 

234 

R.ve  .. 

2 Vi  H.  P.  engine 

! 9 in. 

0.5 

3.2 

38  8 

57.5 

109.1 

70.34  cu.  ft. 

241 

Rye  .. 

do 

9 in. 

0 5 

4 1 

35  4 

60  0 

179  1 

68.93  cu  ft. 

226 

Rye  . 

16-:t.  windmill. 

14  in 

0.7 

2.6 

34.3 

62.4 

257.2 

20.81  miles. 

237 

Rye  .. 

12-ft.  windmill. 

0.6 

3.3 

42.7 

53.4 

446  6 

22.78  miles. 

TRIALS  WITH  THE  SMALLEY  MONARCH  GRINDER. 

This  grinder  and  its  grinding  burrs  are  represented  in  Pigs.  21  and  22, 
and  the  results  of  the  42  trials  are  given  in  Table  VII. 

The  most  rapid  grinding  of  corn  with  this  mill  was  trial  No.  59  with  the 
5 H.  P.  engine  where  the  rate  was  45.9  bushels  per  hour,  at  a cost  for  fuel 
of  18.21  cents,  the  meal  being  of  the  “very  coarse”  grade.  This  would 
make  the  grinding  per  10  hours  cost  $1  82  for  459  bushels.  The  rate  of 
grinding  for  a grade  of  meal  between  “ medium  ” and  “fine”  was  113.4 
bushels  in  ten  hours,  at  a cost  of  $1.69. 

With  the  2^4  H.  P.  engine  the  most  rapid  grinding  of  corn  was  at  the 
rate  of  167.7  bushels  in  10  hours  of  a “ coarse  ” grade  of  meal  and  at  a cost 
of  about  94  cents  for  fuel.  When  the  meal  ground  was  finer  than  the 


30 


Bulletin  No.  82. 


“ fine  ” grade  the  rate  of  grinding  was  42.3  bushels  in  10  hours,  at  a fuel 
cost  of  $1.03.  When  the  grade  of  meal  was  finer  than  “ medium  ” in  trial 
No.  57,  the  rate  of  grinding  was  G2.2  bushels  in  10  hours  and  the  cost  was 
88.5  cents. 


Fig.  21.  Showing  the  No.  6 Smalley  Monarch  Grinder  used  in  making  the  trials 
of  Table  VII,  page  31. 


Fig.  22.  Shows  the  grinding  burrs  of  the  No.  6 Smalley  Monarch  Grinder  used  ini 
making  the  trials  of  Table  VII,  page  31. 


Grinding  with  Small  Steel  Feed  Mills , 


31 


Table  VII.— Showing  results  of  trials  in  grinding  grain  with  the 
No.  6 Smalley  Monarch  Grinder. 


Grain 

ground 

Power  used. 

Size 

of 

Texture  of  ! 

Meal  Ground. 

Meal 

ground 

Gas  used. 

o.2 

. u 
O+i 
?: 

pul- 

ley. 

1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

per 

hour. 

55 

Corn . . 

5 H.  P.  engine.. 

16  in. 

pr.ct. 

*.0.3 

per  ct. 
1.3 

per  ct. 
28.3 

per  ct. 
70.1 

lbs. 

635.3 

135.5  cu.  ft. 

58 

do 

16  in. 

5.0 

10.2 

39.5 

45.3 

8C0.0 

106.7  cu.  ft. 

59 

16  in. 

71.5 

7.6 

9.7 

11.2 

2571.0 

145 . 7 cu.  ft. 

123 

16  in. 

5.0 

10.9 

35.3 

4S.2 

1440. 

168.  cu.  ft. 

56 

Corn . . 

2i4  H.  P.  engine 

16  in. 

0.1 

0.2 

10.1 

89.6 

236.8 

82.89  cu.  ft. 

do 

16  in. 

0.5 

2.2 

34.1 

63.2 

348.3 

70.82  cu.  ft. 

60 

Corn.. 

do 

16  in. 

56.4 

12.3 

15.8 

15.5 

670.8 

62.62  cu.  ft. 

122 

do 

16  in. 

4.7 

9.6 

39.2 

46.5 

624.3 

? 97  81  cu.  ft. 

124 

16  in. 

31.5 

18.5 

24.5 

25.5 

939.1 

75.08  cu.  ft. 
85.11  cu.  ft. 

125 

do 

16  in. 

3.5 

9.2 

39.8 

47  5 

568.3 

126 

do 

16  in. 

4.3 

10.5 

38.6 

46.6 

635.3 

84.72  cu.  ft. 

297 

Corn . . 

do 

9 in. 

7.3 

11.4 

37.4 

43.9 

660.6 

62  76  cu.  ft. 

298 

Corn . . 

do 

16  in. 

1.8 

6.4 

43.1 

48.9 

483.2 

62.82  cu.  ft. 

.299 

Corn . . 

do 

14  in. 

2.2 

7.7 

38.2 

51.9 

428.5 

72.87  cu.  ft. 

300 

Corn 

do 

12  in. 

6.3 

10.2 

38.2 

45.3 

553  9 

60.92  cu.  ft. 

315 

Corn 

. . . do 

9 in. 

7.0 

9.6 

37.3 

46.1 

654.5 

68.73  cu.  ft. 

316 

Corn . . 

do 

16  in. 

2.8 

8.0 

40.7 

48.5 

549.5 

63.20  cu.  ft. 

317 

Corn.. 

do 

16  in. 

1.0 

3.2 

30.7 

65.1 

533.3 

69.34  cu.  ft. 

318 

Corn . . 

do  

14  in. 

3.0 

6.0 

39.5 

51.5 

571  4 

88.57  cu.  ft. 

319 

Corn . . 

do 

12  in. 

4.1 

8 5 

39  8 

47.6 

595  0 

62.47  cu.  ft. 

168 

Corn . . 

16-ft.  windmill. 

9 in. 

0.7 

2 6 

28.5 

68.2 

125 . 5 

15.13  miles. 

169 

Corn . . 

do . . 

16  in. 

2.3 

6.5 

37  5 

53.7 

450.5 

18.46  miles. 

211 

Corn . . 

12-ft.  windmill. 

1.1 

3.6 

34.0 

61.3 

284.1 

21.69  miles. 

212 

Corn 

, . . do 

2.0 

6.4 

38.4 

53.2 

227.0 

18.65  miles. 

145.1  cu.  ft. 

119 

Corn& 

oats. 

5 H.  P.  engine.. 

16  in. 

18.3 

24.3 

30.4 

27  0 

1742.0 

120 

. . do 

do 

16  in. 

8.9 

15.6 

38.5 

39.0 

1367. 

173.2  cu.  ft. 

121 

. . do  . . 

2J4  H.  P.  engine 

16  in. 

4.9 

9.0 

43.00 

43.1 

428.5 

94.28  cu.  ft. 

167 

. do  .. 

16-ft.  windmill. 

9 in. 

8.8 

10.6 

36.6 

44.0 

153.2 

19.26  miles. 

170 

..  do  .. 

— do 

16  in. 

19.2 

17.0 

34.1 

29.7 

377.0 

21.18  miles. 

61 

Oats.. 

5H  P.  engine.. 

16  in. 

42.6 

17.4 

21.1 

18.5 

507.0 

125.0  cu.ft. 

64 

Oats.. 

do  

16  in. 

30.7 

13.5 

23.4 

32.4 

418.4 

161.9  cu.  ft. 

62 

Oats.. 

214  H.  P.  engine 

16  in. 

20  8 

11.2 

30  5 

37.5 

134.5 

80.13  cu.  ft. 

63 

Oats . 

do 

16  in. 

28.2 

18.8 

27.1 

25  9 

173.4 

78.38  cu.  ft. 

166 

Oats.. 

16-ft.  windmill. 

9 in. 

24.5 

12.0 

35.8 

27.7 

26.37 

20.81  miles. 

171 

Oats . . 

do 

16  in. 

28.7 

15.9 

30.9 

24  5 

111.0 

15.86  miles. 

218 

Rye. .. 

5 H.  P.  engine.. 

9 in. 

0.7 

2.7 

38.9 

57.7 

595.1 

116  0 cu.  ft. 

219 

Rye. .. 

do 

9 in. 

1.6 

8.3 

48.4 

41.7 

1007. 

151.1  cu.ft. 

220 

Rye . . . 

do 

14  in. 

1.4 

6.0 

50.2 

42.4 

986.3 

138.2  cu.  ft. 

217 

Rye. .. 

214  H.  P.  engine 

9 in. 

0.6 

0.5 

28.1 

71.8 

152.2 

59.5  cu.ft. 

272 

Rye. . . 

do 

9 in. 

0.4 

2.7 

32.9 

64.0 

306  3 

58.21  cu.  ft. 

273 

Rye. .. 

do 

16  in. 

0.4 

1.0 

27.2 

71  4 

284.5 

76.84  cu.  ft. 

221 

Rye. .. 

16-ft.  windmill 

14  in. 

0.7 

2.0 

37.2 

60.1 

196.4 

17.23  miles. 

TRIALS  WITH  THE  VESSOT  LITTLE  CHAMPION  GRINDER. 

This  mill  and  its  grinding  burrs  are  represented  in  Figs.  23  and  24,  and 
the  results  of  the  50  trials  are  recorded  in  Table  VIII. 

The  most  rapid  grinding  of  corn  with  this  mill  when  driven  by  the  5 H.  P. 
engine  was  in  trial  No.  91  where  a meal  was  ground  some  finer  than  the 
“ very  coarse  ” grade.  The  rate  was  60.26  bushels  per  hour,  using  fuel  at 
a cost  of  19.69  cents.  This  is  at  the  rate  of  602.6  bushels  in  10  hours  for 
$1.97. 

The  slowest  grinding  with  this  mill  and  the  5 H.  P.  engine  was  in  trial 
No.  85  where  a grade  between  “ medium  ” and  “ fine  ” was  ground  at  the 
rate  of  170  bushels  in  10  hours  at  a fuel  cost  of  $1.95. 


32 


Bulletin  No.  82. 


With  the  234  H.  P.  engine  the  most  rapid  grinding  of  corn  was  in  trial 
No.  92  where  a grade  a little  finer  than  the  “very  coarse”  was  ground  at 
the  rate  of  283.7  bushels  in  10  hours  with  a fuel  cost  of  86  cents.  The  rate 
of  grinding  with  the  finest  grade  of  meal,  a little  coarser  than  the  “ fine,” 
was  67  bushels  in  10  hours  at  a cost  for  fuel  of  80  cents. 


Fig.  23.  Showing  the  Little  Champion  Vessot  Grinder  used  in  making  the  trials 
of  Table  VIII,  page  33. 


Fig.  24.  Shows  the  grinding  burr  of  the  Little  Champion  Vessot  Grinder  used 
in  making  the  trials  in  Table  VIII,  page  33. 


o « 

6*3 

£ 

85 

86 

90 

91 

401 

402 

403 

404 

83 

84 

87 

88 

89 

• 92 

115 

'278 

279 

280 

• 281 

282 

320 

321 

322 

324 

325 

326 

327 

328 

329 

330 

331 

93 

94 

215 

216 

117 

118 

116 

178 

179 

180 

114 

113 

95 

240 

238 

239 

274 

275 

228 


Grinding  with  Small  Steel  Feed  Mills . 


33 


. — Showing  results  of  trials  in  grinding  grain  with  the 
Vessot , Little  Champion  Grinder. 


Power  used. 


5 H.  P.  engine. 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

2 V6  H.P.  engine 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

......  do 

do 

do 


do 

do 

do 

do 

16  ft.  windmill 

do 

12-ft.  windmill 
do 

5 H.  P.  engine. 

do 

214  H.  P.  engine 
16-ft  windmill 

do 

do 

5 H.  P.  engine. 
214  H.  P.  engine 
16-ft.  windmill 
5 H.  P.  engine. 
214  H.  P.  engine 

do 

do 

do  — 

16-ft.  windmill 


Size 

of 

pul- 

ley. 

Texture  of  Meal  Ground. 

Meal 
ground 
pr.  hr. 

l. 

3. 

3. 

4. 

pr.ct. 

pr  ct. 

pr.  ct. 

pr.  ct. 

lbs. 

16  in. 

0.4 

3.0 

33.7 

62.9 

955.7 

16  in. 

4.6 

13.6 

44.4 

37.4 

180J.0 

16  in. 

6.6 

16.2 

41.8 

35.4 

2769.0 

16  in. 

63.9 

9.2 

11.3 

15.6 

3375  0 

14  in. 

15.5 

20.4 

35.4 

28.7 

2016  0 

14  in. 

.7 

3.7 

38.2 

57.4 

1440.0 

14  in. 

.7 

3.7 

36.0 

59.6 

1344  0 

14  in. 

!5 

2.2 

33.5 

63.8 

1308.0 

16  in 

0.2 

1.0 

21.7 

77.1 

532.0 

16  in. 

0.2 

1.0 

21.7 

77.1 

532.0 

16  in. 

0.6 

3.8 

37.6 

58.0 

565.4 

16  in 

0.3 

3.0 

36.1 

60.6 

683.4 

16  in 

0.5 

4.7  - 

38.8 

56.0 

642.9 

16  in. 

62.5 

12.0 

13.1 

12.4 

1589.0 

16  in. 

2.1 

9.1 

44.8 

44.0 

696.8 

9 in. 

1 0 

5 2 

43.2 

50.6 

613.9 

16  in. 

2.0 

10  4 

43.2 

41.4 

660.6 

14  in. 

2 5 

7 0 

36.7 

53.8 

605.0 

12  in. 

1.9 

10.0 

48.5 

39.6 

496.5 

9 in. 

2.0 

7 3 

44.3 

46.4 

590.1 

12  in. 

1.3 

5.9 

39.4 

53.4 

476.7 

14  in. 

1. 

4.2 

35.4 

59.4 

393.4 

16  in. 

0.7 

3.5 

33.3 

62.5 

375.0 

9 in. 

1.5 

6.9 

42.0 

49.6 

444.4 

9 in. 

1.1 

5.2 

40.3 

53.4 

590.1 

16  in. 

1 8 

5.3 

39.7 

53.2 

599.9 

16  in. 

3.4 

10  8 

46.0 

39.8 

541.3 

16  in. 

1.4 

5-2 

40.0 

53.4 

590.1 

14  in 

2.0 

8.0 

44.0 

46-0 

585  3 

12  iD. 

3.7 

12.7 

44.0 

39.6 

566  9 

12  in. 

2.7 

8.4 

42  7 

48.1 

585.3 

16  in. 

72.4 

9.0 

9.5 

9 1 

679.5 

16  in. 

0.9 

5.4 

38.5 

55.2 

450.0 

0.3 

2.0 

31.8 

65.9 

35  41 

0.5 

2.8  , 

32.3 

6t  4 

80  51 

16  in. 

14.7 

25.7 

36.2 

23- 4 

2077.0 

16  in 

3 6 

11.2 

46.8 

38-4 

1963.0 

16  in. 

4.2 

12.2 

48  5 

35-1 

710.6 

14  in. 

14.7 

29.0 

39. 2 

171 

624.6 

12  in 

1 6 

6.1 

35.1 

57-2 

554.6 

12  in. 

2.2 

4.4 

32  7 

60-7 

207.1 

16  in 

10. 1 

17.6 

47.1 

25  2 

729.7 

16  in. 

3 5 

4.0 

40.9 

51-6 

387.1 

16  in 

8.1 

14.1 

46.3 

31-5 

473  6 

9 in. 

4.0 

29  0 

52.0 

140 

1242.0 

9 in. 

1.0 

8.8 

54.7 

55-5 

262.7 

9 in. 

1.2 

10.5 

60  5 

27-8 

444.4 

16  in 

0.4 

7.7 

59.8 

32-1 

426.0 

9 in. 

0.7 

9.7 

53.2 

36-4 

470.6 

14  in. 

0,2 

1.5 

30.5 

67-8 

300.5 

Gas  used  per. 
hour. 


156.1  cu.  ft. 
186.0  cu  ft. 

193.8  cu.  ft. 

157.5  cu.  ft. 

143.9  cu.  ft. 
154  3 cu.  ft. 

145.6  cu.  fy. 
166.4  cu.  ft. 

83.35  cu.  ft. 
88.68  cu.  ft. 

84.82  cu.  ft. 
89.07  cu.  ft. 
77.09  cu.  ft. 

68.82  cu.  ft. 
76.65  cu  ft. 
50.99  cu.  ft. 
62.76  cu.  ft. 
69.58  cu.  ft. 
67.04  cu.  ft. 
59  01  cu.  ft. 
71.51  cu.  ft. 
64.91  cu.  ft. 

S 63-76  cu.  ft. 
68-90  cu.  ft. 
64.91  cu.  ft. 
78.00  cu.  ft. 

81.19  cu.  ft. 
76.72  cu.  ft. 
64.39  cu.  ft. 

65.19  cu.  ft. 
58  53  cu.  ft. 
18.37  miles. 
20  0 miles. 
14.86  miles, 

17.82  miles. 


173.  cu.  ft. 
163.6  cu  ft. 
92.39  cu.  ft. 
23.84  milc6 
21.30  miles. 
15  93  miles. 

120.8  cu.  ft. 
78.7  cu.  ft. 
27  06  miles. 

148.9  cu.  ft. 
49 . 92  cu.  ft. 
57.78  cu.  ft. 
66  04  cu.  ft. 
63  53  cu.  ft. 
18.75  miles. 


34 


Bulletin  No.  82. 


THE  COMPARATIVE  EFFICIENCY  OF  THE  FEED  MILLS  TESTED. 

It  has  been  practically  impossible  in  these  trials,  for  several  reasons,  to 
make  a close  comparison  of  the  efficiency  of  the  different  feed  grinders 
tested.  In  the  first  place  the  method  of  construction  adopted  in  all  of 
them,  which  permits  the  grinding  burrs  to  spread  apart  in  case  a nail  or 
similar  object  were  fed  in,  makes  it  impossible  to  grind  a perfectly  uni- 
form grade  of  meal.  If  the  feeding  is  not  absolutely  uniform,  when  the 
grain  is  going  through  fast  the  meal  is  ground  coarser  and  vice  versa. 
Changing  the  power  from  one  engine  to  the  otner,  without  altering  the  mill, 
invariably  changed  the  grade.  Under  like  conditions  of  mill  the  5 H.  P. 
engine  always  ground  coarser  than  the  2 y2  H.  P.  engine  because  the  grain 
going  through  more  rapidly  would  open  the  burrs  wider.  This  fact  has  a 
tendency  to  make  the  2%  H.  P.  engine  appear  to  grind  less  than  one-half 
as  much  as  the  5 H.  P.  engine.  The  only  way  we  could  approximately 
duplicate  a grade  of  meal  was  by  altering  the  tension  until,  by  sifting  a 
sample  of  the  meal  produced,  it  wps  found  to  have  the  degree  of  fineness 
desired. 

In  the  table  which  follows  the  results  have  been  obtained  by  attempting 
to  reduce  the  different  grades  of  meal  all  to  the  same  standard  by  the 
method  described  on  page  11,  but  it  must  be  kept  in  mind  that  the  re- 
sults can  be  only  very  roughly  approximate. 


Table  showing  the  computed  mean  rate  of  grinding  corn  by  the 
several  feed  mills. 


Name  of  Feed  Mill. 

With  5 H. 

P.  Engine. 

With  2J4  H.  P.  Engine. 

Meal  ground 
per  hour 

Gas  used 
per  hour. 

Meal  ground 
per  hour. 

Gas  used 
per  hour. 

Lbs. 

Cu.  ft. 

Lbs. 

Cu.  ft. 

Appleton  

1,425  5 

136.9 

729.9 

70.70 

Bowsher 

1,559.5 

145.1 

716.7 

71.19 

Giant 

1,430  5 

137.8 

617.6 

70.78 

Ideal  

1,140.1 

137.8 

641.6 

74.22 

Monarch 

1,038.6 

139.0 

5S4.4 

70.20 

Vessot 

1,742  3 

162.9 

638.2 

71.12 

General  average. — 

1,391.5 

142.6 

653.  t 

71.37 

If  the  result  showing  the  fastest  and  slowest  rates  of  grinding,  as  stated 
i n the  discussion  of  the  work  done  by  the  different  mills,  are  brought  to- 
gether in  tabular  form  they  will  appear  as  given  below: 


Grinding  with  Small  Steel  Feed  Mills. 


35 


Table  showing  the  most  rapid  and  slowest  rates  of  grinding  corn  by 
the  different  feed  mills. 


Name  of  Feed 
Grinder. 

Most  Rapid  Grinding. 

Least  Rapid  Grinding. 

Meal 
gro’nd 
pr.  10 
hour, 
bush. 

Degree  of  fineness. 

Meal 
gro’nd 
pr.  10 
hour, 
bush. 

Degree  of  fineness. 

1. 

3. 

3. 

4. 

1. 

3. 

3. 

4. 

pr.  ct. 

pr.  cc. 

pr.  ct. 

pr.  ct. 

pr.  ct. 

pr  ct. 

pr.  ct 

pr.  ct. 

Five  horse-power  engine. 

Appleton 

Bowsher 

Giant  

Ideal  

Monarch 

Vessot 

448.0 

588.0 

311.1 
402.0 
459. 
602.6 

27.8 

61.8 
55.2 
44.6 
71.5 
63.9 

20.5 

8.2 

10.2 

14.4 

7.6 

9.2 

25.4 
12.0 

14.4 
19.8 

9.7 

11.3 

26.3 

18.0 

20.2 

21.2 

11.2 

15.6 

146.0 
137  2 
122.8 
114.8 
113.4 

170.0 

1.0 

0.1 

tr. 

0 9 
0.3 
0.4 

2.4 

0.2 

0 1 
3.0 
1.3 
3.0 

30.0 

17.3 
9.3 

34.4 
28.3 
33.7 

66.6 

82.5 

90.6 

61.7 
70.1 
62.9 

Two  and  one-half  Horse-power  engine. 


Appleton 

364.0 

71.9 

9.5 

10.0 

8.6 

57.6 

0.0 

0.2 

10.3 

89.5 

Bowsher 

397.0 

77.5 

7.2 

8.4 

6.9 

38.0 

1 9 

0.9 

17.8 

80.3 

Giant 

126/0 

50.2 

11.9 

14.6 

23.3 

70.1 

tr. 

0.4 

39.1 

60.5 

Ideal  

241.0 

50.8 

13.0 

18.5 

17.7 

53.3 

1.0 

3.7 

29.9 

65.4 

Monarch 

167.0 

31.5 

18.5 

24.5 

25  5 

42.3 

0.1 

0.2 

10.1 

89.6 

Yessot 

283  7 

62.5 

12.0 

13.1 

12.4 

67.0 

0.7 

3.5 

33  3 

62.5 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  results  in  this  table  are  not  wholly  concordant 
with  those  in  the  last,  the  Giant  mill  here  showing  the  smallest  capacity 
everywhere  except  with  the  finest  meal  ground  with  the  V/%  H.  P.  engine 
while  there  the  mill  stands  third  in  rate  of  grinding.  The  high  efficiency 
of  this  mill  as  shown  in  the  previous  table  is  due  to  the  large  correction 
which  was  made  to  the  observed  amounts  ground  on  account  of  the  meal 
being  so  fine.  This  mill  being  so  constructed  as  to  make  it  impossible  for 
the  faces  of  the  burrs  to  touch  each  other  even  when  entirely  empty  it 
had,  on  this  account,  an  important  advantage  over  all  the  others  as  no 
energy  was  lost  through  friction  of  the  burrs  upon  themselves.  The 
Giant  runs  much  stiller  than  the  others  tried  on  the  account  stated,  and 
the  life  of  the  burrs  must  be  proportionally  lengthened.  The  feature  of 
this  grinder  which  makes  it  impossible  for  the  burrs  to  come  into  con- 
tact is  very  important,  but  there  were  evidently  other  conditions  in  the 
mill  we  tested  which  prevented  it  from  grinding  the  coarse  grades  of  meal 
as  rapidly  as  some  of  the  other  types. 


36 


Bulletin  No.  82. 


COST  OF  GRINDING  FEED. 

The  cost  of  the  item  of  fuel  in  grinding  feed  with  small  powers  and  small 
feed  mills  is  fairly  well  demonstrated  by  the  averages  of  the  trials  recorded 
in  these  pages. 

The  average  of  all  the  grinding  trials  of  corn  with  the  two  engines  makes 
the  cost  for  fuel  1.322  cents  per  hundred  pounds;  the  cost  for  corn  and 
oats  was  2.11  cents  per  cwt.;  for  oats  4.413  cents;  and  for  rye  2.172  cents  per 
100  lbs.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  fuel  cost  for  oats  is  more  that  three  times 
that  for  corn,  and  that  for  corn  and  oats  and  for  rye  are  nearly  the  same 
and  about  two-thirds  more  than  for  corn. 

In  the  table  which  follows  there  is  given  the  average  number  of  bushels 
of  grain  which  may  be  ground  by  the  different  mills  when  driven  during 
10  hours  by  the  5 horse  power  and  the  2 34  horse  power  engines. 


Table  showing  the  computed  number  of  bushels  of  corn , corn  and 
oats , oats , and  rye  ground  to  a grade  of  45  per  cent,  of  the  finest 
degree  in  10  hours , together  with  the  cost  of  fuel  for  the  same  time. 


Name  of  Mill. 

5 H.  P.  Engine. 

2^  H.  P. 

Engine. 

Bushels  per 

10  hours. 

Cost  of  gas 
per  10  hours. 

Bushels  per 
10  hours 

Cost  of  gas 
per  10  hours. 

Corn— 

Appleton 

254.6 

$1.71 

130.3 

$ .88 

Bowsher 

278.5 

1.81 

128.0 

.89 

Giant 

255.4 

1.67 

110.3 

.88 

Ideal 

203.6 

1.72 

114.6 

.92 

Monarch 

190.8 

1.74 

104.3 

.88 

Vessot  — 

811.1 

2.04 

114.0 

.89 

Average 

249.0 

$1.78 

116.6 

$ .89 

Corn  and  Oats— 

Average  of  all  mills  .. 

239.3 

1.94 

95.0 

1.01 

Oats— 

Average  of  all  mills  . . 

113  4 

1.66 

70.2 

.96 

Rye— 

Average  of  all  mills  . . 

157.0 

1.72 

58.5 

.78 

It  will  be  seen  from  this  table  that  as  an  average  of  all  the  grinding 
trials  with  the  5 H.  P.  engine  the  cost  of  fuel  per  day  was  $1,775  and  for 
the  2^4  H.  P.  engine  $.885.  This  is  at  the  rate  of  3.55  cents  and  3.54  cents 
per  horse  power  per  hour  for  fuel  where  gas  costs  $1.25  per  thousand  cubic 
feet. 

The  average  amount  of  corn  ground  per  horse  power  per  hour  was  4.822 
bushels,  equal  to  270  lbs.  and  this  is  2,700  lbs.  per  horse  power  for  a 10- 
hour  day. 


Grinding  with  Smalt  Steel  Feed  Mills. 


37 


The  usual  price  paid  for  grinding  feed  at  custom  mills  ranges  between 
5 and  9 cents  per  sack,  or  roughly  per  hundred  weight.  In  addition  to 
this  the  cost  is  increased  by  the  expense  of  hauling  the  grain  to  and  from 
the  mill.  It  will  be  an  under  estimate  to  say  that  not  more  than  3,000 
lbs.  would  be  taken  to  mill  per  load  on  the  average,  and  that  not  less  than 
the  equivalent  of  a day’s  time  for  man  and  team  would  be  spent  in  getting 
it  to  and  from  the  mill,  which  at  $1.00  per  day  for  each  would  make  the 
total  cost  for  3,000  lbs.  of  meal,  calling  the  rate  for  grinding  7 cents  per 
hundred,  $4.10. 

If  grain  is  fed  at  the  rate  of  7 lbs.  per  cow  per  day  for  200  days  to  30 
cows,  the  amount  of  meal  to  be  ground  would  be  42,000  lbs.  which  at  the 
above  rate,  would  cost  $57.40. 

The  5 H.  P.  engine  should  grind  this  meal  in  31.1  hours  at  a fuel  cost  of 
$5.55.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  the  labor  of  grinding  this  feed  at  home  would 
be  covered  by  two  men  working  4 days  with  a 5 H.  P.  gasoline  engine 
which  would  make  the  cost  for  labor  and  fuel  $13.55. 

If  a farmer  was  using  a 234  H.  P.  engine  to  drive  his  separator  and  to 
do  his  pumping  and  churning  it  is  clear  that  it  would  be  an  economic  plan 
to  so  arrange  matters  as  to  be  able  to  grind  his  feed  as  well,  for  with  it  a 
week’s  feed  could  be  ground  in  less  than  three  hours. 

If  the  grinding  were  to  be  done  With  the  12-foot  windmill  it  is  a very 
simple  matter  to  so  arrange  the  conditions  that  the  only  cost  of  grinding 
the  feed  is  the  placing  of  the  grain  in  the  feeding  bins,  the  labor  of  oiling 
the  windmill  and  grinder,  and  the  cost  of  oil  and  repairs  on  the  wind' 
mill,  together  with  the  interest  on  the  money  invested.  The  cost  of  grind- 
ing the  feed  for  30  cows  as  stated  above,  is  $57.40,  and  this  is  ten  per  cent, 
interest  on  a much  larger  sum  than  would  be  required  to  fit  up  an  auto- 
matic grinding  plant  with  the  12-foot  windmill,  the  price  of  the  mill  and 
90  foot  tower  being  $160.  It  has  been  pointed  out  that  the  capacity  of 
such  a grinding  plant  would  be  many  times  what  would  l^e  demanded  for 
a herd  of  30  cows. 


LIBRARY 

Of  THE 

RSITY  of  ILLINOIS. 


Wis.  Bull.  No.  83. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN. 


Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


BULLETIN  NO.  83. 


SILAGE,  AND  THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  MODERN  SILOS 


MADISON.  WISCONSIN.  MAY.  1900 . 


Bulletins  and  Annual  Beport's  of  this  Station  are  sent  free  to  all * 
residents  of  this  State  upon  request. 


Democrat  Printing  Company,  State  Printer.  Madison,  Wis. 


I 


UNIVERSITY  ()!•■  WISCONSIN 


AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 


BOARD  OF  REGENTS; 

PRESIDENT  of  the  UNIVERSITY,  ex-officio. 

STATE  SUPERINTENDENT  of  PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION,  BX-OFFICIO. 
State-at-large,  GEORGE  W.  PECK,  Milwaukee. 

State-at-large,  WILLIAM  F.  VILAS,  Madison. 

First  District,  OGDEN  II.  FETIIERS.  Janesville. 

Second  District,  B.  J.  STEVENS,  Madison. 

Third  District,  JOHN  E.  MORGAN,  Spring  Green. 

Fourth  District,  GEORGE  n.  NOYES,  Milwaukee. 

Fifth  District,  JOHN  R.  RIESS,  Sheboygan. 

Sixth  District,  C.  A.  GALLOWAY,  Fond  du  Lac. 

Seventh  District,  BYRON  A.  BUFFINGTON,  Eau  Claire.  ' 

Eighth  District,  ORLANDO  E.  CLARK,  Appleton. 

Ninth  District,  GEORGE  F.  MERRILL,  Ashland. 

Tenth  District,  J.  H.  STOUT,  Menomonie. 

Officers  of  the  Board  of  Regents. 

GEORGE  H.  NOYES,  President.  I STATE  TREASURER,  Ex-Officio  Treasurer 
J.  H.  STOUT,  Vice-President.  | E.  F.  RILEY,  Secretary,  Madison. 


Agricultural  Committee. 

Regents  CLARK,  STOUT,  FETHERS,  RIESS,  MORGAN  and  PRESIDENT  ADAMS. 


OFFICERS  OF  THE  STATION! 

THE  PRESIDENT  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY. 

W.  A.  HENRY,  - - - - - - - - - Director 

S.  M.  BABCOCK,  - Chief  Chemist 

F.  H.  KING,  ..  ...  ....  Physicist 

E.  S.  GOFF,  Horticulturist 


W.  L.  CARLYLE, 

F.  W.  WOLL, 

H.  L.  RUSSELL, 

E.  H.  FARRINGTON, 

A.  R.  WHITSON,  - 
A.  G.  HOPKINS,  - 
ALFRED  VIVI  AN, 

E.  G.  HASTINGS, 

R.  A.  MOORE,  - 
U.  S.  BAER,  - 
FREDERIC  CRANEFIELD, 
LESLIE  H.  ADAMS, 

IDA  HERFURTH, 

EFFIE  M.  CLOSE, 


- Animal  Husbandry 

Chemist 
Bacteriologist 
Dairy  Husbandry 

- Assistant  Physicist 

- Veterinarian 

- Assistant  Chemist 
Assistant  Bacteriologist 

Assistant  to  Director 
Dairying 

Assistant  Horticulturist 

- Farm  Superintendent 

- Clerk 
Librarian 


FARMERS'  INSTITUTES. 

GEORGE  McKERROW,  --------  Superintendent 

HATTIE  V.  STOUT,  ......  Clerk  and  Stenographer 

General  Offices  and  Departments  of  Agricultural  Chemistry,  Animal  Hus- 
bandry, Bacteriology,  Farmers’  Institutes  and  Library,  iu  Agricultural  Hall, 
near  University  Hall,  on  Upper  Campus. 

Dairy  Building  and  joint  Horticulture-Physics  Building,  west  end  of  Obser- 
vatory Hill,  adjacent,  to  Horticultural  Grounds  and  Experiment  Farm. 
Telephoue  to  Station  Office,  Dairy  Building  and  Farm  Office. 


CONTENTS, 


PAGE 

Silage  as  a feed 6 

Essential  conditions  for  preserving  silage  7 

Importance  of  depth  of  silage  8 

Silo  walls  must  be  rigid  and  very  strong  8 

Lower  portion  of  the  silo  in  the  ground 9 

The  silo  should  be  a substantial  building  constructed  to  last 10 

Protection  against  frost  . 10 

The  construction  of  stone  silos 10 

The  cost  of  stone  silos  15 

The  construction  of  brick  silos  16 

The  brick  walls  17 

Strengthening  the  walls  17 

Wetting  the  brick  before  laying  ... ..  17 

Making  the  walls  air  tight  17 

The  door  jambs  IS 

Cost  of  brick  silos  19 

Construction  of  brick  and  wood  silos 19 

Construction  of  the  woodwork  20 

The  silo  lining  21 

Cost  of  brick  lined  silos  22 

Round  plastered  silos  23 

Cost  of  lathed  and  plastered  silos  24 

Construction  of  all-wood  silos  25 

The  foundation  25 

Bottom  of  the  silo  27 

Tying  the  top  of  the  stone  wall 27 

Forming  the  sill  2S 

Setting  the  studding  2S 

Setting  the  studding  for  doors,  and  their  construction 30 

Silo  sheeting  and  siding  30 

Forming  the  plate  . . 30 

Lining  of  wood  silos  30 

Galvanized  iron  in  silo  lining  30 

All-wood  lining  of  4-inch  flooring  31 

Lining  of  half  inch  boards  and  paper 32 

The  silo  roof  34 

Ventilation  of  the  silo 35 

Painting  the  silo  lining  37 

Cost  of  all-wood  round  silo • 37 

The  cheapest  silo  for  warm  climate  and  for  summer  feeding  only 3S 

The  stave  or  tank  silo  3S 

Construction  of  stave  silo  40 

Lumber  for  the  staves  42 

Foundation  of  the  stave  silo  42 

Hoops  for  the  stave  silo  .- 42 

-Splicing  the  staves  44 

' Doors  for  stave  silos  .'. , 44 

Cost  of  stave  silos  44 

Pit  silos  45 


4 


Contents. 


rAGE. 


Rectangular  wood  silos  46 

Connecting  silo  with  barn  and  feeding  chute  47 

Comparative  cost  of  different  types  of  silos  48 

Weight  of  silage  per  cubic  foot  48 

The  capacity  of  silos  49 

The  proper  horizontal  feeding  area  50 

Silage  crops  52 

Corn  for  silage  52 

Millet  for  silage  52 

Clover  for  silage  52 

Rye  and  oats  .for  silage  52 

Pea-vine  silage  52 

Sorghum  stalk  silage  53 

Nou-saceliarine  sorglium  for  silage  53 

Alfalfa  for  silage  53 

Stage  of  maturity  of  crops  for  silage  53 

Drying  and  wetting  silage  54 

Rate  of  filling  llie^  silo  54 

Danger  in  filling  the  silo  55 

Putting  materials  into  the  silo  cut  or  whole  55 

Importance  of  tramping  silage  when  filling  55 

Tramping  the  surface  after  filling  is  finished 56 

Covering  silage  after  filling  56 

Filling  the  silo  57 

Cutting  the  corn  58 

Hauling  corn  to  the  cutter  58 

Ensilage  cutters  59 

Power  to  drive  the  cutter  59 

Co-operative  filling  59 

Raising  corn  for  silage 60 

The  variety  of  corn  60 

Method  of  planting  » 60 

Unavoidable  losses  in  the  silo  60 

Differences  in  the  unavoidable  losses  in  three  types  of  silos 62 

The  amount  of  loss  from  the  top  of  silos 64 

Waste  of  silage  from  too  slow  feeding  65 

Silage  may  sustain  heavy  losses  and  appear  good 66 

Conditions  which  indicate  that  heavy  losses  are  taking  place 66 

Poorly  constructed  silo  may  be  very  expensive  although  the  first  cost  is 

small  67 

A silo  the  best  means  of  feeding  a soiling  crop 67 

The  silo  a means  of  carrying  feed  in  reserve  67 


Fig.  1.— Showing  a brick  lined  and  brick  vqneered  silo  with  water  reservoir  for  stock  above  it. 


SILAGE  AND  THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  MODERN  SILOS 


F.  H.  KING. 

In  1891  the  silage  problem  had  reached  an  extremely  critical  stage. 
Serious  mistakes  had  been  made  in  the  construction  of  the  earlier  wood 
silos,  which  led  to  the  rapid  decay  of  the  lining  and  to  a spoiling  of  the 
silage,  and  silos  were  being  abandoned  because  of  the  large  losses  in  the 
feed  put  into  them.  A letter  came  to  the  Station  from  a man  who  had 
been  to  great  expense  three  years  before  to  build  what  at  the  time  was 
called  a first-  class  silo.  The  lining  had  so  completely  rotted  that  no 
could  not  use  it  the  fourth  season  without  heavy  repairs,  and  he  desired 
information  as  to  what  to  do. 

A visit  to  the  silo  revealed  several  serious  defects  which  had  been 
embodied  in  its  construction,  and  this  led  to  a tour  of  inspection,  dur- 
ing which  over  100  silos  were  visited  and  carefully  studied  to  discover 
errors  which  had  been  made  and  to  devise  a plan  of  silo  construction 
which  should  avoid  them  and  secure  a better  quality  of  silage.  This 
led  to  the  cylindrical  silo  now  so  extensively  built  and  which  has  proved 
to  be  so  generally  satisfactory. 

The  problems  of  silage  and  silo  construction  have  been  studied  now 
continuously  for  nearly  10  years.  Two  bulletins  on  the  subject  have 
been  issued,  and  the  present  one  embodies  the  knowledge  which  has 
been  gained  through  a personal  inspection  of  more  than  200  silos,  one- 
half  of  which  were  visited  the  past  year,  together  with  the  conclusions 
regarding  the  essential  conditions  necessary  to  the  making  and  pre- 
serving of  good  silage  which  have  been  reached  through  experimental 
studies  extending  over  seven  years. 

There  yet  remains  much  to  be  learned  regarding  the  subject  of  silage 
but  we  have  now  obtained  a sufficient  body  of  sound  knowledge  upon 
which  to  build  a safe  and  economic  practice  In  its  handling. 

SILAGE  AS  A FEED. 

The  verdict  is  practically  unanimous  among  all  dairymen,  who  have 
fed  good  silage,  that  it  is  the  best  winter  feed  they  ever  used  as  a sub- 
stitute for  hay  or  corn  fodder,  and  that  they  would  not  think  of  doing 
without  it.  It  is  relatively  cheap,  deteriorates  but  little  with  age  after 


7 


1 Silage , and  the  Construction  of  Modern  Silos. 

the  first  unavoidable  changes  have  occurred,  is  compactly  stored,  easily 
l*ed  and  so  thoroughly  relished  by  the  animals  that  there  is  no  difficulty 
in  inducing  them  to  eat  all  they  are  able  to  assimilate. 

In  intensive  farming  it  may  be  fed  the  year  around  and  is  relished 
as  well  in  summer  as  in  winter.  It  is  much  cheaper  than  soiling  crops 
for  summer  feed,  and  there  is  nothing  equal  to  it  for  “short  pastures. 1 

As  part  of  the  winter  ration  of  domestic  animals  it  is  the  only  avail- 
able substitute  for  roots  and  it  is  a great  misfortune  to  the  interests  of 
animal  husbandry  that  so  few  feeders  yet  realize  that  a sufficient 
amount  of  one  or  the  other  is  indispensable  to  the  highest  bodily  vigor 
and  the  largest  financial  returns. 

Feeders  as  a rule  do  not  sufficiently  appreciate  the  fact  that  through 
unnumbered  centuries  of  evolution  our  herb-eating  domestic  animals 
became  habituated  to  conditions  which  made  the  chief  part  of  their  diet 
of  necessity  some  form  of  fresh  succulent  vegetation.  All  of  their 
processes  of  digestion,  assimilation,  excretion  and  reproduction  grew 
into  balanced  action  with  the  fresh  tissues,  juices  and  storage  products 
of  plants  as  essential  stimulants  and  foods;  and  now  when  the  system 
is  long  deprived  of  them  the  functions  cease  to  be  normal,  because  their 
presence  in  the  body  are  now  indispensable. 

It  is  only  within  comparatively  recent  times  that  the  absolute  neces- 
sity of  some  form  of  fresh  vegetable  food  or  fruit  in  our  own  diet  has 
been  learned  and  the  methods  of  canning  fruits  and  vegetables,  to  be 
used  in  camp  life,  at  sea,  and  on  polar  expeditions,  as  well  as  on  the 
table  in  winter  has  rendered  an  immense  service  to  man  in  maintaining 
health  under  those  conditions. 

The  silo  is  a cheap  means  of  canning  grass  on  a large  scale  to  be  used 
by  domestic  animals  at  times  and  in  places  when  it  could  not  other- 
wise be  had ; and,  because  silage  can  be  produced  cheaper,  kept  longer, 
and  fed  to  stock  more  expeditiously,  it  must  largely  take  the  place  of 
roots  wherever  large  amounts  must  be  stored. 

ESSENTIAL  CONDITIONS  FOR  PRESERVING  SILAGE. 

We  have  succeeded  in  demonstrating  the  past  season  that  if  green 
corn  is  put  into  a vessel  having  strictly  air  tight  walls  and  at  the  same 
time  is  so  thoroughly  packed  as  to  largely  expel  the  entangled  air,  good 
silage  may  be  made  in  very  small  quantities. 

We  have  used  galvanized  iron  cylinders  as  small  as  18  inches  in  diam- 
eter and  42  inches  deep,  filling  them  with  corn  cat  in  half-inch  lengths 
and  simply  covering  with  two  thicknesses  of  acid  and  water-proof  paper, 
and  yet  after  178  days  standing  in  our  continuously  warm  and  sunny 
plant  house  there  was  only  9 inches  of  spoiled  silage  on  the  top.  All  of 
the  balance  was  of  excellant  quality.  In  another  silo  only  1 foot  in  diam- 
eter and  10  feet  deep,  filled  with  corn  at  the  same  time,  similar  results 
were  secured.  Even  so  difficult  a crop  as  green  oats,  just  coming  into 


8 


Bulletin  No.  83. 


the  milk  stage,  has  been  kept  in  good  condition  during  60  days  in  the 
same  cylinders  covered  in  the  same  manner. 

These  observations  make  it  clear  that  the  only  essential  condition 
for  making  and  preserving  a good  quality  of  silage  is  the  close  packing 
of  suitable  material  in  a receptacle  from  which  the  air  may  be  com- 
pletely excluded. 

Whatever  means  may  be  adopted  to  completely  exclude  the  air  from 
silage  will  preserve  it.  If  air  can  find  access  to  it  spoiling  will  be  in- 
evitable and  the  rate  will  be  greater  the  more  readily  the  air  gains 
access. 


THE  IMPORTANCE  OF  DEPTH  OF  SILAGE. 

There  are  four  important  reasons  in  the  storing  of  silage  for  making 
its  depth  as  great  as  practicable.  (1)  The  largest  amount  of  feed  per 
cubic  foot  can  be  stored  in  this  way.  (2)  There  is  less  loss  at  the  surface 
during  slow  feeding  and  because  the  silage  is  so  closely  packed  air  can 
enter  in  but  slowly  from  above.  (3)  The  spoiled  silage  at  the  top  is  less 
in  proportion  to  the  whole  silage  stored.  (4)  The  stronger  lateral 
pressure  forces  the  silage  so  closely  against  the  walls  that  if  they  are  at 
all  open  it  tends  to  exclude  the  air  and  the  silage  keeps  better  than 
when  shallow. 


SILO  WALLS  MUST  BE  RIGID  AND  VERY  STRONG. 

The  outward  pressure  of  cut  corn  silage  when  settling  at  the  time  of 
filling  increases  with  the  depth  of  the  silage  at  the  rate  of  about  11  lbs. 
per  square  foot  for  each  foot  of  depth.  This  being  true,  at  a depth  of  10 
feet  the  pressure  per  square  foot  may  be  110  lbs.,  at  20  feet  220  lbs.,  at 
30  feet  330  lbs.  and  at  40  feet  440  lbs.  per  square  foot.  This  means  that 
in  the  case  of  a 16-foot  square  silo  where  the  sill  is  30  feet  below  the  top 
of  the  silage  the  side  pressure  on  the  lower  foot  of  the  wall  would  be 
about 

16  x 330  lbs.  = 5280  lbs. 

It  is  because  of  this  great  pressure  that  it  is  so  difficult  to  make  large 
rectangular  silos  deep  enough  to  be  economical  and  it  is  because  the 
walls  of  rectangular  silos  always  spring  more  or  less  under  the  pressure 
of  the  silage,  as  represented  in  Fig.  2,  that  silage  seldom  keeps  as  well 
in  them  as  it  does  in  those  whose  walls  cannot  spring. 

To  understand  the  force  of  this  statement  it  must  be  remembered  that 
after  the  silage  has  once  settled  the  lateral  pressure  becomes  much  less 
and  silos  have  been  burned  a few  days  after  filling,  leaving  the  silage 
standing  like  a stack. 

As  the  silage  in  the  lower  part  of  the  silo  continues  to  settle  the 
stronger  outward  pressure  there  spreads  the  walls  more  than  higher 
up  and  the  result  is  the  wall  may  be  actually  forced  away  from  the 
silage  so  that  air  may  enter  from  above;  and  even  if  this  does  not  Qccur 


9 


Silage,  and  tlie  Construction  of  Modern  Silos. 

the  pressure  against  the  sides  will  be  so  much  lessened  above  by  the 
greater  spreading  below  that  if  the  walls  are  at  all  open  air  will  more 
readily  enter  through  them. 

In  the  round  wooden  silos  every  board  acts  as  a hoop  and  as  the  wood 
stretches  but  little  lengthwise  there  can  be  but  little  spreading  of  such 
walls. 


Fig.  2.— Illustrating  how  the  bulging  of  rectangular  wood  silo  walls  allows  air  to 
come  down  the  sides  between  the  walls  and  the  silage,  causing  it  to  spoil. 
The  amount  of  spreading  is  exaggerated  in  the  figure  for  clearness  of  illustra- 
tion, but  it  is  none  the  less  real. 

LOWER  PORTION  OF  THE  SILO  IN  THE  GROUND. 

In  most  cases  it  is  best  to  begin  the  silo  as  deeply  in  the  ground  as 
possible  and  readily  remove  the  silage  in  feeding.  This  depth  will 
usually  be  from  three  to  four  below  the  feeding  floor. 

If  there  is  a basement  stable  with  walls  8 to  9 feet  the  silo  may  then 
be  from  II  to  13  feet  in  the  ground,  having  a door  through  the  basement 
wall  leading  to  the  stable. 

The  lower-door  of  such  silo  may  be  made  to  extend  to  within  one  foot 


10 


Bulletin  No.  83. 


of  the  bottom  and  the  silo  be  entered  by  a series  of  three  or  more  steps 
leading  from  the  stable  floor  through  the  bottom  of  the  feeding  chute  into 
the  silo.  These  steps  may  be  covered  with  a trap  door  which  acts  as  a 
floor  to  that  portion  of  the  feeding  chute  until  the  silage  has  been  fed 
down  to  this  level. 

THE  SILO  SHOULD  BE  A SUBSTANTIAL  BUILDING  CONSTRUCTED  TO  LAST. 

As  a general  rule  if  it  is  prudent  to  build  a silo  at  all  it  will  pay  to 
build  it  so  that  it  will  preserve  the  silage  perfectly  and  so  that  it  will 
last  as  long  as  the  other  farm  buildings.  Emergencies  may  arise  when 
a renter  may  desire  to  erect  a temporary  silo,  but  ordinarily  a silo 
should  have  all  the  characteristics  of  a permanent  building,  including 
a roof. 

PROTECTION  AGAINST  FROST. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  build  a silo  so  as  to  be  entirely  frost  proof  in 
cold  climates,  but  it  will  pay  to  build  them  reasonably  warm  where 
they  are  to  be  fed  from  during  cold  weather.  The  freezing  of  silage 
does  not  injure  it  seriously  but  it  is  not  well  to  feed  it  when  frozen. 
If  a silo  is  not  to  be  opened  until  warm  weather  no  special  attention 
need  be  given  to  warmth.  If  a silo  is  10  to  13  feet  in  the  ground  and 
only  20  feet  above  ground,  the  settling  and  the  early  feeding  before  se- 
vere cold  weather  will  usually  have  carried  the  surface  of  the  silage  so 
low  that  little  inconvenience  from  frost  will  be  experienced  even  in 
stone  silos.  In  all  the  wooden  silos,  except  the  questionable  stave  types, 
the  construction  needed  for  strength  and  to  keep  the  air  from  the  silage 
will  usually  be  a sufficient  protection  against  frost. 

THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  STONE  SILOS. 

Whenever  stone  can  be  had  on  the  farm  suitable  for  building  pur- 
poses these  may  be  used  in  silo  construction,  thus  converting  idle  into 
active  capital.  So  far  as  the  silo  itself  is  concerned  no  better  or  more 
durable  material  can  be  used,  and  where  it  can  be  10  to  13  feet  in  the 
ground  the  Inconveniences  from  freezing  will  be  small,  and  the  stone 
silo  will  be  found  one  of  the  cheapest  of  the  thoroughly  good  forms. 
Great  pains  should  be  taken  in  building  the  walls  to  fill  all  spaces  be- 
tween stones  solid  with  smaller  ones  and  mortar  and  to  have  them  thor- 
oughly bonded  in  order  to  secure  strength  and  prevent  cracking. 

The  portion  of  the  silo  wall  which  is  below  ground  better  be  about 
2 feet  thick  and  laid  in  one  of  the  cheap  brands  of  cement  rather  than 
lime,  the  cement  being  desirable  because  lime  mortar  becomes  hard  so 
very  slowly  in  heavy  walls,  especially  below  ground.  After  the  wall  is 
two  feet  above  ground  good  lime  mortar  may  be  used,  but  in  this  case 
there  ought  to  be  at  least  two  months  for  the  wall  to  season  and  set  be- 


Silage,  and  the  Construction  of  Modern  Silos.  li 

fore  filling.  The  upper  portion  of  the  silo  wall  need  not  be  heavier 
than  18  inches,  and  if  the  size  of  stone  permit  of  it,  the  outer  face  of 
the  wall  may  be  drawn  in  gradually  to  a thickness  of  12  inches  at  the 
top. 


Fig.  3.— Showing  an  all-stone  silo  with  conical  roof  and  openings  for  feeding 
doors;  the  heavy  black  dots  1,  1,  1 show  where  iron  rods  may  be  bedded  in 
the  wall  to  prevent  cracking  from  the  pressure  of  the  silage. 

The  inner  face  of  the  silo  wall  should  be  plastered  with  a thin  coat 
of  rich  cement  not  leaner  than  1 of  cement  to  1 y2  or  2 of  clean  sharp 


12 


Bulletin  No.  83. 


sand.  If  the  mortar  is  not  rich  and  troweled  smooth,  the  acids  of  the 
silage  will  act  upon  it  much  more  rapidly,  dissolving  out  the  lime  and 
leaving  it  open  and  porous. 

It  will  usually  be  prudent  also  to  whitewash  these  linings  every  two 
or  three  years,  especially  the  lower  portion  where  the  silage  is  longest 
in  contact  with  the  cement,  in  order  to  prevent  softening,  using  cement 
to  make  the  whitewash. 

Doors  for  filling  and  feeding  should  be  arranged  as  represented  in 
Pig.  3,  and  if  the  lower  one  is  long,  cutting  out  a good  deal  of  the  wall, 
an  iron  rod  should  be  bedded  in  the  wall  above  it  to  prevent  cracking 
between  tlie  doors.  The  rod  should  be  of  % inch  round  iron  bent  to 
the  curve  of  the  circle  and  about  12  feet  long.  The  two  ends  should  be 
turned  short  at  right  angles,  so  as  to  anchor  better  in  the  mortar. 


Fig.  4.— Showing  method  of  bedding  iron  rods  in  stone,  brick  or  concrete  silo 
walls  to  increase  the  strength.  The  heavy  lines  with  ends  bent  represent  the 
iron  rods. 

In  deep  stone  silos,  which  rise  more  than  18  feet  above  the  surface  of 
the  ground,  it  will  be  safest  to  strengthen  the  wall  between  the  two 
lower  doors  with  iron  tie  rods  and,  if  such  a silo  is  built  of  boulders, 
it  will  be  well  to  use  rods  enough  to  make  a complete  line  or  hoop 
around  the  silo  about  two  feet  above  the  ground,  as  represented  in 
Fig.  4. 

Too  great  care  cannot  be  taken  in  making  the  part  of  the  wall  below 
and  near  the  ground  solid,  and  especially  its  outer  face,  so  that  it  will 
be  strong  where  the  greatest  strain  will  come.  It  is  best  also  to  dig 


Silage,  and  the  Construction  of  Modern  Silos.  13 

the  pit  for  the  silo  large  enough  so  as  to  have  plenty  of  room  outside 
of  the  finished  wall  to  permit  the  earth  filled  in  behind  to  be  very  thor- 
oughly tamped,  so  as  to  act  as  a strong  backing  for  the  wall.  This  is 
urged  because  a large  per  cent,  of  the  stone  foundations  of  wood  silos 
have  cracked  more  or  less  from  one  cause  or  another  and  these  cracks 
lead  to  the  spoiling  of  silage. 


Fig.  5.— Showing  method  of  constructing  silo  door  and  door  jamb  for  stone  silo. 
E shows  cross  section  of  silo  door,  F shows  how  the  door  jamb  is  made  to 
make  it  air  tight,  and  how  the  door  is  held  in  place  with  lag  bolts  against  a 
gasket  of  ruberoid  roofing. 

Flat  quarry  rock,  like  limestone,  will  make  the  strongest  silo  wall, 
because  they  bond  much  better  than  boulders  do,  and  when  built  of  lime- 
stone they  will  not  need  to  be  reinforced  much  with  iron  rods.  It  will 
be  best  even  in  this  case,  however,  to  use  the  iron  tie  rods  between  the 
lower  two  doors. 

The  door  jambs  for  the  stone  silo  are  best  made  of  4x4*8  framed  to- 
gether and  set  far  enough  apart  to  give  a depth  four  inches  less  than 
the  thickness  of  the  wall.  This  will  allow  mortar  to  be  filled  in  between 
the  4x4’s  to  make  an  air-tight  joint.  A 6-inch  board  may  be  fitted 


14 


j bulletin  No.  83. 


around  the  outside  of  the  inner  side  of  the  door  jambs  to  form  the  rab- 
bet for  the  doors,  or  the  jambs  may  be  made  as  represented  in  Fig.  5. 
There  will  be  slight  shoulders  left  in  the  round  stone  silo  above  and  be- 
low the  doors  when  these  are  made  flat,  and  these  should  be  filled  out 
with  mortar  when  plastering,  giving  a long,  gentle  slope  back  to  the 
wall. 


Fig.  6.— Shows  the  method  of  jacketing  a stone  silo  to  protect  it  against  frost; 
the  heavy  black  squares  are  blocks  bedded  into  the  stone  wall  to  which  girts 
or  studs  may  be  nailed  to  carry  the  siding. 

The  door  is  best  made  of  two  layers  of  6-inch  flooring,  tongued  and 
grooved,  crossing  at  right  angles,  nailed  or  screwed  together,  with  a 
layer  of  good  acid-  and  water-proof  paper  between,  as  shown  at  E,  Fig. 
5.  To  make  the  door  fit  perfectly  air-tight  there  should  be  tacked  to  the 
face  of  the  door  jamb,  all  around,  a wide  strip  of  thick  roof  paper  or 
strips  of  old  worn  out  rubber  belting,  and  the  door  drawn  up  against 
this  with  four  1/&x4  inch  lag  bolts  provided  with  washers. 


Silage,  and  the  Construction  of  Modern  Silos. 


15 


If  one  prefers  to  do  so  the  door  may  be  made  small  enough  so  as  to 
leave  a half-inch  space  between  it  and  the  jamb  all  around,  and  this 
space  filled  with  puddled  clay  after  the  door  is  put  in  place.  Either  of 
these  methods  is  better  than  to  tack  strips  of  tar  paper  over  the  joints. 

THE  COST  OF  STONE  SILOS. 

The  data  collected  regarding  the  cost  of  stone  silos  and  of  stone  foun- 
dations of  silos  make  them  range  from  5.5  cents  per  square  foot  of  out- 
side wall  to  13.1  cents,  the  average  being  9 cents.  This  price  includes 
everything  but  stone,  and  is  for  walls  mostly  18  inches  to  2 feet  thick, 
laid  in  lime  mortar  and  plastered  with  one  of  the  cheaper  brands  of 
cement. 

Figuring  on  the  basis  of  10  cents  per  sq.  ft.  of  outside  surface,  and 
with  a wall  averaging  18  inches  thick,  the  cost  of  the  walls  of  silos 
of  various  dimensions  is  given  in  the  table  which  follows: 


Table  giving  the  estimated  cost  of  the  walls  of  stone  silos  of  various 
dimensions , but  not  including  the  cost  of  stone. 


Inside 

diame- 

ter. 

Depth. 

Inside 

diame- 

ter. 

Depth. 

20  feet. 

25  feet. 

30  feet. 

20  feet. 

25  feet. 

30  feet. 

13  feet... 

$100 

$126 

$151 

20  feet.. 

$143 

$179 

$217 

14  feet.. . 

107 

134 

160 

21  feet.. 

151 

189 

226 

15  feet. .. 

113 

141 

170 

22  feet.. 

157 

196 

236 

16  feet. .. 

119 

149 

179 

23  feet. 

163 

204 

245 

17  feet. .. 

126 

157 

189 

24  feet.. 

170 

212 

255 

1$  feet. .. 

132 

165 

198 

25  feet.. 

176 

220 

264 

19  feet. .. 

138 

173 

207 

30  feet.. 

207 

259 

311 

The  cost  of  the  roof  of  stone  silos  has  not  been  included  in  the  esti- 
mate, because  this  will  vary  more  than  that  of  the  wall  on  account  of 
differences  in  form  and  finish;  but  a good  shingled  roof  for  the  13-foot 
silo  will  cost  not  far  from  $23,  and  that  of  the  25-foot  silo  about  $63. 
This  would  make  the  13-foot  silo,  30  feet  deep,  cost  about  $175,  for  a 
storage  capacity  of  between  70  and  80  tons.  The  silo  25  feet  in  diameter, 
30  feet  deep,  would  cost  in  the  neighborhood  of  $328  for  a capacity  of 
290  tons,  making  $2.33  per  ton  for  the  smaller  silo,  and  $1.14  per  ton 
for  the  larger  one. 


Uultetin  No.  83, 


16 


CONSTRUCTION  OP  BRICK  SILOS. 

— ’ 

!• 

Very  excellent  silos  may  be  made  of  brick,  as  represented  in  Fig.  7, 
and  where  brick  of  a good  quality  can  be  obtained  at  $4.25  to  $7.00  per 
thousand  a silo  which  will  last  indefinitely  may  be  made  at  a moderate 
cost. 


Fig.  7. — Shows  an  all  brick  silo  with  wall  14  inches  thick  made  of  three  courses 
of  brick,  the  outer  course  being  set  so  as  to  form  a 2 inch  dead  air  space  as 
high  up  as  the  shoulder. 


Silage,  and  the  Construction  of  Modern  Silos. 


17 


The  foundation  of  the  brick  silo  is  best  made  of  stone,  wherever  these 
may  be  had,  carrying  the  stone  work  up  at  least  a foot  above  the  ground 
and  beginning  below  frost  line.  The  brick  work  will  then  be  set  with 
its  inner  face  flush  with  the  inner  surface  of  the  stone  work. 

If  the  silo  is  to  be  carried  20  or  more  feet  above  the  stone  wall  it 
will  be  desirable  to  bed  a %-inch  round  iron  hoop  into  the  upper  sur- 
face of  the  stone  work  in  order  to  guard  against  cracking  the  wall  by 
the  pressure  of  the  first  filling  before  the  mortar  has  had  time  to  thor- 
oughly season,  which  does  not  take  place  until  after  five  or  more 
months.  The  method  of  laying  the  sections  of  iron  rod  in  the  wall 
is  represented  in  Fig.  4. 

The  Brick  Walls. — In  cold  climates  it  will  be  best  to  make  the  lower 
portion  of  the  wall  up  to  within  10  feet  of  the  top,  with  a 2-inch  dead 
air  space,  using  three  courses  of  brick,  thus  making  the  wall  14  inches 
thick,  for  all  the  smaller  and  medium  sized  silos.  If  the  silo  is  to 
exceed  24  feet  inside  diameter  the  lower  third  of  the  brick  wall  should 
be  made  of  four  courses  of  brick  and  18  inches  thick,  the  second  third 
14  inches  thick,  and  the  upper  third  8 inches,  solid.  The  dead  air 
space  should  be  next  to  the  outside  and  this  course  of  brick  should  be 
tied  to  the  inner  wall  as  frequently  as  necessary  to  make  it  stable. 

Strengthening  the  Walls. — The  tendency  of  the  pressure  of  the  silage 
to  crack  the  walls  of  round  silos  increases  with  the  depth  and  with 
the  diameter  of  the  silo.  The  tendency  of  the  silage  to  burst  a silo 
26  feet  inside  diameter  is  twice  as  great  as  in  one  13  feet  in  diameter 
and  the  same  depth,  and  this  makes  it  necessary  to  strengthen  the  walls 
of  the  larger  brick  silos.  In  all  brick  silos  there  should  be  an  iron  tie 
rod  bedded  in  the  wall,  in  the  manner  illustrated  in  Fig.  4,  between 
each  of  the  lower  doors  to  compensate  for  the  weakening  caused  by 
the  doors;  and  in  the  larger  silos  these  ties  should  extend  entirely 
around  the  silo  in  the  manner  shown  in  Fig.  4. 

Wetting  fne  Brick  before  Laying. — It  is  very  important  in  laying  the 
brick  for  a silo  wall  that  they  should  be  wet  and  especially  if  the  work 
is  done  in  hot,  dry  weather.  If  this  is  not  done  the  brick  will  so  com- 
pletely dry  out  the  mortar  that  it  cannot  set  properly  and  become 
strong. 

Making  the  Walls  Air-Tight. — There  are  several  ways  in  which  this 
may  be  done,  and  some  of  these  will  be  given  in  the  reverse  order  of 
their  effectiveness. 

1.  After  the  wall  is  finished  it  may  be  simply  given  two  coats  of  thick 
cement  whitewash,  and  this  repeated  every  two  or  three  years  as  the 
acid  of  the  silage  dissolves  it  away. 

2.  The  face  of  the  brick  wall  may  be  given  a good,  rich  coat  of  cement 
plaster,  one-fourth  to  one-half  an  inch  thick,  and  then  this  be  kept 
whitewashed  so  as  to  neutralize  the  acid  and  prevent  it  from  softening 
the  cement, 


18 


Bulletin  No.  83. 


3.  The  wall,  or  at  least  the  inner  portion,  may  be  laid  in  rich  cement 
mortar,  making  the  horizontal  joints  about  one-fourth  of  an  inch  thick 
and  the  vertical  ones  a half  inch  thick,  taking  great  care  to  get  all 
joints  of  the  inner  tier  of  brick  thoroughly  filled  with  mortar.  This 
method  will  place  the  cement  where  it  will  not  be  as  readily  affected 
by  the  acids  and  frost  and  does  away  with  the  necessity  of  plastering, 
care  being  taken  to  lay  the  brick  smoothly  and  to  point  the  joints  care- 
fully. Milwaukee  cement  will  answer  for  this  work.  Whitewashing 
the  inner  face  of  such  a lining  will  be  sufficient  for  smoothness  and 
tightness. 

4.  The  inner  edge  of  the  brick  forming  the  lining  can  be  dipped  in 
hot  coal  tar  to  fill  the  pores  before  they  are  laid  in  Milwaukee  or 
other  cheap  cement.  The  tar  should  be  boiled  so  as  to  become  thick 
when  cold,  but  the  edge  of  the  inner  layer  of  brick  should  be  dipped 
in  the  boiling  tar  so  that  the  heat  may  expel  the  air  and  permit  the 
tar  to  penetrate  the  pores  deeply. 

5.  The  very  best  possible  lining  which  could  be  made  would  be  se- 
cured by  using  the  small,  thin  size  of  vitrified  paving  brick.  These  may 
be  set  on  e~dge,  to  reduce  both  the  cost  and  the  number  of  cement 
joints.  It  will  be  necessary  to  tie  this  course  occasionally  to  the  main 
wall  by  turning  a brick  endwise.  Rich  cement  mortar  should  be 
used  and  the  joints  made  thin  but  thoroughly  filled  with  the  mortar. 
Such  a lining  would  give  a surface  like  a stone  jug,  thoroughly  air- 
tight and  indefinitely  permanent. 

The  Door  Jambs. — These  may  best  be  made  of  3x6’s  or  3x8’s  rabbetted 
two  inches  deep  to  receive  the  door  on  the  inside.  The  center  of  the 
jambs  outsi'de  should  be  grooved  and  a tongue  inserted  projecting  % 
of  an  inch  outward  to  set  back  into  the  mortar  and  thus  secure  a thor- 
oughly air-tight  joint  between  the  wall  and  jamb. 

The  doors  are  best  made  as  described  under  the  stone  silo,  of  two 
layers  of  matched  flooring  with  paper  between.  The  jambs  should 
be  faced  with  ruberoid  roofing  or  some  other  material  to  act  as  a gas- 
ket and  the  doors  should  be  secured  in  place  with  4 lag  bolts  and 
washers  to  force  the  door  close  against  the  gasket.  Heavy  screws  may 
be  used  instead  of  the  lag  bolts  but  the  door  cannot  be  brought  home 
as  closely  in  this  way. 

It  may  appear  to  some  that  the  pressure  of  the  silage  will  be  strong 
enough  to  hold  the  door  in  place,  and  so  it  would  be  if  there  was  no 
tendency  to  warp  and  the  doors  were  always  certain  to  lay  perfectly 
close  without  pressure.  If  the  door  is  a little  warped  or  if  the  jambs 
are  out  of  true  then,  after  the  silage  has  stopped  settling  and  the 
pressure  largely  relieved,  the  door  will  spring  away  and  permit  air 
to  enter  causing  much  silage  to  spoil. 


Silage,  and  the  Construction  of  Modern  Silos. 


19 


COST  OF  BRICK  SILOS. 

In  the  majority  of  cases  there  may  be  as  much  as  6 feet  of  stone 
wall  in  the  foundation  of  brick  silos.  Counting  the  cost  of  this  por- 
tion the  same  as  in  the  all  stone  silo,  10  cents  per  square  foot  of  outer 
surface,  the  brick  work  20.7  cents  per  square  foot  where  there  are 
three  courses  and  13.8  cents  where  there  are  two  courses,  or  a wall 
8 inches  thick,  the  walls  of  silos  30  feet  deep  will  cost  not  far  from 
the  amounts  given  below: 


Approximate  cost  of  walls  of  brick  silos  30  feet  deep  on  a 6-foot  stone 
Joundation  where  the  lower  18  ft.  are  14  inches  thick  with  2 inch 
dead  air  space  and  the  upper  6 feet  solid  8 inches  thick. 


Inside 

diameter. 

Without 

roof. 

With 

roof. 

Inside 

diameter. 

Without 

roof. 

With 

roof. 

13  feet 

$213 

$273 

20  feet 

$356 

$395 

14  feet 

259 

280 

21  feet 

373 

414 

15  feet 

275 

299 

22  feet 

389 

434 

16  feet 

292 

318 

23  feet 

405 

454 

17  feet 

308 

337 

24  feet 

421 

474 

18  feet 

324 

356 

25  feet 

437 

494 

19  feet 

340 

375 

30  feet 

538 

617 

Two  brick  silos  24  feet  deep  and  12^  feet  inside  diameter,  built 
in  a barn,  cost  the  owner  $110  each  with  no  stone  work  in  the  founda- 
tion and  the  lower  18  feet  fourteen  inches  thick,  with  a 2-inch  dead  air 
space,  and  with  iron  rods  laid  in  the  wall  every  6 feet.  The  brick 
cost  $4.25  per  thousand. 

Another  brick  silo  30  feet  deep,  12  feet  inside  diameter,  with  the 
lower  4 feet  of  stone,  the  next  8 feet  of  3 brick  with  hollow  wall  14 
inches  thick  and  the  remainder  of  2 brick  8 inches  thick,  cost  the 
owner  a liftle  less  than  $100.  These  silos  have  cost  less  than  10  cents 
per  surface  foot. 

CONSTRUCTION  OF  A BRICK  AND  WOOD  SILO. 

Next  to  the  all-masonry  silos  in  point  of  durability  and  efficiency 
must  be  ranked  the  masonry  lined  silos,  of  which  there  are  several 
types,  as  follows:  (1)  Stone  silos,  jacketed  with  wood;  (2)  concrete 
lined  silos;  (3)  brick  lined  silos;  (4)  lathed  and  plastered  silos. 

Of  these  Types  the  brick  lined  silo  is  likely  to  come  into  the  more 
general  use,  and  its  construction  will  be  described  first, 


20 


Bulletin  No.  83. 


Construction  of  the  Wood-work. — Like  the  brick  silo,  this  form  should 
have  a stone  foundation,  wherever  it  is  practicable  to  obtain  the  mate- 
rial for  it.  Upon  this  will  first  be  laid  the  sill  made  of  2x4’s  cut  in 
two-foot  lengths  with  the  ends  beveled  so  that  they  may  be  toe-nailed 
together  and  bedded  in  cement  mortar  upon  the  wall  in  the  manner 
represented  in  Fig.  8.  The  sill  is  set  just  far  enough  back  from  the 
inside  of  the  wall  so  that  when  the  brick  are  laid  they  come  flush  with 
the  inside  of  the  silo  wall. 


Fig.  8.— Showing  method  of  making  the  sill  of  brick  lined  and  of  round  wood  silos. 

The  2x4  studding  are  next  set  up  and  toe-nailed  to  the  sill.  A stud 
is  first  set  at  each  angle  of  the  sill,  plumbed  and  stayed  from  a 
post  set  in  the  center  of  the  silo.  After  four  or  five  of  these  are  set 
and  plumbed  from  the  center  these  should  be  stayed  from  side  to  side 
by  tacking  to  them  a strip  of  half-inch  sheeting  bent  around  the  out- 
side as  high  up  as  a man  can  reach,  taking  care  to  get  each  stud  plumb 
in  this  direction  before  staying.  After  the  alternate  studs  have  been 
set  up  in  this  manner  the  intervening  ones  may  be  put  in  place,  toe- 
nailed  to  the  sill  and  stayed  to  the  rib  holding  the  others  in  place. 

The  next  step  should  be  to  put  on  the  outside  layer  of  sheeting  which, 
for  all  of  the  silos  less  than  30  feet  in  diameter,  should  be  %-inch  lum- 
ber made  by  buying  a good  quality  of  fencing  and  taking  it  to  the  mill 
to  have  it  sawed  in  two.  The  usual  price  for  sawing  fencing  in  two 
in  this  way  is  $1.00  per  thousand.  The  reason  for  getting  fencing  and 
having  it  sawed  in  this  manner  is  to  save  expense.  It  is  the  custom 


Silage,  and  the  Construction  of  Modern  Silos.  21 

of  dealers  to  charge  the  same  price  for  half  inch  as  for  inch  lumber, 
and  hence  buying  good  fencing  and  having  it  sawed  reduces  the  cost 
just  one  half,  less  the  cost  of  sawing.  The  studding  should  be  covered 
inside  and  out  with  this  sheeting,  nailing  thoroughly  with  8-penny 
nails,  two  nails  in  each  board  at  every  stud.  The  object  of  the  boards 
is  to  act  as  hoops  and  give  the  silo  the  needed  strength. 

If  the  silo  is  out  of  doors  it  will  need  to  be  covered  with  house  sid- 
ing with  the  thick  edge  rabbetted,  or  else  veneered  with  a single  course 
of  brick.  Several  silos  have  been  sided  with  half-inch  lumber  with  both 
edges  beveled  at  an  angle  of  45  degrees  to  take  the  place  of  the  rabbet. 
This  method  gives  greater  strength,  but  is  not  likely  to  keep  out  rain 
as  thoroughly. 

The  Silo  Lining. — The  brick  lining  of  the  silo  should  be  laid  in  rich 
Milwaukee,  Akron  or  Louisville  cement  mortar,  the  bricks  being  pre- 
viously wet.  The  most  rigid  lining  will  be  secured  by  laying  the 
brick  flatwise  making  the  layer  4 inches  thick  but  with  one-half  the 
amount  of  brick  they  may  be  set  on  edge,  thus  considerably  lessening 
the  cost.  If  set  on  edge,  as  represented  in  Fig.  9,  a row  of  spikes  should 
be  driven  into  the  studding  through  the  joints  of  every  fourth  course 
to  hold  the  brick  more  securely  in  place  until  the  cement  has  had  time 
to  season. 

The  mortar  should  not  be  made  more  than  % of  an  inch  thick  and 
great  care  should  be  taken  to  leave  no  open  space  anywhere.  The  ne- 
cessity of  plastering  the  wall  may  be  avoided  by  filling  behind  each 
brick  with  one-half  an  inch  of  mortar  which  will  keep  out  the  air  as 
well  as  if  on  the  front  side  and  there  will  be  the  additional  advantage 
of  the  cement  not  coming  in  direct  contact  with  the  silage  juices.  If 
care  is  taken  in  setting  the  brick  so  as  to  secure  a smooth  face,  point- 
ing the  joints  carefully,  it  will  not  be  necessary  to  even  whitewash  the 
wall  and  a permanent  lining  requiring  no  attention  will  thus  be  secured. 

In  this  form  of  silo  the  brick  may  have  one  face  filled  with  coal  tar, 
as  described  under  the  all-brick  silo,  or  the  vitrified  paving  brick  may 
be  used  as  there  described,  giving  a lining  wholly  air  tight  and  perma- 
nent. 


3 


22 


Bulletin  No.  83. 


Fig.^  9.— Showing  a brick  lined  round  silo  with  bricks  set  on  edge  and  plastered 
with  cement.  Dots  A,  A show  where  an  iron  rod  may  be  bedded  in  the  wall 
to  prevent  spreading. 


COST  OF  BRICK-LINED  BILOS. 

Counting  the  stone  foundation  of  this  type  of  silo  10' cents  per  sur- 
face foot  of  wall  the  cost  of  the  types  of  brick-lined  silos  which  have 
been  described  will  be,  when  brick  are  $7  per  thousand,  not  far  from 
the  figures  in  the  following  table: 


Silage , and  the  Construction  of  Modern  Silos. 


23 


Approximate  cost  of  the  walls  of  two  types  of  brick-lined  silos 

30  feet  deep. 


Inside  Diameter. 

Outside  Construction. 

Inside  Construction. 

Brick 

flatwise. 

Brick 
on  edge. 

Brick 

flatwise. 

Brick 
on  edge . 

13  feet 

$219 

$171 

$142 

$131 

14  feet 

226 

182 

183 

140 

15  feet 

241 

194 

195 

149 

16  feet.. 

255 

206 

206 

158 

17  feet 

269 

217 

208 

167 

18  feet 

283 

229 

229 

176 

19  feet* 

298 

241 

241 

185 

20  feet 

312 

252 

252 

194 

21  feet 

326 

264 

264 

203 

22  feet 

341 

276 

276 

212 

23  feet 

355 

288 

287 

221 

24  feet 

369 

299 

299 

230 

25  feet 

384 

311 

310 

239 

30  feet 

455 

370 

368 

284 

If  either  of  these  silos  is  to  be  provided  with  a good  roof  the  cost 
of  the  smallest  one  would  be  increased  about  $20,  and  that  of  the  25- 
foot  one  about  $58. 


ROUND  PLASTERED  SILO. 

Where  brick  are  high,  lumber  low,  and  clean,  sharp  sand  may  be 
readily  obtained,  a cement  plastered  lining  may  be  made  to  take  the 
place  of  the  brick  lining,  using  the  Milwaukee,  Akron,  Rosendale  or 
Louisville  cement  in  making  the  mortar. 

The  frame  work  of  the  silo  should  be  made  exactly  like  that  of  the 
silo  with  brick  lining  except  that  there  should  be  two  layers  of  half- 
inch sheeting  on  the  inside  with  a layer  of  3-ply  Giant  P.  and  B.  paper 
between,  or  other  of  as  good  quality. 

After  the  woodwork  of  the  silo  has  been  completed  it  should  be 
lathed  and  plastered  with  a cement  mortar  made  of  1 of  cement  to 
2 of  sand. 

If  wood  lath  are  used  there  should  be  furring  strips  of  lath  nailed 
to  each  stud  up  and  down  and  the  lath  nailed  through  these.  If  metal 
lath  is  used  this  may  be  nailed  directly  to  furring  strips  of  lath  nailed 
to  the  studding  over  the  lining  and  the  plastering  then  done. 


24 


Jlullctin  No.  83. 


There  are  a good  many  of  these  lathed  and  plastered  cylindrical 
silos  in  Racine  and  Kenosha  counties  in  this  state,  and  across  the  line 
in  Illinois.  Some  of  these  have  been  in  use  since  1889  and  have  given 
good  satisfaction. 

It  should  be  understood  that  it  would  not  do  to  lath  and  plaster  a 
rectangular  wood  silo  because  the  springing  of  the  walls  would  crack 
the  cement.  It  should  be  understood  further  that  on  account  of  the 
fact  that  the  layer  of  cement  is  so  thin  it  is  a matter  of  greater  im- 
portance to  keep  the  surface  whitewashed  to  prevent  the  acid  from 
softening  the  cement  and  rendering  it  porous.  It  is  because  of  this 
also  that  two  layers  of  lining  with  paper  between  are  recommended. 

In  some  of  these  silos  ordinary  hair  mortar  has  been  used  for  the 
first  coat  and  this  covered  with  a cement  finish,  while  in  others  only  the 
cement  plaster  has  been  employed  with  hair  in  the  first  coat. 

COST  OF  LATHED  AND  PLASTERED  SILOS. 

Four  of  the  lathed  and  plastered  silos  visited  cost  $300,  $200,  $475 
and  $352.90  respectively.  The  first  was  22  feet  deep  and  26  feet  inside 
diameter;  the  second  23  feet  by  18  feet;  the  third  25  feet  by  30  feet, 
and  the  fourth  27  feet  deep  and  30  feet  inside  diameter.  All  were  pro- 
vided with  stone  foundations  12  to  30  inches  in  height,  with  good  roofs 
and  cupolas,  and  were  substantially  built  in  every  way. 

If  we  allow  the  same  cost  for  the  roof  of  this  type  of  silos  as  we 
have  in  computing  the  cost  of  the  preceding  types,  namely,  9 cents  per 
square  foot  of  horizontal  area  covered  by  the  roof,  and  deduct  this 
from  the  total  cost  of  the  silo,  it  will  be  found  that  the  cost  of  the 
walls  of  these  four  lathed-and-plastered  silos  was  at  the  mean  rate  of 
12.98  cents  per  square  foot  of  outside  surface  of  the  wall;  and  using 
these  values  the  results  given  in  the  table  below  are  obtained: 


Approximate  cost  of  lathed  and  plastered  cylindrical  silos  30  feet 

deep. 


Inside 

diameter. 

Outside  con- 
struction with 
roof  and  sid- 
ing. 

Inside  con- 
struction with 
out  roof  and 
outer  layer  of 
siding. 

13  feet 

$185 

$133 

14  feet 

199 

143 

15  feet 

213 

152 

16  feet 

228 

161 

17  fet  

242 

170 

18  feet 

257 

180 

19  feet 

272 

189 

Inside 

diameter. 

Outside  con- 
struction with 
roof  and  sid- 
ing. 

Inside  con- 
struction with 
out  roof  and 
outer  layer  of 
siding. 

20  feet 

$286 

$198 

21  feet 

301 

207 

22  feet 

316 

217 

23  feet. 

332 

226 

24  feet 

347 

235 

25  feet 

363 

244 

30  feet 

443 

291 

25 


Qilagc,  and  the  Construction  of  Modern  Silos. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  cost  of  this  type  of  silo  is  somewhat  more 
than  that  of  the  stone  silo  where  the  cost  of  stone  is  not  included. 
Where  the  silo  is  made  inside  of  a barn  or  if  it  is  built  out  of  doors 
without  roof  or  other  weather  protection  than  the  materials  needed  for 
strength  and  lining,  a silo  13  feet  inside  diameter  and  30  feet  deep  will 
cost  about  $133,  while  one  25  feet  in  diameter  will  cost  $244.  The  first 
silo  will  hold  70  to  80  tons,  and  the  last  290  tons,  thus  making  the  cost 
at  the  rate  of  $1.77  and  80  cents  per  ton  of  silage. 


Fig.  10.— Showing  two  round  wrood  silos  with  stone  foundations  at  Hubbletou, 

Wis. 

CONSTRUCTION  OF  ALL- WOOD  SILOS. 

Up  to  the  present  time  more  silos  have  been  built  of  wood  than  of 
any  other  material,  and  since  Bulletin  28  of  this  Station,  issued  in 
1891,  describing  the  method  of  constructing  the  all-wood  cylindrical 
silo,  represented  in  Fig.  11,  the  majority  of  wood  silos  built  have  been 
after  this  model.  Very  few  silos  of  the  rectangular  type  are  now  built 
unless  they  be  of  stone. 

The  Foundation. — There  should  be  a good,  substantial  masonry 
foundation  for  all  forms  of  wood  silos  and  the  woodwork  should  every- 
where be  at  least  12  inches  above  the  earth  to  prevent  decay  from 
dampness.  There  are  few  conditions  where  it  will  not  be  desirable  to 
have  the  bottom  of  the  silo  3 feet  or  more  below  the  feeding  floor  of 
the  stable  and  this  will  require  not  less  than  4 to  6 feet  of  stone,  brick, 
or  concrete  wall.  For  a silo  30  feet  deep  the  foundation  wall  of  stone 
should  be  1.5  to  2 feet  thick. 


26 


Bulletin  No.  83. 


The  inside  of  the  foundation  wall  may  be  made  flush  with  the  wood- 
work above,  as  represented  in  Fig.  12  A,  or  the  building  may  stand  in 
the  ordinary  way,  flush  with  the  outside  of  the  stone  wall,  as  repre- 
sented in  Fig.  12  B.  In  both  cases  the  wall  should  be  finished  sloping 
as  shown  in  the  drawings. 


Fig.  11.— Showing  an  all-wood  round  silo  on  stone  foundation.  H represents  a 
method  of  saAving  boards  for  the  conical  roof. 


So  far  as  the  keeping  of  the  silage  is  concerned  it  makes  little  dif- 
ference which  of  these  types  of  construction  is  adopted.  The  outward 


Silage,  and  the  Construction  of  Modern  Silos. 


27 


pressure  on  the  silo  wall  is  greater  where  the  wall  juts  into  the  silo, 
but  the  wall  is  better  protected  against  the  weather.  Where  the  pro- 
jecting wall  is  outside,  the  silo  has  a greater  capacity,  but  there  is 
a strong  tendency  for  the  wall  to  crack  and  allow  rain  to  penetrate  it. 
Where  this  plan  is  followed  it  is  important  to  finish  the  sloping  sur- 
face with  cement  or  to  shingle  it  to  keep  out  the  water. 


Fig.  12.— Showing  two  methods  of  placing  the  wood,  brick  lined  or  lathed  and 
plastered  silo  on  a stone  foundation.  A shows  the  silo  set  with  upper  por- 
tion flush  with  the  inside  of  the  stone  w^all,  and  B shows  the  upper  por- 
tion flush  with  the  outside  of  the  stone  wall. 

Bottom  of  the  Silo. — After  the  silo  has  been  completed  the  ground 
forming  the  bottom  should  be  thoroughly  tamped  so  as  to  be  solid  and 
then  covered  with  two  or  three  inches  of  good  concrete  made  of  1 of 
cement  to  3 or  4 of  sand  and  gravel.  The  amount  of  silage  which  will 
spoil  on  a hard  clay  floor  will  not  be  large,  but  enough  to  pay  a good 
interest  on  the  money  invested  in  the  cement  floor.  If  the  bottom  of 
the  silo  is  in  dry  sand  or  gravel  the  cement  bottom  is  imperative  to  shut 
out  the  soil  air. 

Tieing  the  Top  of  the  Stone  Wall. — In  case  the  wood  portion  of  the 
silo  rises  24  or  more  feet  above  the  stone  work  and  the  diameter  is 
more  than  18  feet  it  will  be  prudent  to  stay  the  top  of  the  wall  in  some 
way. 

If  the  woodwork  rises  from  the  outer  edge  of  the  wall,  then  building 
the  wall  up  with  cement  so  as  to  cover  the  sill  and  lining  as  represented 
in  Figs.  18  and  16  will  give  the  needed  strength,  because  the  wood- 
work will  act  as  a hoop;  but  if  the  silo  stands  at  the  inner  face  of  the 
wall,  it  will  be  best  to  lay  pieces  of  iron  rod  in  the  wall  near  the  top 
to  act  as  a hoop. 

Where  the  stone  portion  of  the  silo  is  high  enough  to  need  a door 


28 


Bulletin  No.  S3. 


it  is  best  to  leave  enough  wall  between  the  top  and  the  sill  to  allow 
a tie  rod  of  iron  to  be  bedded  in  this  portion.  So,  too,  the  lower  door 
in  the  woodwork  of  the  silo  should  leave  a full  foot  in  width  below  it 
of  lining  and  siding  uncut  to  act  as  a hoop,  where  the  pressure  is 
strongest. 

Forming  the  Sill. — The  sill  in  the  all-wood  silo  may  be  made  of  a 
single  2x4  cut  in  2-foot  lengths  in  the  manner  represented  in  Fig.  8 and 
described  under  the  brick  lined  silo. 

Setting  the  Studding. — The  studding  of  the  all-wood  round  silo  need 
not  be  larger  than  2x4  unless  the  diameter  is  to  exceed  30  feet,  but 
they  should  be  set  as  close  together  as  one  foot  from  center  to  center, 
as  represented  in  Fig.  13.  This  number  of  studs  is  not  required  for 
strength  but  they  are  needed  in  order  to  bring  the  two  layers  of  lining 
very  close  together  so  as  to  press  the  paper  closely  and  prevent  air 
from  entering  where  the  paper  laps. 


Fig.  13.— Showing  the  plan  of  studding  for  the  all-wood,  brick  lined  or  lathed 

and  plastered  silo. 

Where  studding  longer  than  20  feet  are  needed  short  lengths  may 
be  lapped  one  foot  and  simply  spiked  together  before  they  are  set  in 
place  on  the  wall.  This  will  be  cheaper  than  to  pay  the  higher  price 
for  long  lengths.  All  studding  should  be  given  the  exact  length  de- 
sired before  putting  them  in  place. 


29 


Silage,  and  the  Construction  of  Modern  Silos. 

To  stay  the  studding  a post  should  be  set  in  the  ground  in  the  cen- 
ter of  the  silo  long  enough  to  reach  about  5 feet  above  the  sill  and  to 
this  stays  may  be  nailed  to  hold  in  place  the  alternate  studs  until  the 
lower  5 feet  of  outside  sheeting  has  been  put  on.  The  studs  should 
be  set  first  at  the  angles  formed  in  the  sill  and  carefully  stayed  and 
plumbed  on  the  side  toward  the  center.  When  a number  of  these  have 


v- 

V/<A/77^7yW//W/yW//W/M 

jlL : 

1 

1 

s 

\ 

1 

I 

F 


Fig.  14.— Showing  tne  construction  of  the  door  for  the  all-wood  silo.  G is  a cross 
section  of  the  door  resting  against  the  door  jamb,  which  is  provided  with  a 
gasket  of  three-ply  ruberoid  roofing  and  held  in  place  with  four  lag  bolts  and 
washers,  the  door  opening  on  the  inside.  F is  a front  view  of  the  door 
made  of  two  layers  of  four  inch  or  six  inch  tongued  and  grooved  flooring 
with  a layer  of  three-ply  acid  and  water  proof  P.  »fc  B.  paper  between. 

been  set  they  should  be  tied  together  by  bending  a strip  of  half-inch 
sheeting  around  the  outside  as  high  up  as  a man  can  reach,  taking 
care  to  plumb  each  stud  on  the  side  before  nailing.  When  the  alter- 
nate studs  have  been  set  in  this  way  the  balance  may  be  placed  and 
toe-nailed  to  the  sill  and  stayed  to  the  rib,  first  plumbing  them  sideways 
and  toward  tne  center. 


30 


Bulletin  No.  83. 


Setting  Studding  for  Doors. — On  the  side  of  the  silo  where  the  doors 
are  to  be  placed  the  studding  should  be  set  double  and  the  distance 
apart  to  give  the  desired  width.  A stud  should  be  set  between  the  two 
door  studs  as  though  no  door  were  to  be  there  and  the  doors  cut  out 
at  the  places  desired  afterwards.  The  construction  of  the  door  is  rep- 
resented in  Fig.  14. 

Silo  Sheeting  and  Siding. — The  character  of  the  siding  and  sheeting 
will  vary  considerably  according  to  conditions,  and  size  of  the  silo. 

Where  the  diameter  of  the  silo  is  less  than  18  feet  inside  and  not 
much  attention  need  be  paid  to  frost,  a single  layer  of  beveled  siding, 
rabbetted  on  the  inside  of  the  thick  edge  deep  enough  to  receive  the 
thin  edge  of  the  board  below,  will  be  all  that  is  absolutely  necessary 
on  the  outside  for  strength  and  protection  against  weather.  This 
statement  is  made  on  the  supposition  that  the  lining  is  made  of  two 
layers  of  fencing  split  in  two,  the  three  layers  constituting  the  hoops. 

If  the  silo  is  larger  than  18  feet  inside  diameter,  there  should  be  a 
layer  of  half-inch  sheeting  outside,  under  the  siding. 

If  basswood  is  used  for  siding  care  should  be  taken  to  paint  it  at 
once,  otherwise  it  will  warp  badly  if  it  gets  wet  before  painting. 

In  applying  the  sheeting  begin  at  the  bottom,  carrying  the  work 
upward  until  staging  is  needed,  following  this  at  once  with  the  siding. 
Two  8-penny  nails  should  be  used  in  each  board  in  every  stud,  and  to 
prevent  the  walls  from  getting  “out  of  round”  the  succeeding  courses 
of  boards  should  begin  on  the  next  stud,  thus  making  the  ends  of  the 
boards  break  joints. 

When  the  stagings  are  put  up  new  stays  should  be  tacked  to  the 
studs  above,  taking  care  to  plumb  each  one  from  side  to  side;  the  sid- 
ing itself  will  bring  them  into  place  and  keep  them  plumb  the  other  way 
if  care  is  taken  to  start  new  courses  as  described  above. 

Forming  the  Plate. — When  the  last  staging  is  up  the  plate  should  be 
formed  by  spiking  2x4’s,  cut  in  two-foot  lengths,  in  the  manner  of  the 
sill,  and  as  represented  in  Fig.  17,  down  upon  the  tops  of  the  studs, 
using  two  courses,  making  the  second  break  joints  with  the  first. 

THE  LINING  OF  THE  WOOD  SILO. 

There  are  several  ways  of  making  a good  lining  for  the  all  wood 
round  silo,  but  which  ever  method  is  adopted  it  must  be  kept  in  mind 
that  there  are  two  very  important  ends  to  be  secured  with  a certainty. 
These  are  (1)  a lining  which  shall  be  and  remain  strictly  air  tight,  (2) 
a lining  which  will  be  reasonably  permanent. 

Galvanized  Iron  in  Silo  Lining. — The  tightest  lining  for  a wood  silo 
may  be  made  with  a light  weight  of  galvanized  iron,  No.  28  to  No.  32. 
Where  the  silos  are  18  feet  in  diameter  or  less  this  may  be  put  directly 
upon  the  studding,  buying  the  strips  8 feet  long  and  36  inches  wide, 
so  as  to  be  nailed  on  up  and  down  and  exactly  cover  the  space  between 


Silage,  and  the  Construction  of  Modern  Silos . 31 

three  or  four  studs.  Headers  should  be  put  in  every  8 feet  to  nail  the 
ends  of  the  sheets  to  between  the  studs,  and  these  are  best  when  sawed 
to  the  curve  of  the  silo.  The  metal  should  be  put  on  with  roofing  nails, 
nailing  close  so  as  to  make  the  joints  tight. 

After  the  metal  is  in  place  it  should  be  given  a heavy  coat  of  asphalt 
paint,  taking  special  care  to  make  it  heavy  where  the  nails  and  laps 
come  so  as  to  shut  out  the  air. 

When  the  metal  is  in  place  and  painted  it  should  be  covered  with  a 
layer  of  sheeting  made  the  same  as  that  used  outside,  by  splitting  good 
fencing  in  two.  The  object  of  this  layer  of  sheeting  is,  first,  to  take 
the  pressure  of  the  silage;  second,  to  act  as  a hoop  for  strength,  and 
third,  to  keep  the  silage  from  softening  and  wiping  the  paint  from 
the  metal  lining.  Were  it  not  for  the  fact  that  the  heat  of  the  silage 
tends  to  soften  the  paint  and  its  settling  to  wipe  it  off,  it  would  be 
better  to  let  the  metal  come  next  to  the  silage. 

Where  the  silo  is  more  than  18  feet  in  diameter  it  will  be  best  to 
use  two  layers  of  fencing  split  in  two,  placing  the  galvanized  iron  be- 
tween the  two  layers.  In  these  cases  the  sheets  of  metal  may  be  put 
on  horizontally,  using  those  36  inches  wide. 

It  has  been  demonstrated  that  such  a lining  as  this  will  reduce  the 
unavoidable  losses  to  as  low  as  3.8  per  cent.  Such  a lining,  too,  will 
be  permanent  because  all  of  the  woodwork  outside  of  the  lining  will 
not  be  affected  at  all  by  the  silage  and  there  is  only  a single  layer 
of  boards  % inch  thick  against  the  silage.  This  layer  cannot  rot 
when  the  silage  is  in  contact  with  it  because  it  will  be  completely 
filled  with  wrater  and  air  is  excluded  from  it.  When  the  silage  is  re- 
moved from  the  lining  it  is  so  thin  that  it  will  dry  rapidly  and  this 
will  prevent  it  from  rotting. 

The  galvanized  iron  varies  somewhat  in  price,  but  at  the  present 
time  costs  about  6 cents  per  pound.  This  is  at  the  rate  of  4 cents 
per  square  foot  for  No.  32  iron,  and  would  make  for  nails,  paint,  and 
iron  a cost  of  about  $47  for  the  24  feet  of  woodwork  of  a silo  13  feet 
in  diameter  and  30  feet  deep;  and  for  a silo  25  feet  inside  diameter 
nearly  twice  this  amount.  The  best  3-ply  Giant  paper  would  cost 
about  Ye  of  this  amount,  but  this  is  not  likely  to  remain  air  tight  as 
long. 

All  Wood  Lining  of  Ifinch  Flooring. — If  one  is  willing  to  permit  a 
loss  of  10  to  12  per  cent,  of  the  silage  by  heating,  then  a lining  of 
tongued  and  grooved  ordinary  4-inch  white  pine  flooring  may  be  made 
in  the  manner  represented  in  Fig.  15,  where  the  flooring  runs  up  and 
down.  When  this  lumber  is  put  on  in  the  seasoned  condition  a sin- 
gle layer  would  make  tighter  walls  than  can  be  secured  with  the  stave 
silo  where  the  staves  are  neither  beveled  nor  tongued  and  grooved. 

In  the  silos  smaller  than  IS  feet  inside  diameter  the  two  layers 
of  boards  outside  will  give  the  needed  strength,  but  when  the  silo  is 


32 


Bulletin  No.  83. 


larger  than  this  and  deep  there  would  be  needed  a layer  of  the  split 
fencing  on  the  inside  for  strength;  and  if  in  addition  to  this  there 
is  added  a layer  of  3-ply  Giant  P.  and  B.  paper  a lining  of  very  supe- 
rior quality  would  be  thus  secured. 


Fig.  15.— Showing  the  construction  of  the  all-wood  round  silo  where  the  lining 
is  made  of  ordinary  four  inch  flooring  running  up  and  down,  and  nailed  to 
girts  cut  in  between  the  studding  every  four  feet. 

Lining  of  Half-inch  Boards  and  Paper. — Where  paper  is  used  to  make 
the  joints  between  boards  air  tight,  as  represented  in  Fig.  16,  it  is  ex- 
tremely important  that  a quality  which  will  not  decay  and  which  is 
both  acid  and  water-proof  be  used.  A paper  which  is  not  acid  and 
water-proof  will  disintegrate  at  the  joints  in  a very  short  time  and 
thus  leave  the  lining  very  defective. 

The  best  paper  for  silo  purposes  with  which  we  are  acquainted  is 
the  3-ply  Giant  P.  and  B.  brand  manufactured  by  the  Standard  Paint 
Co.  of  Chicago  and  New  York.  It  is  thick,  strong,  and  acid  and  water- 
proof. 

A silo  lining  with  two  thicknesses  of  good  fencing  having  only  small 
knots,  and  these  thoroughly  sound  and  not  black,  will  make  an  excel- 
lent lining. 


Silage,  and  the  Construction  of  Modern  Silos. 


33 


Great  care  should  be  taken  to  have  the  two  layers  of  boards  break 
joints  at  their  centers,  and  the  paper  should  lap  not  less  than  8 to  12 
inches. 

The  great'  danger  with  this  type  of  lining  will  be  that  the  boards 
may  not  press  the  two  layers  of  paper  together  close  enough  so  but  that 
some  air  may  rise  between  the  two  sheets  where  they  overlap  and 
thus  gain  access  to  the  silage.  It  would  be  an  excellent  precaution  to 
take  to  tack  down  closely  with  small  carpet  tacks  the  edges  of  the 
paper  where  they  overlap,  and  if  this  is  done  a lap  of  2 inches  will  be 
sufficient. 


Fig.  16.— Showing  method  of  constructing  the  all-wood  round  silo  and  connecting 
it  with  the  wall  flush  with  the  outside.  This  figure  shows  the  most  sub- 
stantial form  of  construction  with  three  layers  of  three  inch  lumber  and  two 
layers  of  three-ply  acid  and  water  proof  1’  & B paper  between  them.  A 
very  excellent  silo  is  made  after  this  plan  omitting  the  inner  layer  of  lining 
and  paper  and  the  layer  of  paper  on  the  outside.  With  small  siios  15  feet  in 
diameter  only  the  siding  on  the  outside  is  necessary  for  strength  and  pro- 
tection against  weather. 


The  first  layer  of  lining  should  be  put  on  with  8-penny  nails,  two 
in  each  board  and  stud,  and  the  second  or  inner  layer  with  10-penny 
nails,  the  fundamental  object  being  to  draw  the  two  layers  of  boards 
as  closely  together  as  possible. 


34 


Bulletin  No.  83. 


Such  a lining  as  this  will  be  very  durable  because  the  paper  will 
keep  all  the  lumber  dry  except  the  inner  layer  of  half-inch  boards,  and 
this  will  be  kept  wet  by  the  paper  and  silage  until  empty  and  then 
the  small  thickness  of  wood  will  dry  too  quickly  to  permit  rotting  to 
set  in. 

A still  more  substantial  lining  of  the  same  type  may  be  secured 
by  using  two  layers  of  paper  between  three  layers  of  boards,  as  rep- 
resented in  Fig.  16,  and  if  the  climate  is  not  extremely  severe,  or  if 
the  silo  is  only  to  be  fed  from  in  the  summer,  it  would  be  better  to  do 
away  with  the  layer  of  sheeting  and  paper  outside,  putting  it  on  the 
inside,  thus  securing  two  layers  of  paper  and  three  layers  of  boards 
for  the  lining  with  the  equivalent  of  only  2 inches  of  lumber. 


Fig.  17. — Showing  construction  of  conical  roof  of  round  silo  where  rafters  are  not 
used.  The  outer  circle  is  the  lower  edge  of  the  roof,  the  second  circle  is  the 
plate,  the  third  and  fourth  circles  are  hoops  to  which  the  roof  boards  are 
nailed.  The  viewT  is  a plan  looking  up  from  the  under  side. 


THE  SILO  ROOF. 

The  roof  of  cylindrical  silos  may  be  made  in  several  ways,  but  the 
simplest  type  of  construction  and  the  one  requiring  the  least  amount 
of  material  is  that  represented  in  Figs.  11  and  17,  and  which  is  the 


cone. 


35 


Silage,  and  the  Construction  of  Modern  Silos. 

If  the  silo  is  not  larger  than  15  feet  inside  diameter  no  rafters  need 
be  used,  and  only  a single  circle  like  that  in  the  center  of  Fig.  16,  this 
is  made  of  2-inch  stuff  cut  in  sections  in  the  form  of  a circle  and  two 
layers  spiked  together,  breaking  joints. 

The  roof  boards  are  put  on  by  nailing  them  to  the  inner  circle  and 
to  the  plate  as  shown  in  the  drawing,  the  boards  having  been  sawed 
diagonally  as  represented  at  H,  Fig.  11,  making  the  wide  and  narrow 
ends  the  same  relative  widths  as  the  circumferences  of  the  outer  edge 
of  the  roof  and  of  the  inner  circle. 

If  the  silo  has  an  inside  diameter  exceeding  15  feet  it  will  be  neces- 
sary to  use  two  or  three  hoops  according  to  diameter.  When  the 
diameter  is  greater  than  25  feet  it  will  usually  be  best  to  use  rafters 
and  headers  cut  in  for  circles  4 feet  apart  to  nail  the  roof  boards 
to,  which  are  cut  as  represented  at  H,  Fig.  11. 

The  conical  roof  may  be  covered  with  ordinary  shingle,  splitting 
those  wider  than  8 inches.  By  laying  the  butts  of  the  shingle  y8  to 
of  an  inch  apart  it  is  not  necessary  to  taper  any  of  the  shingles 
except  a few  courses  near  the  peak  of  the  roof. 

In  laying  the  shingle  to  a true  circle  and  with  the  right  exposure 
to  the  weather  a good  method  is  to  use  a strip  of  wood  as  a radius 
wrhich  works  on  a center  set  at  the  peak  of  the  roof  and  provided 
with  a nail  or  pencil  to  make  a mark  on  the  shingle  where  the  butts 
of  the  next  course  are  to  come.  The  radius  may  be  bored  with  a series 
of  holes  the  right  distance  apart  to  slip  over  the  center  pivot,  or  the 
nail  may  be  drawn  and  reset  as  desired.  Some  carpenters  file  a notch 
in  the  shingling  hatchet  and  use  this  to  bring  the  shingle  to  place. 

VENTILATION  OF  THE  SILO. 

Every  silo  which  has  a roof  should  be  provided  with  ample  ventila- 
tion to  keep  the  underside  of  the  roof  dry  and  in  the  case  of  wood  silos, 
to  prevent  the  walls  and  lining  from  rotting.  One  of  the  most  serious 
mistakes  in  the  early  construction  of  wood  silos  was  the  making  of 
the  walls  with  dead-air  spaces  which,  on  account  of  the  dampness  from 
the  silage,  lead  to  rapid  “dry  rot”  of  the  lining. 

In  the  wood  silo  and  in  the  brick  lined  silo  it  is  important  to  pro- 
vide ample  ventilation  for  the  spaces  between  the  studs,  as  well  as 
for  the  roof  and  the  inside  of  the  silo,  and  a good  method  of  doing 
this  is  represented  in  Fig.  18,  where  the  lower  portion  represents  the 
sill  and  the  upper  the  plate  of  the  silo.  Between  each  pair  of  studs 
where  needed  a l^-inch  auger  hole  to  admit  air  is  bored  through  the 
siding  and  sheeting  and  covered  with  a piece  of  wire  netting  to  keep 
out  mice  and  rats.  At  the  top  of  the  silo  on  the  inside  the  lining  is 
only  covered  to  within  two  inches  of  the  plate  and  this  space  is  cov- 
ered with  wire  netting  to  prevent  silage  from  being  thrown  over  when 
filling.  This  arrangement  permits  dry  air  from  outside  to  enter  at 


36 


Bulletin  No.  83. 


Fig.  18.— Showing  method  of  construction  for  ventilating  the  spaces  between  the 
studding  in  all-wood  and  lathed  and  plastered  silos.  The  lower  portion  shows 
the  intakes  of  fresh  air  from  the  outside  at.  the  bottom,  and  the  upper  por- 
tion shows  where  the  air  enters  the  silo  at  the  plate  to  pass  out  at  the  ven- 
tilator in  the  roof. 


Silage,  and  the  Construction  of  Modern  Silos. 


37 


the  bottom  between  each  pair  of  studs  and  to  pass  up  and  into  the 
silo,  thus  keeping  the  lining  and  studding  dry  and  at  the  same  time 
drying  the  under  side  of  the  roof  and  the  inside  of  the  lining  as  fast 
as  exposed.  In  those  cases  where  the  sill  is  made  of  2x4’s  cut  in  2- 
foot  lengths  there  will  be  space  enough  left  between  the  curved  edge 
of  the  siding  and  sheeting  and  the  sill  for  air  to  enter  so  that  no  holes 
need  be  bored  as  described  above  and  represented  in  Fig.  18.  The 
openings  at  the  plate  should  always  be  provided  and  the  silo  should 
have  some  sort  of  ventilator  in  the  roof.  This  ventilator  may  take 
the  form  of  a cupola  to  serve  for  an  ornament  as  well,  or  it  may  be 
a simple  galvanized  iron  pipe  12  to  24  inches  in  diameter,  rising  a foot 
or  two  through  the  peak  of  the  roof. 

PAINTING  THE  SILO  LINING. 

It  is  impossible  to  so  paint  a wood  lining  that  it  will  not  become 
wholly  or  partly  saturated  with  the  silage  juices.  This  being  true, 
when  the  lining  is  again  exposed  when  feeding  the  silage  out,  the  paint 
greatly  retards  the  drying  of  the  wood  work  and  the  result  is  decay 
sets  in,  favored  by  the  prolonged  dampness.  For  this  reason  it  is  best 
to  leave  a wood  lining  naked  or  to  use  some  antiseptic  which  does  not 
form  a water  proof  coat. 

COST  OF  THE  ALL-WOOD  ROUND  SILO. 

The  cost  of  this  type  of  silo  will  vary  with  the  thoroughness  of  the 
manner  of  making  the  lining  and  of  protection  against  frost.  At  the 
present  prices  for  materials,  the  walls  will  cost  about  12.75  cents  per 
square  foot  of  outside  surface  when  the  lining  is  two  layers  of  half- 
inch  split  fencing  with  a layer  of  3-ply  Giant  P.  and  B.  paper  between, 
and  with  one  layer  of  split  fencing  outside,  covered  with  rabbetted 
house  siding. 

If  the  silo  is  built  inside  of  the  barn  the  siding  and  painting  may 
be  omitted  and  this  would  reduce  the  cost  more  than  3 cents  per  square 
foot  of  outside  surface,  and  save  the  roof.  In  the  next  table  are  given 
the  costs  for  outside  and  inside  construction  for  this  type  of  silo  made 
as  stated,  including  6 feet  of  foundation  wall  and  roof  for  the  outside 
silo. 

In  this  table  the  figures  given  are  for  thoroughly  good  silos  which 
will  keep  the  silage  well  and  which  will  have  a durability  comparable 
with  that  of  other  wooden  farm  buildings. 


4 


38 


Bulletin  No.  83. 


Approximate  cost  of  all-wood  round  silos  30  feet  deep. 


Inside 

diameter. 

Outside 

construction. 

Inside 

construction. 

Inside 

diameter. 

Outside 

construction. 

Inside 

construction. 

13  feet 

$183 

$128 

90  ffiftt. 

$282 

$19 1 

14  feet 

196 

137 

21  feet 

298 

200 

15  feet 

211 

146 

312 

208 

16  feet 

224 

155 

327 

217 

17  feet 

239 

164 

91  fppf-, 

342 

226 

18  feet 

253 

173 

25  font, . . . 

358 

235 

19  feet 

268 

182 

30  feet 

437 

280 

THE  CHEAPEST  SILO  FOP,  WARM  CLIMATES  AND  FOR  SUMMER  FEEDING  ONLY. 

If  one  Is  not  particular  about  the  appearance  of  the  building  and 
is  willing  to  do  without  a roof  or  to  cover  the  silo  with  straw,  wild 
hay,  or  some  similar  makeshift,  it  is  possible  to  build  much  more 
cheaply  than  the  figures  indicated  above. 

With  studding,  $18;  fencing,  $26,  split  into  %-inch  lumber,  and  3-ply 
acid  and  water  proof  paper,  $7.00  per  thousand,  the  materials  for  a 
silo  15  feet  inside  diameter  and  20  feet  deep  would  cost  about  $35,  not 
including  4 feet  of  foundation  wall.  Including  the  wall  the  whole  may 
be  built  for  between  50  and  60  dollars,  and  thoroughly  good  silage  be 
made  in  ft.  At  the  same  time  the  walls  would  stand  rigidly  without 
the  attention  required  for  the  stave  silo,  described  in  the  next  section. 

THE  STAVE  OR  TANK  SILO. 

We  have  examined  personally  the  past  season  19  stave  silos  and 
have  made  a careful  study  of  the  unavoidable  losses  in  one  of  these. 
We  have  also  studied  the  unavoidable  losses  in  two  kinds  of  small 
stave  silos.  As  a result  of  these  observations  it  has  been  demonstrated 
that  there  are  several  very  serious  objections  to  stave  silos  intended 
as  permanent  buildings  out  of  doors.  Some  of  these  are  stated  .below : 

1.  When  the  silo  is  empty  the  staves  shrink  and  loosen  the  hoops 
and  in  this  condition  the  wind  racks  the  building,  getting  it  out  of 
round,  out  of  plumb,  and  out  of  place  upon  the  foundation.  It  is  much 
more  easily  blown  down  than  other  forms  of  silos.  Two  of  the 
fourteen  out-of-door  silos  visited  had  been  blown  down;  one  of  these  was 
abandoned  and  the  hoops  sold  to  another  farmer;  the  other  was  set 
up  again  at  the  expense  of  a day’s  drive  for  new  staves  and  getting 
the  carpenters  to  set  it  up,  the  accident  happening  just  as  they  were 
ready  to  fill  the  silo  last  fall. 


Silage , and  the  Construction  of  Modern  Silos.  39 

A third  silo  of  the  fourteen  out-of-doors  we  visited  had  moved  on 
the  foundation  so  much  that  I could  put  my  arm  up  through  between 
the  stone  wall  and  the  outside  of  the  staves.  This  silo  had  been  stayed 
to  the  end  of  the  barn,  using  fence  wire  for  guy  rods. 

Three  others  of  the  fourteen  out-of-door  stave  silos  had  been  found 
so  unsatisfactory  that  they  were  subsequently  lined  on  the  inside  to 
prevent  the  silage  from  spoiling,  and  in  two  of  these  three  the  inner 
lining  has  rotted  out  on  account  of  the  dampness  which  the  outside 
staves  confines 

2.  There  is  great  danger  of  the  hoops  being  broken  by  the  intense 
pressure  of  the  silage  increased  by  the  swelling  of  the  staves.  In  one 
of  the  silos  visited  eight  out  of  ten  hoops  on  one  side  of  the  silo  and 
six  out  of  ten  on  the  opposite  side  had  sheared  in  two  the  2x4’s  used  for 
lugs;  but,  by  a fortunate  coincidence,  two  of  the  ten  hoops  remained 
intact  to  hold  the  silo  up,  assisted  by  some  half-inch  boards  which  had 
been  bent  around  the  inside  of  the  silo  at  the  top  to  prevent  the  staves 
from  falling  in. 

In  another  silo  where  4x4  oak  pieces  had  been  used  as  lugs,  the 
2-inch  iron  washers  had  been  crushed  their  full  depth  of  y2  inch  into 
the  hard  wood  and  two  of  the  pieces  of  wood  had  been  badly  injured 
by  the  severe  strain  upon  them. 

In  a fourth  silo  where  the  hoops  were  provided  with  iron  lugs  the 
staves  on  one  side  had  been  thrown  into  the  silo  by  the  swelling  of  the 
wood. 

It  is  urged  by  the  advocates  of  these  silos  that  with  a little  care  and 
judgment  the  nuts  of  the  hoops  may  be  tightened  or  loosened  as  needed 
and  such  accidents  averted.  There  is  enough  truth  in  this  statement 
to  induce  many  farmers  with  limited  means  to  take  the  risk,  but  life 
is  too  short  and  there  are  too  many  other  things  to  engross  the  at- 
tention of  good  farmers  for  them  to  lie  awake  nights  wondering 
whether  the  silo  hoops  are  too  tight  or  too  loose. 

3.  Staves  do  not  contain  the  same  amount  of  sapwood  in  all  parts 
and  for  this  reason  shrink  unequally,  with  the  result  that  after  3 or 
4 years’  use  there  are  places  which  do  not  close  up  tightly  on  swell- 
ing and  which  open  again  on  the  sunny  side  of  the  silo,  and  thus  ad- 
mit air,  even  where  the  silage  is  in  contact  with  them. 

Three  of  the  silos  visited  showed  these  peculiarities,  and  ip  one  of 
them  visited  last  winter  we  could  see  through  between  several  staves 
on  the  south  side  of  the  silo  close  to  the  silage  surface,  on  the  inside. 

4.  Railroad  water  tanks,  when  made  in  the  best  manner,  of  the  best 
lumber,  and  cared  for  in  the  most  thorough  way  practicable,  have  to 
be  replaced  on  the  average  as  often  as  every  15  to  30  years. 

Hon.  Onward  Bates,  Engineer  and  Supt.  of  Bridges  and  Buildings 
for  the  C.,  M.  & St.  P.  Railway  Co.,  writes  in  reply  to  questions  re- 
garding the  life  of  wooden  water  tanks  as  follows: 


4C 


Bulletin  No.  83. 


“Replying  to  your  letter  of  March  8tli,  the  life  of  wooden  water  tanks  on 
our  road  is  variable.  I think  it  may  be  given  as  from  15  years,  under  unfavor- 
able conditions,  to  30  years  under  favorable  conditions.  If  the  tank  is  kept  full 
of  water  the  wood  remains  in  a saturated  condition  and  will  last  almost  indefi- 
nitely. In  such  a case  the  hoops  are  apt  to  rust  out  and  give  away,  but  they 
can  be  replaced  when  necessary. 

The  worst  condition  for  a tank  is  when  it  is  filled  with  water  at  times  and 
at  other  times  is  empty.  In  this  case  both  the  staves  and  the  bottom  rot  out. 

When  a tank  is  kept  partly  filled  with  water  the  top  of  it  will  rot  out  first 
and  we  have  the  additional  trouble  with  the  top  ends  of  the  staves  shrinking 
so  that  the  tank  will  not  hold  water  if  filled  above  the  ordinary  level. 

From  your  description  of  stave  silos,  I do  not  think  a wooden  tank  will  prove 
durable,  because  the  staves  will  not  be  kept  continuously  wet.  I would  expect 
such  a tank  to  fail  from  decay  in  from  five  to  ten  years.’’ 


The  condition  which  seems  to  the  writer  most  likely  to  cause  rotting 
in  these  silos  is  the  thickness  of  the  lumber  and  the  liability  that 
the  silage  may  not  give  moisture  enough  to  it  to  completely  saturate 
it,  and  so  will  bring  it  into  that  condition  of  moisture  favorable  to  “dry 
rot.”  The  case  is  manifestly  quite  different  from  the  wood  lined  silo 
where  only  a thin  layer  of  wood  is  backed  by  a water-proof  paper 
which  helps  to  keep  it  wet  while  the  silage  is  against  it. 

5.  The  expansion  and  contraction  of  the  staves  during  wetting  by 
the  silage  and  drying  when  the  silo  is  empty  makes  it  difficult  to  se- 
curely anchor  a permanent  roof  and  impossible  to  connect  the  staves 
permanently  with  the  foundation,  so  as  to  be  air-tight.  Something 
must  be  done  each  season  to  cement  the  joints  between  the  staves  and 
foundation  or  air  will  enter. 

6.  There  is  no  reason  to  hope  that  good  silage  with  small  losses 
in  dry  matter  can  be  made  in  the  stave  silos  which  are  not  carefully 
constructed  of  good  lumber  with  the  staves  both  beveled,  and  tongued 
and  grooved.  It  is  really  more  difficult  to  make  a stave  silo  air-tight 
than  it  is  to  make  a tank  water-tight,  and  we  have  found  by  careful 
tests  that  the  unavoidable  losses  in  a new  stave  silo  next  to  the  walls 
were  as  High  as  24  to  28  per  cent.,  as  given  in  detail  under  another 
section,  page  66. 

In  one  of  the  silos  visited  it  was  reported  that  they  had  from  2 to 
3 inches  of  mouldy  silage  next  to  the  walls,  but  that  cattle  would  eat 
it.  Such  conditions,  however,  are  not  associated  with  small  losses  and 
it  must  be  remembered  that  silage  may  lose  as  high  as  15  to  25  per 
cent,  of  its  dry  matter  and  yet  appear  to  be  good. 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  STAVE  SILOS. 

There  a-re  three  methods  adopted  in  the  construction  of  these  silos. 
The  best  and  only  one  which  should  be  used  in  the  permanent  silo 
is  that  represented  in  Fig.  19,  where  the  staves  are  both  beleved  and 
tongued-and-grooved;  the  second  is  where  the  staves  are  beveled  so 


Silage,  and  the  Construction  of  Modern  Silos.  41 

that  the  flat  surfaces  fit  together  accurately  as  water  tanks  are  made; 
sented  in  Fig.  27  where  2x4’s  of  Norway  pine  were  hooped  together 
without  either  beveling  or  tonguing-and-grooving,  and  this  both  ob- 
servation and  principles  of  construction  indicate  should  be  adopted 
with  very  great  hesitation  and  as  temporary  makeshifts  only  until 


Fig.  19.— Showing  the  construction  of  the  stave  silo.  A shows  the  silo  complete 
on  stone  foundation  with  four  feeding  doors.  B is  cross  section  of  four  staves 
showing  how  they  are  tongued  and  grooved  to  make  them  air-tight.  C shows 
a method  of  splicing  staves.  D shows  iron  lugs  for  tightening  hoops. 


42 


Bulletin  No.  83. 


more  experience  and  exact  knowledge  has  been  obtained  regarding 
their  permanent  efficiency.  * 

This  third  plan  has  been  recommended  because  the  first  cost  is  rel- 
atively low  and  because  it  is  assumed  that  the  pressure  due  to  the  swell- 
ing of  the  wood  and  the  rigidity  of  the  hoops  will  result  in  crushing  the 
edges  of  the  staves  together  so  as  to  make  a sufficiently  tight  joint  to 
preserve  the  silage. 

The  last  reason  has  been  put  to  a rigid  test  in  the  small  silo  repre- 
sented in  Fig.  27  where  2x4’s  of  Norway  pine  were  hooped  together 
as  shown  in  the  cut  in  a small  circumference  in  order  to  give  oppor- 
tunity for  the  maximum  amount  of  crushing  the  edges  together.  The 
pressure  due  to  swelling  became  so  great  that  the  outer  edges  of  the 
staves,  where  they^came  against  the  hoops  were  strongly  dented,  and 
yet  when  the  silo  was  opened  the  spoiled  silage  along  every  joint  be- 
tween the  staves  proved  that  air  had  entered.  Had  this  silo  been  out 
of  doors  ft  is  probable  that  freezing  would  have  reduced  this  spoiling 
but  it  must  be  remembered  that  there  is  considerable  warm  weather  in 
the  fall  and  in  the  spring  when  the  temperatures  are  high  enough  to 
permit  fermentation.  It  should  also  be  remembered  that  if  silage  does 
not  freeze  in  a stave  silo  in  cold  winter  weather,  it  is  because  fermen- 
tation is  going  on  with  sufficient  rapidity  to  prevent  it,  and  this  means 
a large  loss  of  feeding  value. 

Lumber  for  the  Staves. — The  lumber  selected  for  the  staves  of  this 
type  of  silo  should  be  of  the  grade  known  commercially  as  “tank  stuff,” 
and  lumber  freest  from  knots  and  straightest  grained  is  best.  Wood  is 
quite  air-tight  under  low  pressures  in  directions  across  the  grain  but 
along  the  grain  the  air  passes  more  or  less  freely.  The  Washington 
cedar  used  by  the  Williams  Manufacturing  Co.  in  the  construction  of  the 
silo  shone  in  Fig.  27  appears  to  be  an  excellent  wood  for  this  pur- 
pose, as  'it  shrinks  much  less  than  the  pine  after  the  silage  is  re- 
moved and,  for  this  reason,  the  building  will  be  much  more  stable  when 
empty  and  less  liable  to  burst  the  hoops  when  filled. 

Foundation  of  the  Stave  Silo.  On  account  of  the  tendency  of  the 
stave  silo  to  work  off  from  the  wall  when  empty  a flat  cement  floor  has 
been  recommended,  made  of  sand  and  gravel  or  crushed  rock,  forming 
a bed  of  concrete  about  12  inches  thick.  This  is  perhaps  as  good  as  can 
be  done  under  the  circumstances  but  it  precludes  the  extension  of  the 
silo  into  the  ground. 

If  the  silo  stands  upon  a stone  wall,  as  represented  in  Fig.  19  it  will 
be  prudent  to  have  a shoulder  jutting  into  the  silo  as  much  as  2 inches 
and  a similar  amount  on  the  outside,  to  permit  of  some  movement  on 
the  foundation. 

Hoops  for  the  Stave  Silo. — Five-eighths  inch  round  iron  rods,  in  about 
16-foot  lengths,  form  the  best  hoops  and  they  should  be  provided  with 
long  threads  and  joined  with  iron  lugs  and  nuts,  as  represented  in  D, 


Silage,  and  the  Construction  of  Modern  Silos. 


43 


Fig.  19.  The  iron  lugs  should  always  be  used  in  preference  to  the 
2x4’s  or  4x4’s  because  they  are  better  in  every  way.  So  too  should 
they  be  used  in  preference  to  posts  set  up  against  the  silo  outside  or 
shaped  to  act  as  a part  of  the  staves  as  has  been  recommended.  In 
visiting  over  100  silos  in  1891  it  was  found  that  wherever  a silo  lining 


Fig.  20.— Showing  the  construction  of  doors  for  stave  silos.  F is  front  view  of 
door  viewed  from  outside.  G cross  section  of  same.  E is  a vertical  section 
showing  the  shoulder  against  which  the  door  rests,  and  upon  which  should  be 
a gasket  of  three-ply  ruberoid  roofing.  The  door  should  also  be  drawn  tight 
against  it  with  four  lag  bolts  and  washers,  opening  from  the  inside. 


44 


Bulletin  No.  83. 


had  a heavy  timber  back  of  it,  the  holding  of  dampness  caused  rotting 
there  in  three  or  four  years,  and  it  is  quite  certain  that  the  use  of  iron 
lugs  is  the  safest  way  to  avoid  this  danger  in  stave  silos. 

Splicing  Staves. — Where  the  silo  is  to  be  deeper  than  can  readily  be 
secured  with  single  lengths  of  lumber  the  staves  may  be  spliced  in  the 
manner  represented  at  C,  Fig.  19,  where  a saw-cut  is  made  in  the  ends  of 
the  two  staves  and  a piece  of  galvanized  iron,  a little  wider  than  the 
stave  is  slipped  into  it.  This  crushes  into  the  wood  on  the  sides  and 
forms  a water  tight  joint. 

Doors  for  Stave  Silos. — A good  method  of  constructing  doors  for  the 
stave  silo  is  represented  in  Fig.  20.  Two  inch  lumber  is  bolted  to  the 
staves  on  the  outside,  projecting  two  inches  into  the  doorway  all  around, 
thus  forming  a rabbet  against  which  the  door  may  rest.  A strip  of 
thick  ruberoid  roofing  should  be  used  on  the  rabbet  under  the  door  and 
the  door  drawn  down  tight  with  four  lag  bolts  and  washers. 

A common  way  of  making  these  doors  is  to  cut  the  staves  out  on  a 
bevel  and  make  the  door  fit  into  this  beveled  cut  directly.  If  the  work 
is  carefully  done  and  then,  at  the  time  of  filling,  if  the  face  of  the  bevel 
is  plastered  with  a thick  coat  of  puddled  clay  and  the  door  forced  tightly 
into  this  a fairly  close  joint  may  be  secured. 

COST  OF  STAVE  SILOS. 

Mr.  Herman  Ree’s  stave  silo,  18  ft.  inside  diameter  and  24  ft.  deep, 
cost  him  complete  $242.80.  The  tub  is  made  of  staves  3"  x 6,"  18  feet 
long  each  accurately  beveled  and  provided  with  four  dowel  pins.  Seven 
hoops  2 y2  inches  x 3-16  inch  were  used  and  the  tub  part,  set  up,  in- 
cluding lumber  for  roof,  cost  $162.50.  The  carpenter  work  in  the  roof 
was  $12.30  and  the  stone  foundation,  6 feet  deep,  cost  $68.00.  This  is  a 
well  built  silo  of  its  kind,  made  in  1899. 

Two  other  silos  built  in  a barn  in  1898,  13  feet  inside  diameter,  of 
2x4  staves,  26  feet  long,  beveled  and  with  10  % inch  round  hoops  each, 
cost  complete  $170.50  for  the  two.  The  bottom  of  these  silos  extend  8 
feet  into  a red  clay  subsoil  and  are  cemented  directly  upon  it,  only  one 
course  of  brick  being  used  above  for  the  tubs  to  stand  upon.  The  bill 
of  expenses  for  both  silos  as  given  by  the  owner,  Mr.  A.  Crittenden,  is 
as  follows: 


Staves  2 x 4’s,  16  and  10  ft.,  4785  ft $75  00 

Hoops,  5-8  round  iron  16  80 

Cutting  threads  on  hoops  .' 5 00 

Washers  1 95 

Brick  1 25 

Mason’s  work  3 00 

Digging  silos  8 ft.  deep  i 16  00 

Water  lime  16  00 

Beveling  staves'  12  00 

Hooks  for  coupling  hoops  1 50 

Carpenter ‘work  27  00 

Carpenters’  board  5 00 


$170  50 


45 


Silage,  and  the  Construction  of  Modern  Silos. 

At  the  present  price  of  materials  the  tub  portion  of  stave  silos  cannot 
be  well  built  for  much  less  than  9.62  cents  per  sq.  ft.  of  outside  surface. 
On  this  basis  and  counting  the  roof  and  foundation  the  same  as  we  have 
in  other  silos  the  cost  of  stave  silos  of  different  diameters  will  be  about 
ag  given  in  the  table  which  follows: 


Approximate  cost  of  stave  silos  30  feet  deep  with  6 feet  of  masonry 
foundation  and  with  and  without  roofs. 


Inside 

diameter. 

Silo  with 
roof. 

Silo  without 
roof. 

Inside 

diameter. 

Silo  with 
roof. 

Silo  without 
roof. 

13  feet 

$144 

$127 

20  feet 

$226 

$191 

14  feet 

155 

136 

21  feet 

239 

200 

15  feet 

166 

145 

22  feet 

250 

209 

16  feet 

178 

154 

23  feet 

263 

218 

17  feet 

189 

163 

24  feet 

276 

227 

18  feet 

202 

173 

25  feet 

289 

236 

19  feet 

213 

181 

30  feet 

356 

282 

PIT  SILOS. 

In  localities  where  both  lumber  and  masonry  are  expensive  or  cannot 
be  had,  and  where  the  soil  is  of  such  a character  that  a pit  15  to  20 
feet  deep  may  be  sunk  in  the  ground,  a good  silo  may  be  made  in  this 
way.  The  most  serious  objection  to  such  a silo  is  the  inconvenience  of 
removing  the  silage  to  feed. 

If  the  soil  is  of  such  a character  that  it  will  not  cave  in  the  pit  may 
be  made  circular  in  form  of  the  desired  size  and  depth  and  then  plas- 
tered with  cement  in  the  manner  of  a cistern.  If  there  is  a little  diffi- 
culty in  the  walls  standing  the  pit  may  be  made  with  sloping  sides, 
smallest  at  the  bottom. 

In  using  such  a silo,  especially  when  filling  it,  care  should  be  observed 
ir  going  into  it  when  there  is  a possibility  that  carbonic  acid  has  ac- 
cumulated to  a dangerous  extent.  There  need  be  no  danger  in  using 
such  a silo  if  caution  is  observed  as  stated  on  page  55. 


46 


Bulletin  No.  83. 


Pig.  21.— Illustrates  the  frame  work  of  a rectangular  silo  where  girts  are  used 
instead  of  studs.  In  this  case  both  siding  and  lining  will  be  put  on  up  and 
down.  It  must  be  noted,  however,  that  this  plan  unless/  provision  is  made  to 
prevent,  makes  dead  air  spaces  between  each  pair  of  girts,  which  will  cause 
the  lining  to  rot  quickly,  aqd  where  silos  are  built  after  this  plan  some  pro- 
vision must  be  made  for  ventilation.  The  ventilation  may  be  provided  by 
nailing  on  the  inner  face  of  all  the  girts,  strips  one  inch  thick  and  two 
inches'  wide  and  then  sawing  out  of  these  sections  two  inches  long  about 
every  two  feet  to  provide  passage  ways  for  air  to  circulate.  It  will  then  be 
necessary  to  leave  air  openings  at  the  top  of  the  silo  inside  all  around  and  to 
provide  openings  at  the  bottom  on  the  outside  for  air  to  enter. 


Silage,  and  the  Construction  of  Modern  Silos. 


47 


Fig.  22.— Showing  two  methods  of  roofing  silos  and  of  connecting  them  with  the  barn  so  as  to  provide  a feeding  chute. 


48 


Bulle tin  No.  83. 


THE  COMPARATIVE  COST  OF  DIFFERENT  TYPES  OF  SILOS. 

If  we  bring  together  for  comparison  the  costs  of  silos  of  the  different 
types  which  have  been  discussed  using  for  comparison  those  13  ft.  and 
25  ft.  inside  diameter  and  30  feet  deep,  the  figures  will  stand  as  given  be- 
low: 


Kinds  of  Silo. 

13  Feet  Inside 
Diameter. 

25  Feet  Outside 
Diameter. 

Without 

roof. 

With  roof. 

Without 
roof . 

With  roof. 

Slone  silo 

$151 

$175 

$264 

$328 

Brick  silo 

243 

273 

437 

494 

Brick  lined  silo,  4 inches  thick 

142 

230 

310 

442 

Brick  lined,  2 inches  thick 

131 

193 

239 

369 

Lathed  and  plastered  silo 

133 

185 

214 

363 

Wood  silo  with  galvenized  iron 

168 

222 

308 

432 

Wood  silo  with  paper 

128 

183 

235 

358 

Stave  silo 

127 

144 

236 

289 

Cheapest  wood  silo 

101 

120 

185 

240 

It  will  be  seen  from  this  table  that  when  stave  silos  are  built  of  good 
durable  lumber  they  are  but  little  cheaper  than  the  very  much  more 
substantial  and  much  better  wood  and  lathed  and  plastered  silos;  and 
that  if  one  wishes  to  build  a cheap  temporary  silo  which  will  stand 
rigidly  and'  will  preserve  the  silage  in  good  condition  it  is  possible  to  do 
this  for  less  money  than  the  stave  silo  will  cost.  In  short  the  instability 
of  the  stave  silo  should  prevent  its  use  outside  of  another  building. 

THE  WEIGHT  OF  SILAGE  PER  CUBIC  FOOT. 

The  weight  of  corn  silage  increases  with  the  depth  below  the  surface, 
with  the  amount  of  water  in  the  silage,  and  with  the  diameter  of  the  silo. 
In  silos  of  small  diameters  the  amount  of  surface  in  the  wall  is  so  much 
greater  in  proportion  to  the  silage  contained  that  the  friction  on  the 
sides  has  more  influence  in  preventing  the  settling  of  the  silage.  In  the 
following  table  will  be  found  the  weights  of  silage  per  cubic  foot  in 
round  silos  given  for  different  depths  and  the  mean  weight  of  silage 
above  the  given  depth: 


Silage,  and  the  Construction  of  Modern  Silos. 


49 


Table  showing  the  computed  weight  of  well  matured  corn  silage  at 
different  distances  below  the  surface , and  the  computed  mean 
weight  for  silos  of  different  depths , two  days  after  filling : 


Depth 

of 

silage. 

Weight 
of  silage 
at 

differeni 

depths. 

Mean 
veightof 
silage 
jer  cubic 
loot. 

Depth 

of 

silage. 

Weight 
of  silage 
at 

different 

depths. 

Mean 
weight  of 
silage 
per  cubic 
foot. 

Depth 

of 

silage. 

Weight 
of  silage 
at 

different 

depths. 

Mean 
weight  of 
silage 
per  cubic 
foot. 

Feet. 

1 

Lbs. 

18.7 

Lbs. 

18.7 

Feet. 

13 

Lbs. 

37.3 

Lb;. 

28.3 

Feet. 

25 

Lbs. 

51.7 

Lbs. 

36.5 

2 

20.4 

19.6 

14 

38.7 

29.1 

26 

52.7 

37.2 

3 • 

22.1 

20  6 

15 

40.0 

29.8 

27 

53.6 

37.8 

4 

23.7 

21.2 

16 

41.3 

30.5 

28 

54.6 

38.4 

5 

25.4 

22.1 

17 

42.6 

31.2 

29 

55.5 

39.0 

6 

27.0 

22.9 

18 

43.8 

31.9 

30 

56.4 

39.6 

7 

28.5 

23.8 

19 

45.0 

32.6 

31 

57.2 

40.1 

8 

30.1 

24.5 

20 

46.2 

33  3 

32 

58.0 

40.7 

9 

31.6 

25.3 

21 

47.4 

33.9 

33 

58.8 

41.2 

10 

33.1 

26.1 

22 

48.5 

34.6 

34 

59.6 

41.8 

11 

34.5 

26.8 

23 

49.6 

35.3 

35 

60.3 

42.3 

12 

35.9 

27.6 

24 

50.6 

35.9 

36 

61.0 

42.8 

THE  CAPACITY  OF  SILOS. 

The  amount  of  silage  which  may  be  stored  in  a silo  increases  in  a 
higher  ratio  than  the  depth  increases.  A silo  36  feet  deep  will  store 
nearly  5 times  the  amount  of  feed  that  one  12  feet  deep  will  hold. 

Doubling  the  diameter  of  a silo  increases  its  capacity  more  than 
fourfold  and  a silo  30  feet  in  diameter  will  hold  more  than  9 times  as 
much  as  one  10  feet  in  diameter  and  of  the  same  depth.  It  is  clear 
from  this  that  small  silos  must  be  relatively  more  costly  than  those  of 
larger  diameter. 


50 


Bulletin  No.  83. 


Table  giving  the  approximate  capacity  of  cylindrical  silos  for  well 
matured  corn  silage,  in  tons. 


Depth, 


Inside  Diameter  in  Feet. 


Feet. 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

20 

58.84 

66.95 

75.58 

84.74 

94.41 

104.6 

115.3 

126.6 

138.3 

150.6 

463.4 

176.8 

21 

62.90 

71.56 

80.79 

90.57 

100.9 

111.8 

123.3 

135.3 

147.9 

161.0 

174.7 

189.0 

22 

67.35 

76.52 

86.38 

96.81 

107.9 

119.6 

131.8 

144.7 

158.1 

172.2 

186.8 

202.1 

23 

71.73 

81.61 

92.14 

103.3 

115.1 

127.5 

140.6 

154.3 

168.7 

183.6 

199.3 

215.5 

24 

76.12 

86.61 

97.78 

109.6 

122.1 

135.3 

149.2 

163.7 

179.0 

194.9 

211.5 

228.7 

25 

80.62 

89.64 

103.6 

116.1 

129.3 

143.3 

158.0 

173.4 

189.5 

206.4 

223.9 

242.2 

26 

85.45 

97. 2S 

109.8 

123.0 

137.1 

151.9 

167.5 

183.8 

200.9 

218.8 

237.4 

256.7 

27. 

90.17 

1C2.6 

115.8 

129.8 

144.7 

1(0.3 

176.7 

194.0 

212.0 

230.8 

250.5 

270.9 

28 

94.99 

108.1 

J22.0 

136.8 

152.4 

168.9 

186.2 

204.3 

223.3 

243.2 

263.9 

285.4 

29 

99.92 

113.7 

128.3 

113.9 

160.3 

177.6 

195.8 

214.9 

234.9 

255.8 

277.6 

300.  & 

30 

105.0 

119.4 

134.8 

151.1 

168.4 

186.6 

205.7 

2*5.8 

216.8 

268.7 

291.6 

315.3 

31 

109.8 

124.9 

141.1 

158.2 

176.2 

195.2 

215.3 

236.3 

00 

281.8 

305.1 

330.0 

32 

115.1 

135.9 

t47.8 

165.7 

181.6 

204.6 

225.5 

247.5 

270.5 

294.6 

319.6 

345.7 

In  this  table  the  horizontal  lines  give  the  number  of  tons  of  silage 
held  by  a silo  having  the  depth  given  at  the  head  of  the  column. 


THE  PROPER  HORIZONTAL  FEEDING  AREA. 

In  the  construction  of  silos  it  is  very  important  to  have  the  horizontal 
dimensions  such  that  the  rate  of  feeding  shall  be  rapid  enough  not  to 
permit  moulding  to  occur  on  the  exposed  or  feeding  surface.  It  is  also 
important  to  have  the  horizontal  dimensions  as  large  as  possible  be- 
cause the  larger  the  silo  is  the  less  it  costs  in  proportion  to  the  feed 
it  stores.  Then,  too  narrow,  small  silos  do  not  allow  the  silage  to  settle 
as  well,  and  hence  in  them  the  necessary  losses  are  greater  than  in  the 
larger  ones. 

Observations  indicate  that  if  silage  is  fed  down  at  a rate  slower  than 
1.2  inches  daily,  moulding  is  liable  to  set  in.  This  is  more  likely  to  be 
true  in  the  upper  half  of  the  silo  than  in  the  lower  half  but  it  will  be 
prudent  to  have  the  silo  of  such  a diameter  as  to  lower  the  surface  more 
rapidly  in  feeding  than  is  necessary  rather  than  less  rapidly. 

A silo  30  feet  deep  will  allow  1.5  inches  in  depth  of  silage  per  day  for 
240  days,  and  one  24  feet  deep  will  allow  1.2  inches  for  the  same  time. 
From  the  table  on  page  51  it  will  be  seen  that  the  mean  weight  of 
silage  per  cubic  foot  for  a silo  30  feet  deep  is  39.6  lbs.,  and  allowing  40 
lbs.  of  silage  per  cow  per  day  it  is  seen  that  a cubic  foot  of  silage  on  the 
average  will  feed  a cow  one  day.  But  from  the  same  table  it  will  be 


Silage } and  the  Construction  of  Modern  Silos. 


51 


seen  that  If  the  silo  Is  24  feet  deep  there  will  be  required  1.114  cubic 
feet  of  silage  to  give  the  desired  weight. 

Using  these  data  the  inside  diameter  of  cylindrical  silos  24  feet  and 
30  feet  deep  which  will  hold  feed  enough  for  different  numbers  of  cows 
may  be  computed  and  Such  results  are  given  in  the  table  below: 


Table  giving  the  inside  diameter  of  silos  24  feet  and  30  feet  deep 
which  will  permit  the  surface  to  be  lowered  in  feeding  at  the  mean 
rate  of  1.2  to  2 inches  per  day , assuming  40  lbs.  of  silage  to  be 
fed  to  each  cow  daily. 


Feed  for  240  Days. 

Silo  04  feel  deep . 

Silo  30  feel  deep. 

Cows. 

Rate  1, 

.2  in.  daily. 

Rate  1.5  in. 

daily. 

Inside 

Inside 

Tons. 

diameter. 

Tons. 

diameter. 

ft. 

in. 

ft. 

in. 

10 

48 

11 

11 

48 

10 

2 

15 

72 

14 

7 

72 

12 

5 

20 

96 

16 

10 

96 

14 

4 

25 

120 

18 

10 

120 

16 

0 

30 

144 

20 

8 

14 1 

17 

6 

35 

168 

22 

4 

168 

18 

11 

40 

192 

23 

10 

192 

20 

3 

45 

216 

25 

7 

216 

21 

5 

50 

240 

26 

8 

240 

22 

7 

60 

288 

29 

2 

288 

24 

9 

70 

336 

31 

6 

336 

26 

9 

80 

384 

33 

8 

384 

28 

7 

90 

432 

35 

9 

432 

30 

4 

100 

480 

37 

8 

480 

31 

11  1 

Feed  for  180  Days. 


Silo  04  feel  deep. 

Silo  30  feet  deep . 

Rate  1.6  in. 

daily. 

Rate  2 

! in.  daily. 

Inside 

Inside 

Tons. 

diameter. 

Tons. 

diameter. 

ft. 

in. 

ft. 

in. 

36 

10 

4 

36 

8 

9 

34 

12 

8 

54 

10 

9 

72 

14 

7 

72 

12 

5 

90 

16 

4 

90 

13 

10 

108 

17 

10 

108 

15 

2 

126 

19 

4 

126 

16 

4 

144 

20 

8 

144 

17 

6 

162 

21 

11 

162 

18 

7 

180 

23 

1 

180 

19 

7 

216 

25 

3 

216 

21 

5 

252 

27 

4 

252 

23 

2 

288 

29 

2 

288 

24 

9 

324 

30 

11 

324 

26 

3 

360 

32 

8 

360 

27 

8 

In  choosing  diameters  and  depths  for  silos  for  particular  herds  indi- 
vidual needs  and  conditions  must  decide  which  is  best.  It  may  be  said 
in  general  for  the  smaller  sizes  of  silos  the  more  shallow  ones  will  be 
somewhat  cheaper  in  construction  and  be  more  easily  filled  with  small 
powers.  For  large  herds  the  deeper  types  are  best  and  cheapest. 


52 


Bulletin  No.  83. 


SILAGE  CROPS. 

There  are  many  crops  which  may  be  grown  for  silage,  but  practical 
experience  points  to  the  conclusion  that  plants  with  solid  stems  will 
make  better  silage  with  less  unavoidable  loss  than  those  with  hollow 
stems  like  wheat,  oats,  rye  and  barley. 

Corn  for  Silage. — There  is  no  crop  now  generally  grown  which  is  so 
well  suited  to  the  production  of  silage  as  Indian  corn  wherever  it  will 
grow  well  to  full  maturity.  The  unavoidable  losses  with  it  are  very 
small;  heavy  yields  per  acre  may  be  secured  with  great  certainty  at 
moderate  cost,  and  the  silage  made  from  it  has  less  objectionable  fea- 
tures than  that  of  most  other  crops. 

The  sweet  corns  do  not  make  the  best  silage  on  account  of  the  tendency 
of  the  sugar  to  develop  into  acid.  The  large  varieties  of  southern  corn 
will  produce  more  tons  of  roughage  per  acre  than  the  flints  and  smaller 
dents,  but  the  quality  of  the  silage  from  these  latter  is  much  better 
as  a rule,  less  acid,  and  it  sustains  less  loss  in  the  silo. 

Millet  forSilage.—MiUet,  when  cut  into  the  silo,  produces  an  excel- 
lent silage  so  far  as  appearance  is  concerned,  having  even  less  odor 
than  good  corn  silage,  and  it  is  eaten  with  relish  by  both  cattle,  horses 
and  hogs.  These  facts  were  demonstrated  the  past  season  by  Mr.  J. 
R.  Bleecker  of  Hubbleton,  Wis.,  whose  corn  failed  him  on  a piece  of 
marsh  land  and  he  sowed  it  to  German  millet,  putting  it  into  the  silo 
with  the  few  stalks  of  corn  which  matured.  The  millet  was  run 
through  the  cutter  and  it  packed  closely  and  kept  in  excellent  shape. 
Eleven  acres  fed  25  head  of  cattle  about  4 y2  months. 

Clover  for  Silage. — Medium  and  alsike  clover  make  good  silage,  but 
the  unavoidable  losses  are  greater  than  with  corn  and  the  silage  is 
liable  to  have  a stronger  and  less  pleasant  odor,  owing  apparently  to 
the  higher  per  cent,  and  less  stable  condition  of  the  nitrogenous  com- 
pounds. 

Rye  and  Oats  for  Silage. — These  two  crops  have  been  used  to  a con- 
siderable extent  for  silage,  but  when  cut  into  the  silo  green,  strong 
odors  develop  and  heavy  losses  are  apparently  unavoidable.  If  the 
material  is  put  in  in  the  more  mature  stage  the  hollow  stems  carry 
Into  the  silo  so  much  air  that  this  apparently  leads  to  heavier  losses 
than  with  corn.  Both  of  these  crops  are  better  suited  to  summer  feed- 
ing, where  a crop  of  oats  or  rye  are  used  to  keep  weeds  down  in  get- 
ting a catch  of  clover;  they  may  be  cut  green,  put  into  the  silo  and 
fed  out  at  once  during  times  of  short  pastures  or  in  cases  of  intensive 
farming  as  a labor-saving  method  of  handling  a soiling  crop. 

When  fed  as  silage,  made  in  this  way  and  fed  out  within  60  days, 
time  enough  is  not  allowed  for  serious  spoiling  and  the  development 
of  strong  odors. 

Pea  Vine  Silage. — At  canning  factories  the  pea  vines  may  be  made 


Silage } and  the  Construction  of  Modern  Silos. 


53 


into  silage  and  fed  to  advantage  to  stock.  They  do  not  make  a first 
class  silage,  but  it  is  a good  way  of  utilizing  them  as  a by-product  of 
the  canning  industry. 

Sorghum  Stalk  Silage . — Mr.  E.  J.  Myers,  King’s  Corners,  Wis.,  has 
sent  to  this  Station  a sample  of  silage  made  from  sorghum  stalks  and 
leaves  after  the  juice  has  been  expressed  for  syrup.  The  leaves  were 
not  stripped  from  the  canes  but  most  of  the  seed  was,  and  the  sam- 
ples sent  were  in  good  condition  as  a silage,  with  pleasant  odor  and 
small  degree  of  acidity.  The  feeding  value  of  this  material  is  un- 
known, but  Prof.  P.  W.  Well  is  making  an  analysis  of  the  sample  sent. 

Non-Saccharine  Sorghum  for  Silage.  The  sorghums  of  the  Kafir 
corn  type  are  likely  to  produce  better  silage  than  the  sweet  varieties 
on  account  of  the  tendency  of  the  sugars  to  be  converted  into  acid 
in  the  silo.  The  character  of  these  plants,  the  heavy  yields  of  forage 
and  grain  per  acre  which  they  produce  and  their  ability  to  withstand 
drought  are  all  important  features  of  a good  silage  crop.  While  these 
cannot  take  the  place  of  corn,  where  this  may  be  grown,  it  is  quite 
possible  that  in  the  warm,  semi-arid  portions  of  the  United  States  they 
may  be  used  to  advantage  for  silage.  More  practical  experience  than 
has  yet  been  had  will  be  required  to  demonstrate  the  value  of  sorghum 
as  a silage  crop. 

Alfalfa  for  Silage. — If  the  alfalfa  will  keep  well  in  the  silo  and  pro- 
duce a good  feed  it  is  very  likely  to  become  an  important  crop  for  the 
making  of  silage  in  the  dry  portions  of  the  United  States.  There  is 
no  apparent  reason  why  it  may  not  be  expected  to  make  as  good  silage 
as  clover  and  as  there  is  great  danger  of  its  losing  its  leaves  when 
being  cured  for  hay  the  silo  offers  an  important  means  of  saving  this 
loss,  provided  only  that  it  will  make  good  feed  when  so  preserved. 
Practical  experience,  however,  is  too  limited  to  furnish  a basis  for  «afe 
judgment  at  this  time. 

STAGE  OF  MATUKITY  OF  CROPS  FOR  SILAGE. 

The  most  exact  knowledge  we  now  have  upon  this  subject  indicates 
that  generally  crops  will  make  the  best  silage  when  they  are  cut  as 
near  full  maturity  as  possible  and  yet  have  their  tissues  filled  with 
sap.  When  corn  is  put  into  the  silo  in  a very  succulent  state  it  is 
filled  with  a large  per  cent,  of  compounds  which  are  easily  decom- 
posed, and  this  not  only  makes  the  unavoidable  losses  high  but  it  is 
likely  to  cause  unpleasant  odors  and  less  palatable  feed.  Besides  there 
has  not  yet  been  developed  enough  of  the  woody  tissues  in  the  plant 
to  enable  The  juices  to  be  retained  under  the  pressure  of  the  silage  and 
in  early  silo  practice  provision  was  often  made  for  drainage  on  this 
account. 

Corn  is  In  the  best  stage  for  the  silo  when  it  is  in  the  best  stages 

5 


54 


Bulletin  No.  83. 


for  cutting  and  putting  in  the  shock;  that  is,  when  the  ears  are  fully 
matured  but  the  stalks,  leaves  and  husks  are  yet  green. 

Clover  for  the  silo  should  be  a little  more  mature  than  for  making 
the  best  hay,  that  is,  the  bloom  should  have  well  begun  to  turn  brown. 

In  practice  it  will,  of  course,  be  necessary  often  to  put  some  of  the 
corn  into  the  silo  a little  too  early  for  the  best  results  in  order  that 
the  last  may  not  be  too  dry;  but  judgment  in  planting  at  different 
times  and  in  cutting  that  which  on  account  of  differences  in  soil  or 
variety  has  matured  first  will  usually  give  two  or  three  weeks  for  the 
filling  season  if  that  time  is  needed. 

DRYING  AND  WETTING  SILAGE. 

It  should  be  kept  in  mind  that  little  is  gained  in  letting  a too  succu- 
lent crop  fie  and  wilt  after  it  is  cut,  before  putting  it  into  the  silo, 
because  the  drying  of  a crop  usually  means  the  replacing  of  more 
or  less  of  the  water  lost  by  evaporation  with  air  in  the  tissues  which 
when  carried  into  the  silo  favors  fermentative  changes  there. 

If  the  corn  or  clover  is  put  at  once  into  the  silo  while  the  tissues 
are  yet  alive  the  active  cells  use  up  at  once  a,  large  portion  of  the 
air  necessarily  entangled  in  it,  and  when  this  is  done  the  fermentive 
changes  cannot  go  on,  but  if  the  plants  are  cut  and  allowed  to  wilt 
the  cells  become  less  active  and  thus  are  unable  to  as  completely  ex- 
haust the  oxygen  in  the  silage  air. 

If  a crop  has  become  too  dry  to  go  into  the  silo  in  the  best  condi- 
tion the  wetting  of  it  may  help  somewhat  to  preserve  the  silage,  but 
it  must  be  kept  in  mind  that  water  cannot  take  the  place  of  the 
natural  juices  and  the  activity  of  living  cells.  If  leaves  and  stalks 
have  become  ary  the  cells  have  become  filled  with  air  and  the  adding 
of  water  can  only  partly  displace  it.  Its  chief  help  is  in  softening 
the  tissues  and  helping  the  silage  to  pack  more  closely. 

RATE  OF  FILLING  THE  SILO. 

So  far  as  the  making  of  good  silage  is  concerned  the  rate  of  filling 
may  be  as  slow  as  the  stage  of  maturity  of  the  crop  will  permit.  Slow 
filling  is  preferable  to  rapid  filling  in  that  it  gives  the  silage  more 
time  to  settle  and  for  the  first  heating  to  expel  all  of  the  air  not  con- 
sumed by  the  tissues  while  alive  and  active.  A steady  filling  at  the 
rate  of  perhaps  8 to  15  tons  per  day  for  small  and  medium  silos  is 
best,  or  the  filling  may  be  done  more  rapidly  on  alternate  days;  but 
the  silo  should  not,  as  a rule,  stand  longer  than  two  days  between  suc- 
cessive fillings.  Longer  intervals  may  of  course  intervene  when  emer- 
gency demands  it,  but  there  will  always  be  a loss  of  feeding  value  in 
the  silage  as  the  result. 


Silage } and  the  Construction  of  Modern  Silos. 


55 


DANGER  IN  FILLING  THE  SILO. 

It  never  should  be  forgotten  in  connection  with  the  filling  of  silos, 
that  carbonic  acid  is  generated  very  rapidly  the  first  few  days  after 
silage  is  put  into  the  silo,  and  it  sometimes  happens  when  a silo  has 
stood  over  night,  if  the  air  is  very  still,  and  if  the  surface  of  the  silage 
is  a considerable  distance  below  any  door,  that  carbonic  acid  accumu- 
lates in  sufficient  quantity  over  the  silage  to  make  it  impossible  for 
a man  to  live  in  it.  Cases  are  on  record  where  people  have  been  suffo- 
cated by  going  into  a silo  under  these  conditions.  If  the  doors  in  a 
silo  are  so  close  together  that  a man  standing  on  the  silage  will  have 
his  head  above  an  open  door  the  carbonic  acid  gas  will  flow  out  of  the 
door  and  not  accumulate  to  such  an  extent  as  to  be  injurious. 

In  cases  where  the  silage  is  below  any  opening  far  enough  to  leave 
a man’s  head  below  the  opening  care  should  be  taken  not  to  go  into 
the  silo  in  the  morning  after  filling  has  begun  until  after  the  machinery 
has  been  started.  After  the  silage  has  been  dropping  into  the  silo 
for  a few  minutes  it  will  stir  the  air  up  sufficiently  to  render  it  pure 
enough  for  a man  to  work  in  it  without  danger.  Ordinarily  the  air 
currents  outside  are  sufficiently  strong  to  prevent  the  carbonic  acid 
from  accumulating,  but  it  should  be  kept  in  mind  that  it  is  possible 
on  still  nights  for  this  accumulation  to  take  place. 

PUTTING  MATERIALS  INTO  THE  SILO  CUT  OR  WHOLE. 

Corn  and  any  of  the  crops  suitable  for  making  silage  may  be  put 
into  the  silo  just  as  taken  from  the  field  but  the  labor  of  thoroughly 
packing  and  the  labor  of  feeding  out  will  be  enough  greater  to  pay 
for  the  extra  expense  of  cutting  in  all  cases  where  more  than  the  equiv- 
alent of  20  head  of  cattle  are  to  be  continuously  fed.  In  the  case  of 
corn,  too,  the  silage  will  be  eaten  more  completely  if  cut.  If  the  power 
and  cutter  are  on  the  farm,  then  the  silage  should  always  be  cut  into 
the  silo.  In  regard  to  length  of  cutting,  this  will  depend  somewhat 
upon  the  available  power;  as  a general  rule  the  feed  cut  into  half- 
inch lengths  is  best,  but  more  power  is  required  to  do  this. 

The  shredder  may  be  used  instead  of  the  cutter  if  one  has  this  and 
not  the  other,  but  it  will  not  essentially  improve  the  feeding  qualities 
of  the  silage  and  will  require  considerably  more  power  to  run  it. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  TRAMPING  SILAGE  WHEN  FILLING. 

Attention  has  not  been  sufficiently  called  to  the  importance  of  thor- 
oughly compacting  silage  at  the  time  of  filling  the  silo.  The  imme- 
diate and  continuous  thorough  tramping  not  only  enables  a much  larger 
amount  of  silage  to  be  put  into  the  silo,  but  it  expels  at  once  a large 
volume  of  air  which,  if  allowed  to  remain,  prolongs  the  changes  which 
occur. 


56 


Bulletin  No.  83. 


General  tramping  of  the  whole  surface  is  important,  but  much  the 
larger  amount  of  labor  should  be  expended  around  the  sides  because 
the  lateral  pressure  tends  to  develop  friction  of  the  silage  against  the 
walls  which  prevents  its  settling,  and  if  it  does  not  settle  here  and 
become  compact  the  tendency  of  air  to  enter  through  defects  in  the 
wall  is  much  greater. 

The  importance  of  tramping  is  greater  the  more  shallow  the  silo 
and  the  more  porous  the  walls.  In  the  deeper  silos,  if  help  is  scarce, 
one  can  better  afford  to  dispense  with  a man  in  the  silo;  but  the  upper 
10  to  15  feet  of  silage  in  all  silos  should  be  very  thoroughly  tramped 
and  the  feed  saved  by  it  will  abundantly  pay  for  the  labor  of  two 
faithful  men  who  can  be  depended  upon  to  work. 

TRAMPING  THE  SURFACE  AFTER  FILLING  IS  FINISHED. 

In  deep  silos  so  much  settling  occurs,  especially  where  filling  has 
been  rapid,  that  the  dragging  of  the  silage  on  the  walls  so  much  loosens 
it  there  that  air  is  liable  to  penetrate  from  the  top  to  considerable 
depths  and  to  more  easily  enter  through  defective  walls.  It  is  be- 
cause of  this  fact  that  slow  filling  is  better,  and  that  silage  so  often 
spoils  badly  around  the  sides  at  the  top  in  so  many  cases. 

To  overcome  these  conditions  the  whole  surface  of  the  silage  should 
be  tramped  once  a day  for  three  or  four  days  after  filling  has  been 
completed.  One  should  begin  at  the  walls  and  go  around  the  edge 
with  short  steps  and  the  feet  close  together,  springing  the  full  weight 
suddenly  upon  the  feet  to  increase  the  pressure,  and  then  by  slow  de- 
grees work  toward  the  center  until  the  whole  surface  has  been  covered. 
Whoever  does  this  will  be  surprised  to  find  how  loose  the  silage  ap- 
pears to  have  become  next  to  the  wall  and  how  much  it  may  thus  be 
made  to  settle. 


COVERING  SILAGE  AFTER  FILLING. 

It  is  a good  plan,  if  practicable,  to  reserve  several  loads  of  the  green- 
est, heaviest  corn  for  the  top  of  the  silo  whenever  feeding  is  not  to 
begin  immediately  after  filling.  Such  a cover  will  be  more  likely  to 
develop  a wet,  thin,  rotten  layer  over  the  surface  which  will  largely 
exclude  the  air. 

If  one  has  no  cheaper  material  to  use  as  the  cover  for  silage  than 
the  silage  itself,  this  may  be  used,  and  Fig.  23  is  an  illustration  of 
such  a cover  where,  after  80  days,  there  was  on  the  surface  onlv  1 to 
1.5  inches  of  rotten  material  and  only  2 inches  of  white  mould  be- 
fore the  surface  of  bright  green  silage  was  reached.  This  result  was 
secured  by  thoroughly  wetting  the  surface  of  the  silage  after  the  third 
tramping  as  described  above;  applying  about  a pailful  of  water  to 
the  square  foot  of  surface.  The  object  of  the  water  is  to  develop 


Silage,  and  the  Construction  of  Modern  Silos.  5? 

quickly  a thin  layer  of  thoroughly  rotten  silage  on  the  surface  which, 
in  this  matted  condition,  practically  seals  over  the  top  of  the  silo  and 
excludes  the  air  so  effectually  that  the  oxygen  is  entirely  consumed 
in  the  thin  wet  and  rotting  layer  as  rapidly  as  it  can  penetrate  into 
it  and  liitle  or  none  reaches  the  silage  below. 


Fig.  23.— Showing  amount  of  spoiled  silage  when  the  surface  is  thoroughly 
tramped  and  wet  and  no  other  cover  used.  From  1 to  1%  inches  on  the  top 
is  spoiled;  from  1%  inches  to  3*4  inches  below  the  surface  is  a white  mould; 
from  3y2  inches  to  7 inches  in  bright  green  silage  80  days  after  filling. 


Some  have  practiced  the  sowing  of  oats  on  the  top  of  the  silo  to 
develop  a tight  mat  of  roots  to  exclude  the  air;  this  is  partly  right 
in  principle  but  the  tendency  of  the  tops  to  dry  out  the  surface  of 
the  silage  works  against  the  matting  of  the  roots  and  oftener  defeats 
the  end  sought. 

If  green  marsh  grass  can  be  had  more  cheaply  than  the  corn  itself, 
a load  of  this  may  be  cut  on,  tramped  and  wet  and  the  rotten  layer 
developed  in  this,  thus  saving  the  corn;  oat  chaff  put  on  and  thor- 
oughly rotted  makes  an  effective  cover. 

The  fundamental  point  is  to  prevent  the  surface  of  the  silage  from 
becoming  dry  and  this  is  one  of  the  needs  of  a silo  roof. 

Silage  may  be  fed  at  once  on  the  completion  of  filling,  if  desired,  and 
then  no  covering  is  needed  and  there  is  no  loss  from  surface  rotting. 

FILLING  THE  SILO. 

One  of  the  most  frequent  objections  made  to  the  silo  is  the  amount 
of  help  and  expensive  machinery  required  to  do  the  filling.  Except 
in  the  case  of  small  farmers  this  objection  is  oftener  more  imaginary 
than  real.  In  regard  to  machinery  the  large  dairyman  who  feeds  corn 
without  the  silo  requires  the  same  pieces  that  the  one  does  who  uses 
the  silo  if  we  except  the  larger  carrier.  To  secure  first  class  feed  there 


Bulletin  No.  83 . 


58 

is  no  more  need  of  hurry  in  one  case  than  in  the  other.  Our  notes 
regarding  the  over  200  practical  silo  men  we  have  visited  show  that 
the  time  required  for  filling  ranges  all  the  way  from  3 to  30  days;  the 
number  of  people  employed  from  two  men  and  one  boy  to  eleven; 
and  the  number  of  teams  from  two  where  a tread  power  was  used,  to 
nine  where  a 12-horse  sweep  power  did  the  cutting  and  elevating. 

In  one  case  where  100  head  of  cattle  were  kept  and  cream  shipped 
daily  from  80  cows,  four  men  and  three  teams  with  a gasoline  en- 
gine put  459  tons  of  corn  into  the  silo  during  an  interval  of  20  days, 
14  of  which,  of  8 hours  each,  were  required  for  the  silo  work.  During 
this  20  days  the  men  did  their  regular  chores  and  harvested  and  got 
ready  to  feed  silage  enough  for  nearly  a year  for  100  cows. 


Fig.  24.— Shows  the  McCormick  corn  harvester  used  in  cutting  corn  for  silo. 


Cutting  the  Corn. — The  corn  or  clover  or  whatever  the  crop  may  be 
should  only  be  cut  as  fast  as  it  goes  to  the  silo.  For  corn  the  self 
binders  represented  in  Fig.  24  are  one  of  the  best,  easiest  and  cheap- 
est means  of  cutting  the  corn  for  the  silo  where  a large  silo  is  to- 
be  filled;  but  two  men  and  even  one  will  cut  and  throw  into  armfuls 
a large  amount  of  corn  in  a day.  A team  may  do  the  cutting  late  in 
the  afternoon  and  early  in  the  morning  while  others  are  doing  the 
chores,  if  help  is  scarce,  and  reduce  the  number  needed  in  this  way. 

Hauling  Corn  to  the  Cutter. — The  most  economical  and  easiest  way 
to  get  the  corn  from  the  field  to  the  cutter  is  to  use  the  low-down 
racks  as  represented  in  Fig.  25.  These  wagons  enable  the  teamster 
to  do  the  loading  and  save  the  heavy  labor  of  lifting  the  bundles  high. 
Next  to  these  racks  the  low-wheeled  trucks  with  flat  racks  are  best. 


Silage , and  the  Construction  of  Modern  Silos.  59 

When  rapid  filling  is  being  done  a common  distribution  of  help  is, 
one  man  and  team  cutting,  2 men  and  teams  hauling, — or  3 if  the 
distance  is  long, — one  man  feeding,  one  man  in  the  silo,  one  man  driv- 
ing or  tending  the  engine  and  one  or  two  men  helping  load  in  the  field. 


Fig.  25.— Showing  low  down  rack  for  handling  silage  corn,  the  two  stringers  are 
3 x 8’s,  18  or  20  feet  long  swung  from  the  front  axle  tree  by  a lengthened  king 
bolt  provided  with  inn  and  washer;  and  from  the  hind  axle  tree  by  % inch 
rods  provided  with  nut  and  washer  below,  and  with  hook  above  which  hang 
from  the  bolster.  The  stringers  are  20  inches  apart  outside  measure  in  front 
and  a short  reach  keeps  the  hounds  from  tripping  up.  To  prevent  the  king 
bolt  breaking  by  twisting  it  is  sometimes  made  in  two  parts,,  the  pieces  being 
held  together  by  eyes. 


Ensilage  Cutters . — The  commonest  mistake  made  with  the  ensilage 
cutters  is  in  getting  those  which  are  too  small.  It  is  much  better  to 
have  a cutter  a little  larger  than  is  needed  than  one  a little  too  small. 
Rapid  feeding  into  a large  cutter  is  much  easier  and  the  liability  to 
produce  choking  is  enough  less  so  that  usually  less  power  is  needed 
tc  drive  the  machine.  Few  cutters  should  be  less  than  14  inches. 

Much  thought  should  always  be  given  to  planning  to  avoid  the  use 
of  long  carriers  as  they  very  greatly  increase  the  power  needed  to 
do  the  work  and  are  very  much  more  liable  to  get  out  of  order. 

Where  the  machine  is  out  of  doors  the  carrier  needs  to  be  covered 
as  shown  in  Fig.  6 to  prevent  the  wind  from  blowing  the  leaves  about. 

Power  to  Drive  the  Cutter. — For  small  silos,  where  the  length  of 
the  carrier  need  not  exceed  24  feet,  a two-horse~  tread  power  will 
answer  for  filling;  but  where  rapid  work  is  to  be  done  and  where 
the  carrier  must  be  long  an  effective  6 to  8-horse  power  is  needed. 
More  people  are  now  using  8 to  10-horse  power  engines  for  silo  filling 
than  any  other.  Some  are  using  6 to  12-horse  power  gasoline  engines 
and  like  them  very  much,  because  they  may  be  stopped  and  started 
so  quickly,  and  because  the  man  who  does  the  feeding  can  give  the 
engine  all  the  attention  required.  A considerable  number  are  using 
3-horse  tread  powers,  but  where  horses  are  used  more  are  employing 
sweep  powers  with  two  to  five  teams.  Many  men  hire  an  engine  for 
filling,  paying  $3  to  $3.50  per  day  and  furnish  the  fuel. 

Co-operative  Filling. — In  some  neighborhoods  it  is  the  practice  of 
two,  three  or  four  neighbors  to  work  together  in  filling  the  silo,  chang- 
ing work  as  commonly  done  in  threshing  grain,  and  this  is  a good 


60 


Bulletin  No.  83. 


plan  for  small  farmers,  but  on  farms  where  40  or  more  cows  are  kept 
there  is  usually  enough  regular  help  to  do  the  filling,  and  with  an  en- 
gine a sufficient  number  of  teams.  So,  too,  in  cases  where  a 2-horse 
tread  power  can  run  the  cutter  the  filling  can  usually  be  done  with 
the  regular  help  of  the  farm.  Indeed,  slower  filling,  using  the  regular 
help  of  the  farm,  is  the  better  plan  to  follow  generally. 

RAISING  CORN  FOR  SILAGE. 

The  Variety  of  Corn. — The  corn  best  suited  for  silage  must  vary 
somewhat  with  the  local  conditions.  If  a man  has  a small  farm  and 
finds  it  difficult  to  supply  the  amount  of  roughage  needed  he  will  want 
to  plant  as  large  a variety  of  corn  as  will  mature  on  his  land,  and 
it  may  even  be  best  for  him  to  grow  a form  which  will  not  mature 
sufficiently  to  ensure  the  smallest  loss  in  the  silo;  but  usually  the  larger 
varieties  of  flint  corn  and  the  smaller  and  medium  dents  make  the  best 
silage. 

Method  of  Planting. — If  the  ground  is  well  fitted  and  prepared  so 
as  to  be  harrowed  once  or  twice  before  planting  and  once  after  the  corn 
is  up  it  will  be  tended  easiest  if  planted  to  cultivate  one  way  only. 
It  is  best  generally  to  plant  somewhat  thicker  than  would  be  done 
for  ear  corn,  the  object  being  to  increase  the  amount  of  stalks  and 
to  reduce  the  amount  of  ears  until  the  two  exist  in  about  the  ratio 
at  which  the  stock  will  digest  all  the  corn.  For  the  flint  corn  this 
condition  will  be  secured  with  rows  about  3.5  feet  apart  and  one  stalk 
every  8 to  12  inches.  With  the  smaller  and  medium  dent  corn  the 
rows  may  be  3 feet  8 inches,  and  stalks  8 to  12  inches  apart  in  the 
row.  If  irregular  check-row  planting  is  practiced  the  number  of  ker- 
nels and  the  distance  between  hills  may  be  made  such  as  to  give  the 
average  number  of  stalks  above. 

UNAVOIDABLE  LOSSES  IN  THE  SILO. 

In  this  discussion  “ unavoidable  losses ” means  the  loss  of  feeding 
value  which  cannot  be  prevented  in  the  interior  of  a silo  with  air-tight 
linings  wnen  filled  in  the  best  practicable  manner.  Regarding  how 
large  these  losses  must  be  we  have  as  yet  no  thoroughly  satisfactory 
data.  It  was  shown  in  the  12th  annual  report  that  ears  of  corn,  such 
as  were  being  put  into  the  silo  at  the  time,  lost  only  1.15  per  cent, 
of  their  dry  weight  when  placed  5 feet  below  the  surface  in  the  center 
of  the  silo  represented  in  Fig.  26. 

In  another  trial  described  in  the  same  report  it  was  shown  that  the 
ears  lost  4.9  per  cent.,  the  whole  silage  7.53  per  cent.,  and  the  stalks 
alone  9.2  per  cent,  of  their  non-volatile  matter. 

The  same  silo,  after  being  lined  with  the  galvanized  iron,  was  filled 
with  corn  separated  into  eight  layers,  and  the  losses  of  dry  matter  de- 


Silage,  and  the  Construction  of  Modern  Silos. 


61 


termined  in  each  after  the  silage  had  stood  from  September  until 
March;  the  losses  being  as  given  below: 


Surface  layer  of 
7th  layer  of 
6th  layer  of 
5th  layer  of 
4th  layer  of 
3d  layer  of 
2d  layer  of 

Bottom  layer  of 


8,934  lbs',  put  in  the  silo  lost  32.53  per  cent,  of  dry  matter. 

8.722  lbs.  put  in  the  silo  lost  23.38  per  cent,  of  dry  matter. 

14,661  lbs.  put  ip  the  silo  lost  10.25  per  cent,  of  dry  matter. 

48,801  lbs.  put  in  the  silo  lost  2.10  per  cent,  of  dry  matter. 

13,347  lbs.  put  in  the  silo  lost  7.01  per  cent,  of  dry  matter. 

7.723  lbs.  put  iu  the  silo  lost  2.752  per  cent,  of  dry  matter. 

12,689  lbs.  put  in  the  silo  lost  3.53  per  cent,  of  dry  matter. 

12,619  lbs.  put  in  the  silo  lost  9.47  per  cent,  of  dry  matter. 


Fig.  26. — Shows  wood  silo  lined  with  galvanized  iron  in  which  the  unavoidable 
losses  were  only  3.66  per  cent.,  and  in  which  ear  corn  lost  but  1.15  per  cent, 
of  the  dry  matter. 


It  will  be  seen  from  these  figures  that  the  losses  range  from  nearly 
a third  of  the  dry  matter  put  into  the  silo  in  the  top  layer  to  only 
2.10  in  the  5th  layer.  These  figures  mean  that  after  throwing  away 
all  spoiled  silage,  that  left  contained  67.47  per  cent,  of  the  total  non- 
volatile matter  put  into  the  top  layer  in  the  silo;  and  that  from  the 
5th  layer  there  was  recovered  as.  good  silage  97.9  per  cent,  of  the  total 
dry  matter  put  in  that  layer. 

The  total  loss  of  non-volatile  matter  from  all  layers,  including  the 
dry  matter  in  the  spoiled  silage,  was  only  6.38  per  cent.,  while  the  mean 
loss  of  non-volatile  matter  in  the  lowest  6 layers  was  only  3.66  per 
cent. 

It  appears  clear  from  these  figures  that  the  unavoidable  losses  of  non- 
volatile products  in  the  siloing  process  may  be  as  small  as  2 to  4 per 
cent,  and  that  in  good  silo  practice  they  need  not  exceed  4 to  8 per  cent. 

It  should  be  observed  that  no  allowance  has  been  made  here  for  the 


bulletin  No.  83. 


62 


volatile  products  other  than  water  which  are  driven  off  in  the  drying 
of  the  samples,  and  hence  the  real  losses  are  less  than  the  figures  stated. 


DIFFERENCES  IN  THE  UNAVOIDABLE  LOSSES  IN  THREE  TYPES  OF  SILOS. 

It  is  extremely  important  to  know  what  the  differences  in  the  un- 
avoidable losses  are  in  silos  of  different  types  of  construction,  and  we 
have  made  a beginning  toward  this  study  in  'the  three  small  silos  repre- 
sented in  Fig.  27. 


Fig.  27.— Shows  three  types  of  silos  in  which  the  unavoidable  losses  during  180 
days  were  determined.  The  silo  on  the  left  is  of  galvanized  iron  with  water 
tight  bottom.  The  silo  in  the  center  is  made  of  2 x 4’s  hooped  together  with- 
out being  beveled  or  tongued  and  grooved.  The  silo  on  the  left  is  made  with 
staves  both  beveled  and  tongued  and  grooved  after  the  plan  of  the  Williams 
Mfg.  Co.,  Kalamazoo,  Mich.  The  least  loss  in  the  metal  silo  was  in  the  bot- 
tom layer,  .51  per  cent.,  in  the  Kalamazoo  silo  13.15  per  cent.,  in  the  other 
stave  silo  14.98  per  cent. 


63 


Silage y and  the  Construction  of  Modern  Silos. 

The  stave  silo  on  the  left  is  made  of  Washington  cedar  in  the  best 
practicable  manner  with  staves  accurately  beveled  and  tongued-and- 
grooved.  The  one  in  the  center  is  made  of  sized  and  selected  pine  2x4’s 
put  together  without  either  beveling  or  tonguing  and  grooving  after 
a plan  which  is  now  being  extensively  followed.  The  third  silo  is  a 
galvanized  iron  cylinder  with  water-tight  bottom  and  sides. 

The  two  stave  silos  are  without  bottoms  but  were  placed  upon  a 
smooth,  level  cement  floor  such  as  has  been  recommended  for  them. 
The  results  obtained  with  the  Kalamazoo  silo  are  hardly  comparable 
with  those  of  the  other  two  for  the  reason  that  it  had  been  provided 
with  three  doors  which  proved  to  be  not  quite  air-tight  at  their  tops 
and  bottoms. 

These  silos  were  all  filled  at  the  same  time  with  short  cut  corn  from 
the  same  loads,  putting  a basketful  in  each  in  regular  rotation,  which 
was  carefully  packed  by  a man  tramping  continuously  in  each  silo. 

When  full  the  silos  were  covered  with  three  layers  of  acid  and  water- 
proof paper  cut  to  a circle  to  fit  closely,  and  upon  this  was  placed  a 
layer  of  sand  about  5 inches  deep.  The  silos  stood  in  the  warm  plant 
house  from  August  29  until  March  1,  when  they  were  opened. 

From  these  three  silos  filled  and  covered  in  exactly  the  same  manner 
there  was  a loss  from  the  top  layer,  including  the  spoiled  silage,  of 
50.75  per  cent,  from  the  Kalamazoo  silo;  49.71  per  cent,  from  the  other 
stave  silo,  but  only  9.21  per  cent  from  the  metal  silo,  computed  on  the 
green  weight  put  in. 

It  should  be  said  that  the  Kalamazoo  silo  is  placed  at  a disadvantage 
in  this  comparison  on  account  of  the  three  defective  doors  which  it 
contained,  while  the  other  two  had  none.  The  doors  in  this  case  were 
all  tight  on  the  sides,  but  at  both  ends  there  was  no  swelling  of 
the  wood  lengthwise  of  the  staves  and  air  enough  entered  to  produce 
a large  part  of  the  spoiling  which  occurred  in  tnis  silo. 

From  the  middle  layer  in  each  case  the  losses  stood  13.15  per  cent, 
of  the  dry  matter  in  the  Kalamazoo  silo;  14.98  per  cent,  in  the  other 
stave  silo  and  7.01  per  cent,  in  the  metal  silo. 

From  the  bottom  layer  the  losses  of  dry  matter  were  31.75  per  cent, 
from  the  Kalamazoo  silo;  26.16  per  cent,  from  the  other  stave  silo, 
but  only  .51  per  cent,  from  the  metal  silo. 

The  large  losses  from  the  bottoms  of  the  two  stave  silos  were  due 
to  air  entering  between  the  ends  of  the  staves  and  the  cement  floor,  and 
the  greater  losses  from  the  Kalamazoo  silo  at  both  the  bottom  and  top 
were  due  to  the  additional  leaKS  about  the  doors 

The  metal  silo  was  absolutely  air-tight  everywhere  except  at  the 
top,  and  the  three  cases  illustrate  in  an  extremely  forceful  way  how 
important  it  is  to  exclude  the  air  from  the  silage. 

Let  every  farmer  who  reads  these  statements  reflect  upon  the  fact 
that  in  the  80-ton  silo  of  Fig.  26,  with  its  galvanized  iron  lining,  there 
was  lost  only  6.38  per  cent,  of  the  dry  matter  put  into  it  in  1897,  in- 


64 


Bulletin  No.  83* 


eluding  that  spoiled  on  the  top  and  about  the  doors,  but  only  3.66  per- 
cent. of  that  below  the  two  surface  layers.  Even  in  the  small  1,500- 
pound  metal  silo  the  total  loss,  including  that  spoiled  on  top,  was  but 
8.57  per  cent.,  while  the  mean  loss  from  the  middle  and  bottom  lay- 
ers was  only  5.3  per  cent.,  and  yet  the  silage  had  stood  under  the  con- 
ditions of  summer  temperature  and  sun  during  180  days. 

The  observations  with  these  silos  prove  that  where  the  linings  are 
strictly  air-tight  very  small  losses  need  be  sustained  even  in  small 
silos  and  that  when  the  air  is  not  excluded  the  losses  must  increase 
in  proportion  to  the  openness  of  the  silo  lining. 


THE  AMOUNT  OF  LOSS  FROM  THE  TOP  OF  SILOS. 

The  amount  of  silage  lost  at  the  top  of  a silo  varies  between  very 
wide  limits,  depending  upon  a number  of  conditions.  It  should  be  un- 
derstood that  if  the  top  of  a silo  could  be  sealed  strictly  air-tight  the 
losses  on  the  top  would  be  very  small,  but  probably  not  quite  as  small 
as  in  the  lower  part  of  the  silo,  for  the  reason  that  the  silage  cannot 
be  as  compact  and  must  for  this  reason  entangle  more  air.  It  may 
also  receive  some  unused  oxygen  rising  from  the  lower  portion  of  the 
silo.  The  chief  cause  of  loss  at  the  top,  however,  is  the  slow  diffusion 
of  air  downward  from  above. 

The  data  which  have  been  collected  show  that  silos  left  without 
covers  of  any  sort  from  early  September  until  March  without  being 
disturbed  develop  about  28  pounds  of  spoiled  silage  per  square  foot 
of  surface;  while  silos  opened  from  the  middle  of  October  to  the  mid- 
dle of  December  have  an  average  of  about  16  pounds  of  spoiled  silage 
per  square  foot  of  surface.  These  rates  give  2,832  and  4,956  pounds 
of  loss  for  a silo  15  feet  in  diameter,  which  is  1.4  and  2.5  per  cent,  on 
100  tons  of  silage. 

Whether  anything  should  be  done  to  reduce  this  loss  will  depend 
wholly  upon  whether  the  cost  of  the  effort  would  be  materially  less 
than  the  value  of  the  silage  saved.  Wherever  a farm  is  stocked  to 
its  full  capacity  and  a single  silo  is  used,  feeding  will  be  continuous 
through  the  year  and  the  1.4  to  2.5  per  cent,  of  loss  at  the  surface 
will  be  avoided  and  hence  become  clear  gain.  The  practice  of  continu- 
ous feeding  is  manifestly  the  one  toward  which  all  should  aim,  but 
this  does  not  necessarily  mean  that  the  silo  shall  be  deep  enough  to 
hold  a year’s  feed;  but  only  until  a spring  crop  of  clover,  rye  or  oats 
has  matured  enough  to  be  made  into  summer  silage. 


Silage,  and  the  Construction  of  Modern  Silos. 


65 


WASTE  OF  SILAGE  FROM  TOO  SLOW  FEEDING. 

Next  to  the  losses  due  to  the  surface  decay  between  filling  and  open- 
ing the  silo  the  most  serious  one  is  that  which  is  due  to  too  slow  feed- 
ing. One  of  the  most  common  mistakes  now  being  made  in  silo  con- 
struction is  that  of  making  it  too  large  in  diameter  for  the  amount 
of  stock  to  be  fed  silage.  Wherever  silage  heats  and  moulds  badly 
on  or  below  the  feeding  surface  heavy  loss  in  feeding  value  is  being  sus- 
tained, and  in  such  cases  the  herd  should  be  increased  until  the  .losses 
are  prevented  by  more  rapid  feeding. 

In  case  the  herd  cannot  be  increased  sufficiently  to  prevent  heat- 
ing and  moulding  at  the  surface,  the  silo  may  be  divided  by  means  of 
a partition,  but  this  necessity  should  be  avoided  where  possible. 

SILAGE  MAY  SUSTAIN  HEAVY  LOSSES  AND  APPEAR  GOOD. 

In  a new  stave  silo  built  without  beveling  or  tonguing  and  grooving 
the  staves  there  were  placed  twelve  samples  of  corn  to  learn  how  great 
the  unavoidable  losses  might  be.  The  silo  was  20  feet  in  diameter  and 
22  feet  deep  and  the  samples  were  placed  in  it  as  shown  in  Fig.  28  at  a 
level  which  left  them  7 feet  above  the  ground  when  reached. 

When  the  samples  were  removed  on  February  11  the  silage  of  the 
.silo  had  a bright  green  appearance,  was  not  more  acid  than  normal, 
was  not  mouldy,  and  the  cows  ate  it  with  much  relish,  and  yet  the 
twelve  samples  which  lay  in  direct  contact  with  this  silage  had  sus- 
tained the  losses  stated  under  the  figure  but  had  the  appearance  of 
thoroughly  good  silage. 

The  dry  matter  contained  in  these  samples  when  removed  from  the 
silo  was  computed  from  the  amount  they  contained  when  put  in  as 
shown  by  the  other  half  of  each  and  every  piece  put  in  which  was 
reserved  and  the  dry  matter  contained  determined.  It  will  be  seen  that 
the  heaviest  loss  from  the  stalks  was  28.86  per  cent,  and  from  the  ears 
13.1  per  cent.,  and  yet  in  neither  case  was  there  anything  in  the  ap- 
pearance to  indicate  such  heavy  losses. 

A still  more  surprising  feature  of  these  observations  was  the  fact 
that  two  of  the  samples, — one  of  ears  and  one  of  stalks, — showed 
a growth  of  delicate  white  mould  and  yet  sustaining  a smaller  loss  than 
other  samples.  It  is  true  that  these  samples  were  bright  and  fresh 
looking  and  it  may  be  that  the  mould  had  just  started  upon  them. 

It  is  certain  that  large  losses  may  be  sustained  by  silage  and  yet 
have  the  appearance  of  that  which  has  experienced  but  little,  and  a 
silo  may  appear  to  be  rendering  good  service  when  in  reality  It  Is 
quite  Inefficient.  There  is  much  reason  to  fear  that  this  is  the  case 
with  the  many  stave  silos  now  being  built  without  beveling  or  tonguing 
and  grooving  the  staves. 


Bulletin  No.  83. 


06 


10 


Fig.  28. — Showing  the  arrangement  of  samples  to  determine  the  unavoidable 
losses  in  a stave  silo  made  without  beveling  or  tonguing  or  grooving  the 
staves.  This  silo  was  20  feet  in  diameter,  22  feet  deep,  and  the  samples  were 
seven  feet  above  the  ground  when  removed.  The  losses  of  dry  matter  in  the 
samples  of  ears  was  at  1,  9.706,  at  10,  where  the  silage  was  frozen  8.712,  at  8, 
13.10,  at  12,  12.51,  at  18,  11.59,  and  at  32,  9.637  per  cent.  The  losses  in  the 
samples  of  stalks  were  at  2,  28.86  per  cent.,  at  blank  19.04  per  cent.,  at  6,  17.57 
per  cent.,  at  15,  24.56  per  cent.,  at  23,  25.21,  and  at  29,  24.43  per  cent, 
per  cent.,  at  15,  24.56  per  cent.,  at  23,  25.21,  and  at  29,  24.43  per  cent.  Silage 
mouldy  at  the  dotted  area  on  south  side. 


CONDITIONS  WHICH  INDICATE  THAT  HEAVY  LOSSES  ARE  TAKING  PLACE. 

Silage  that  is  keeping  well  and  is  sustaining  small  losses  should 
cool  down  after  the  first  heating  has  occurred  and  feel  cold  to  the  hand 
on  digging  down  into  the  silage.  If  the  silage  remains  hot  it  must  be 
losing  its  feeding  value,  for  it  is  this  loss  which  maintains  the  heat. 
The  stave  sflo  in  which  the  samples  were  placed  had  no  frozen  silage 
in  it  6 inches  below  the  surface  when  the  samples  were  removed,  ex- 
cept a little  on  the  north  side  as  shown  by  the  drawings. 

When  the  silage  is  extremely  acid  large  changes  have  taken  place  in 
it  and  often  there  is  associated  with  this  high  acidity  heavy  losses  of 
dry  matter,  but  a high  degree  of  acidity  is  also  associated  with  com- 
paratively small  losses;  but  how  the  feeding  value  is  affected  by  the 


67 


Silage,  and  the  Construction  of  Modern  Silos. 

degree  of  acidity  lias  not  yet  been  determined.  Wherever  there  is  ex- 
tensive moulding  and  where  the  silage  has  turned  dark  in  color  con- 
siderable losses  have  taken  place. 


POORLY  CONSTRUCTED  SILO  MAY  RE  VERY  EXPENSIVE  ALTHOUGH  THE  FIRST 

COST  IS  SMALL. 

If  it  is  true  that  the  large  losses  in  the  stave  silo  described  above 
are  unavoidable  with  that  form  of  construction,  then  it  is  a very  costly 
building  on  account  of  the  heavy  losses  which  it  will  incur  annually. 
If  one  silo  saves  all  of  the  feed  put  into  it  but  6 per  cent,  and  an- 
other loses  annually  16  per  cent.,  it  is  plain  that  this  greater  saving 
of  10  per  cent,  of  the  feed  stored  is  a clear  profit  and  may  represent 
a high  rate  of  interest  on  the  difference  in  cost  of  a good  and  a poorly 
constructed  silo,  and  the  farmer  who  has  his  money  invested  in  an 
efficient  silo  is  on  a par  with  another  who  has  his  money  safely  in- 
vested where  it  is  drawing  an  equivalent  interest.  A silo  which  per- 
mits 10  to  15  per  cent,  more  of  the  feed  put  into  it  to  spoil  than  is 
necessary  is  a structure  a farmer  cannot  afford  to  keep. 

A SILO  THE  BEST  MEANS  OF  FEEDING  A SOILING  CROP. 

When  it  comes  to  intensive  farming  and  the  pasture  becomes  too 
expensive  a means  of  feeding  cows  in  summer,  silage  will  be  found 
the  least  expensive  and  most  satisfactory  roughage  for  dairy  cows. 
With  expensive  help  the  cost  is  too  great  to  permit  large  herds  to  be 
fed  by  the  daily  cutting  and  hauling  of  green  feed.  Besides  this,  with 
the  variability  of  the  seasons  "it  will  always  be  very  difficult  to  pro- 
vide the  needed  acreage  of  soiling  crops  without  incurring  heavy  loss 
through  the  necessity  of  feeding  in  both  the  under  and  over-ripe  con- 
dition. 

With  a silo  a whole  field  may  be  cut  at  once  at  just  the  right  stage 
and  fed  as  needed,  at  much  smaller  cost  for  labor,  waste  of  feed  and 
from  a smaller  acreage. 


THE  SILO  A MEANS  OF  CARRYING  FEED  IN  RESERVE. 


Where  a man  possesses  a thoroughly  good  silo  of  somewhat  larger 
capacity  than  is  needed  he  is  able  to  manage  so  as  in  a large  measure 
to  be  unaffected  by  the  variability  of  seasons.  Silage  may  be  carried 
from  year  to  year  with  little  loss  so  that  one  is  able,  if  he  has  a 
silo,  to  store  a reserve  of  feed  in  seasons  of  heavy  crops  to  be  used 
in  seasons  when  they  fall  below  the  average.  In  this  way  one  is  not 
only  more  largely  independent  of  seasons  but  he  is  able  to  carry  a 
much  larger  herd  upon  the  same  amount  of  land..  Silage  in  a good 


68  Bulletin  No.  83. 

silo  does  not  appear  to  materially  deteriorate  with  age,  and  it  has  been 
fed  when  six  years  old. 

In  semi-arid  climates  where  the  rainfall  is  extremely  variable  the 
silo  will  be  found  very  desirable  as  a means  of  holding  green  feed  in 
reserve  to  be  used  in  seasons  of  drought;  and  if  experience  shall  prove 
that  alfalfa  and  Kafir  corn  can  be  made  into  silage  with  anything  like 
the  advantage  with  which  corn  is  handled  in  this  way  the  agricultural 
possibilities  of  semi-arid  climates  will  be  very  greatly  increased. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN 


Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


BULLETIN  NO.  84. 


BOVINE  TUBERCULOSIS  IN  WISCONSIN.' 


MADISON,  WISCONSIN,  MARCH,  1901. 


m~TTie  Bulletins  and  Annual  JR eports  of  this  Station  are  sent  free  to  all 
residents  of  this  State  upon  request. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN 


AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 


BOARD  OF  REGENTS. 

ACTING  PRESIDENT  of  the  UNIVERSITY,  ex-officio. 

STATE  SUPERINTENDENT  of  PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION,  hx-offici®. 
State-at-large,  GEORGE  W.  PECK,  Milwaukee. 

State-at-large,  WILLIAM  F.  VILAS,  Madison. 

First  District,  OGDEN  H.  FETHERS,  Janesville. 

Second  District,  B.  J.  STEVENS,  Madison. 

Third  District,  JOHN  E.  MORGAN,  Spring  Green. 

Fourth  District,  GEORGE  H.  NOYES,  Milwaukee. 

Fifth  District,  JOHN  R.  RIESS,  Sheboygan. 

Sixth  District,  C.  A.  GALLOWAY,  Fond  du  Lac. 

Seventh  District,  BYRON  A.  BUFFINGTON,  Eau  Claire. 

Eighth  District,  ORLANDO  E.  CLARK,  Appleton. 

Ninth  District,  GEORGE  F.  MERRILL,  Ashland. 

Tenth  District,  J.  H.  STOUT,  Menomonie. 

Officers  of  the  Board  of  Regents. 

GEORGE  H.  NOYES,  President.  I STATE  TREASURER,  Ex-officio  Treasurer. 
J.  H.  STOUT,  Vice-President.  j E.  F.  RILEY,  Secretary,  Madison. 


Agricultural  Committee. 

Regents  CLARK,  STOUT,  FETHERS,  RIESS,  MORGAN  and  ACTING  PRES. 
BIRGE. 


OFFICERS  OF  THE  STATION- 
THE  PRESIDENT  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY. 

W.  A.  HENRY, Director 

f}.  M.  BABCOCK,  . . . Assistant  Director  and  Chief  Chemist 

F.  H.  KING Physicist 

B.  S.  GOFF,  .........  Horticulturist 


W.  L.  CARLYLE, 

F.  W.  WOLL,* 

H.  L.  RUSSELL, 

®.  H.  FARRINGTON, 

■A.  R.  WHITSON, 

ALFRED  VIVIAN, 

B.  G.  HASTINGS, 

R.  A.  MOORE, 

U.  S.  BAER, 

FREDERIC  CRANEFIELD, 
F.  DEWHIRST, 

LESLIE  H.  ADAMS, 

IDA  HERFURTH, 

BFFIE  M.  CLOSE 


. . Animal  Husbandry 

Chemist 

. . . Bacteriologist 

. Dairy  Husbandry 

. Assistant  Physicist 
. . Assistant  Chemist 

Assistant  Bacteriologist 
. Assistant  Agriculturist 
. . . . Dairying 

Assistant  in  Horticulture 
. Assistant  in  Dairying 
. Farm  Superintendent 

Clerk 

Librarian  and  Stenographer 


FARMERS’  INSTITUTES. 

GEORGE  McKERROW, Superintendent 

HATTIE  V.  STOUT,  ......  Clerk  and  Stenographer 

General  Offices  and  Departments  of  Agricultural  Chemistry,  Animal  Hus- 
bandry, Bacteriology,  Farmers’  Institutes  and  Library,  in  Agricultural  Hall, 
near  University  Hall,  on  Upper  Campus. 

Dairy  Building  and  Joint  Horticulture-Physics  Building,  west  end  of  Obser- 
vatory Hill,  adjacent  to  Horticultural  Grounds  and  Experiment  Farm. 
Telephone  to  Station  Office,  Dairy  Building  and  Farm  Office. 

•Absent  on  leave. 


BOVINE  TUBERCULOSIS  IN  WISCONSIN. 


H.  L.  RUSSELL  and  E.  G.  HASTINGS. 

Within  the  last  few  years  the  dairy  and  stock  interests  of  many  por- 
tions of  the  country  have  been  awakened  to  a keen  realization  of  the 
fact  that  they  have  in  bovine  tuberculosis  an  infectious  disease  of 
germ  origin  that  has  been  spreading  quite  rapidly,  though  irregularly 
through  many  sections  of  the  land.  While  the  disease  of  tuberculosis 
is  one  that  has  been  recognized  more  or  less  perfectly  for  several  cen- 
turies, yet,  it  may  be  said  that  the  more  exact  knowledge  of  its  nature 
and  mode  of  dissemination  has  practically  all  been  gained  within  the 
last  two  decades.  With  the  discovery  of  the  tubercle  bacillus  by  Koch 
in  1882,  and,  in  1892,  the  introduction  of  the  tuberculin  test  as  a diag- 
nostic aid  in  the  detection  of  the  disease  in  animals,  it  has  become  pos- 
sible to  accumulate  positive  data  that  have  given  a broad  foundation 
for  further  study.  c 

The  discovery  of  the  tubercle  bacillus  and  the  improvements  in  diag- 
nosis came  at  such  a time  as  to  permit  of  their  application  to  the  study 
of  American  conditions,  and  fortunately  before  the  disease  had  become 
so  widely  spread  as  in  Europe. 

In  determining  what  should  be  done  to  prevent  its  spread  in  Wiscon- 
sin, it  is  first  necessary  to  find  out  what  percentage  of  our  herds  are 
affected.  This  can  only  be  done  through  a wide  use  of  the  tuberculin 
test,  which  is  now  generally  acknowledged  to  be  the  most  accurate  diag- 
nostic agent  that  we  have  at  our  command.  The  present  bulletin  gives 
such  data  as  it  has  been  possible  for  us  to  collect  in  tests  made  by  our- 
selves or  immediately  under  our  direction.  Through  the  courtesy  of 
Dr.  H.  P.  Clute,  state  veterinarian,  it  has  also  been  possible  to  include  a 
part  of  the  work  that  has  been  done  under  his  auspices. 

PRESENT  STATUS  OF  BOVINE  TUBERCULOSIS  IN  WISCONSIN. 

For  several  years  past  this  Experiment  Station  has  attempted  to 
further  the  introduction  of  the  tuberculin  test  among  the  farmers  of 
the  state  by  distributing  through  its  agents  tuberculin  that  has  been 
furnished  by  the  U.  S.  Dept,  of  Agriculture,  and  also  by  giving  instruc- 
tion in  the  details  of  the  test  to  agricultural  students,  so  that  they 
could,  under  our  direction,  test  their  own  herds.  In  this  way  nearly 
1,250  animals  have  been  tested.  (See  Table  I.) 


4 


Bulletin  No.  8\ 


The  difference  in  percentage  of  reacting  animals  is  strikingly  shown 
in  table  1,  for  there  have  been  quite  a large  number  of  animals  tested 
that  were  subjected  to  this  examination  by  reason  of  the  fact  that  Illi- 
nois required  a tuberculin  certificate  before  they  would  permit  the  ship- 
ment of  dairy  animals  into  that  state.  These  sales  have  been  made 
from  various  portions  of  the  state,  but  particularly  in  the  southern  part, 
and  inasmuch  as  they  represent  a large  number  of  herds,  it  is  reason- 
able to  believe  that  the  percentage  of  reacting  animals  found  in  this 
class  approximates  more  nearly  the  actual  conditions  as  found  in  the 
state  at  large  than  in  the  case  of  herds  that  have  been  tested  by  Dr. 
Clute  or  ourselves. 


Table  I. — Summary  of  results  of  tuberculin  tests  made  on  Wis- 
consin cattle. 


Suspected  Heeds. 

Non-Suspected  Herds. 

Tests  Made  By 

No. 

animals 

tested. 

No. 

re-act- 

ing. 

Per  ct. 
affec- 
ted. 

No. 

animals 

tested. 

No. 

re-act- 

ing. 

Per  ct. 
affec- 
ted. 

Experiment  Station 

323 

115 

35.6 

935 

84 

9.0 

State  Veterinarian  (Dr.  H.  P.  Clute, 
1898-1903) 

588 

191 

32.5 

Local  Veterinarians  under  Dr. 
Clute’s  direction  (on  cattle  in- 
tended for  shipment  into  states 
requiring  tuberculin  certificates) 

3,421 

76 

• 2.2 

Among  those  herds  in  which  there  was  reason  to  believe  that  tuber- 
culosis did  exist  before  the  test  was  applied,  the  percentage  of  reacting 
animals  was  large,  being  practically  one-third  of  all  of  those  that  were 
examined  (306  in  911  cases)  both  by  the  state  veterinarian  and  by  our- 
selves. 


PERCENTAGES  OF  ANIMALS  AFFECTED  IN  NON-SUSPECTED  HERDS. 

Nearly  a thousand  animals  have  also  been  tested  under  our  direction 
in  which  there  was  no  reason  to  suspect  the  presence  of  the  disease. 
With  the  exception  of  three  or  four  herds,  the  number  of  reacting  ani- 
mals in  this  class  was  very  small,  ranging  from  none  to  one  to  five  per 
herd.  Out  of  the  42  herds  of  this  class  examined,  22  were  entirely  free, 
and  eight  had  only  one  or  two  affected  animals. 

In  four  cases  where  non-suspected  herds  have  been  tested  by  our  stu- 
dents, high  percentages  have  been  found.  In  one  herd  twenty  out  of 
forty-two  animals  reacted;  in  another,  eighteen  out  of  twenty-eight; 
and  in  two  others,  seven  out  of  twenty-seven,  and  six  out  of  twenty-five, 
respectively.  In  none  of  these  cases  had  there  been  any  previous  deaths 
from  tuberculosis  and  the  existence  of  the  disease  had  not  been  at  all 
suspected. 


Bovine  Tuberculosis  in  Wisconsin. 


5 


The  great  value  of  the  tuberculin  test  is  particularly  well  shown  in 
just  such  cases,  for  without  doubt  the  disease  would  have  continued  to 
develop  insidiously  in  these  herds  for  a considerable  period  before  ac- 
tual losses  would  have  occurred,  and  during  this  interim,  a constantly 
increasing  number  of  animals  would  have  acquired  the  infection. 

These  results  together  with  those  obtained  from  animals  intended  for 
shipment  outside  of  the  state  show  that  the  percentage  of  the  disease 
on  the  average  in  the  state  is  small.  Where  it  has  already  established 
itself,  the  percentage  may  fluctuate  widely,  as  in  some  cases  practically 
the  whole  herd  has  been  affected  (one  case,  23  out  of  24,  another,  25 
out  of  28). 


PERCENTAGE  OF  ANIMALS  AFFECTED  IN  HERDS  SUSPECTED  OF  TUBERCULOSIS. 

Where  it  is  apparent  from  the  physical  condition  of  the  herd  that 
bovine  tuberculosis  is  present,  one  is  almost  certain  to  find  a larger 
number  of  animals  responding  to  the  tuberculin  test  than  would  be  con- 
sidered as  diseased  from  mere  physical  methods  of  diagnosis. 


Fig.  1. — Record  of  tuberculin  tests  made  on  several  herds  in  each  of  which  not 
more  than  one  or  two  animals  showed  any  physical  symptoms  of  disease. 
In  some  cases  no  tuberculosis  was  found ; in  others  from  30-95#  of  animals 
responded. 


In  order  to  show  the  unequal  distribution  of  the  disease  in  herds  in 
which  there  was  some  reason  to  think  that  tuberculosis  might  be  pres- 
ent, some  of  the  data  collected  in  such  cases  is  shown  in  Pig.  1. 
In  most  of  these  cases  not  more  than  one  or  two  animals  were  badly 
diseased,  although  probably  a careful  veterinary  inspection  would  have 
shown  a larger  number.  In  no  case,  however,  would  a physical  exami- 
nation have  revealed  the  actual  state  of  affairs  in  a manner  at  all  com- 
parable to  that  shown  by  the  tuberculin  test. 


6 


Bulletin  No.  8Jf. 


PERCENTAGE  OF  TUBERCULAR  ANIMALS  FOUND  IN  OTHER  STATES. 

In  this  connection  it  will  be  of  service  to  note  the  results  of  tubercu- 
lin tests  obtained  in  other  states.  These  statistics  probably  represent 
more  than  the  actual  average  of  the  disease,  because  in  many  cases,  the 
test  has  been  applied  to  suspected  herds  only  and  not  universally  to  all 
cattle  in  a region. 

New  England  States. — In  Vermont  a large  number  of  tests  have  been 
made.  Since  Feb.,  1895,  the  State  Board  of  Agriculture  has  tested 
60,000  head,  and  of  these  2,390  or  3.9  per  cent,  were  found  to  be  tuber- 
cular. 

Several  methods  of  determining  the  amount  of  the  disease  in  herds 
have  been  tried  in  Massachusetts.  For  a number  of  years  it  has  been 
customary  to  make  a physical  inspection  of  all  herds,  and  quarantine  all 
animals  suspected  of  disease.  Of  these  24,685  were  tested  with  tuber- 
culin from  1894-1897  with  the  result  that  12,443  or  practically  one-half 
were  adjudged  tubercular.  In  about  one-fifth  of  these  the  disease  was 
found  to  be  generalized.  From  June  to  December,  1895,  tests  of  entire 
herds  were  made  upon  application  of  owners  and  4,093  examinations 
showed  1,080  reactions,  of  26.4  per  cent,  of  stock  affected. 

Of  6,300  cattle  tested  in  Connecticut  14.2  per  cent,  reacted. 

Middle  States. — In  1894  the  Tuberculosis  Committee  of  the  New  York 
State  Board  of  Health  confined  part  of  its  work  to  a given  area  that  was 
thought  to  be  comparatiyely  free  from  general  infection  from  other 
sources,  947  animals  were  tested,  66  of  which  were  condemned,  or  6.9 
per  cent.  * 

In  1897-8,  1,200  animals  were  tested,  163  were  found  to  be  tubercular, 
or  18.4  per  cent. 

The  testing  of  cattle  has  perhaps  been  more  thorough  in  Pennsylvania 
than  in  any  other  state.  Under  the  auspices  of  the  State  Live  Stock 
Sanitary  Board,  over  34,000  head  have  been  tested.  Of  these  4,800  re- 
acted to  the  test.  These  herds  for  the  most  part  were  submitted  to  ex- 
amination because  the  existence  of  the  disease  was  suspected.  From 
examinations  of  non-suspected  herds  and  private  tests  and  from  slaugh- 
ter house  statistics  in  the  country,  small  town,  and  cities,  Dr.  Pearson, 
the  state  veterinarian,  thinks  that  the  average  of  the  disease  for  the 
state  at  large  is  about  2 per  cent. 

In  New  Jersey  the  test  is  applied  only  to  cattle  that  are  suspected  of 
the  disease  on  physical  examination,  and  yet  are  not  sufficiently  ad- 
vanced to  condemn  from  such  test.  Tests  of  whole  herds  are  made  only 
where  the  herd  has  been  contaminated  for  a long  time  and  when  ani- 
mals have  died  from  year  to  year.  From  1896  to  1899,  2,500  animals 
were  tested,  of  which  21.4  per  cent,  reacted. 

North  Central  States. — During  two  years  prior  to  November,  1898, 
929  dairy  cattle  were  tested  by  the  Illinois  State  Board  of  Live  Stock 
Commissioners,  12  per  cent,  of  which  reacted.  From  May  to  November, 
1899,  3,655  animals  were  tested,  560  of  which  reacted,  or  15.32  per  cent. 


oOo 


Bovine  Tuberculosis  in  Wisconsin . 


7 


In  Michigan  about  jl3  per  cent,  of  the  cattle  tested  by  the  State  Vet- 
erinarian have  been  found  to  be  tubercular. 

In  Minnesota,  Reynolds  has  reported  the  results  of  3,430  tests.  Nearly 
all  the  herds  examined  were  those  furnishing  milk  for  city  consumption, 
only  694  animals  being  from  farm  herds.  The  per  cent,  of  reacting 
animals  was  11.1.  Reynolds  thinks  this  does  not  represent  the  true 
status  of  affairs  in  the  state,  as  according  to  his  data,  farm  herds  show 
less  of  the  disease  than  city  dairy  herds.  However,  no  attempt  was 
made  to  select  suspicious  herds.  According  to  the  city  ordinance  all 
milk  offered  for  sale  in  the  city  of  Minneapolis  must  be  from  tested 
cows.  The  larger  part  of  the  cattle  tested  were  herds  furnishing  milk 
to  the  cities  of  Minneapolis  and  St.  Paul. 

Stalker  and  Niles  have  reported  the  results  of  tests  made  on  50  herds 
in  Iowa.  The  number  of  animals  tested  was  873,  of  these  122  reacted, 
equalling  13.8  per  cent.  They  state  that  the  unsuspected  herds  as  a 
rule,  have  not  been  tested. 

GEOGRAPHICAL  DISTRIBUTION  OF  TUBERCULOSIS  IN  WISCONSIN. 

It  is  a well  known  fact  that  the  percentage  of  tuberculosis  in  any 
given  section  is  generally  greater  in  the  older  settled  localities  than  it 
is  in  the  more  newly  settled  regions.  The  reason  for  this  is  that  the 
opportunity  for  the  introduction  of  the  disease  is  determined  largely  by 
the  transfer  of  stock,  and  in  the  older  dairy  sections,  there  has  been 
more  interchange  due  to  the  attempt  to  improve  the  character  of  herds 
by  breeding.  There  is  no  reason  to  believe  that  pure  bred  or  high  grade 
stock  is  more  liable  to  contract  tuberculosis  than  animals  without  a 
pedigree,  but  as  such  animals  are  more  frequently  transferred  from 
herd  to  herd,  they  are  thus  more  often  exposed  to  infection. 

The  available  data  with  reference  to  the  distribution  of  the  disease 
in  various  portions  of  the  state  is  shown  in  accompanying  map.  xn 
each  set  of  figures  given,  the  first  number  represents  total  number  of 
animals  tested,  the  second  number  those  that  reacted  to  the  test.  The 
data  collected  by  the  Experiment  Station  is  represented  by  heavy  bold 
face  figures;  that  gathered  by  the  state  veterinarian,  Dr.  H.  P.  Clute, 
by  open-faced  figures.  These  data  are  shown  by  counties.  Tests  made 
by  veterinarians  under  Dr.  Clute’s  direction  are  shown  in  lighter  plain 
type  and  are  placed  under  the  name  of  the  town  in  which  the  veterin- 
arian happened  to  reside.  Such  tests  should  not  be  considered  as  be- 
longing entirely  to  county  in  question  as  frequently  they  were  made  in 
adjoining  counties. 

MODE  OF  DISSEMINATION  OF  DISEASE  FROM  HERD  TO  HERD. 

In  order  to  be  able  to  institute  repressive  measures  it  is  necessary 
to  understand  how  the  disease  organism  is  distributed  from  one  herd 
to  another. 

The  tubercle  bacillus  belongs  to  the  class  of  bacteria  that  are  known 


8 


Bulletin  No.  8J+. 


as  parasites.  This  organism  is  not  able  to  thrive  outside  of  the  animal 
body,  although  it  is  able  to  retain  its  vitality  in  a dried  form  for  a num- 
ber of  months.  For  this  reason  it  is  absolutely  impossible  to  produce 
the  disease  unless  an  animal  is  brought  in  contact  with  another  al- 
ready affected,  or  with  tuberculous  matter  that  has  been  thrown  off 
from  a diseased  individual.  While  there  is  a possibility  that  herds 
may  become  infected  from  tuberculous  attendants,  the  number  of  re- 
corded instances  of  such  cases  is  so  exceedingly  small  that  they  can 
be  neglected. 

INTRODUCTION  THROUGH  PURCHASE  OF  REACTING  ANIMALS. 

The  much  more  common  method  of  herd  infection  is  where  the  dis- 
ease is  introduced  into  the  herd  through  the  purchase  of  an  already  in- 
fected animal.  No  one  would  of  course  willingly  buy  tuberculous  ani- 
mals, but  in  the  earlier  stages  of  the  disease  it  is  practically  impossible 
for  the  purchaser  to  recognize  its  presence,  and  the  consequence  is  that 
animals  that  contain  the  seeds  of  this  scourge  are  often  brought  into 
his  herd  unwittingly.  This  danger  could  be  practically  eliminated  if 
all  additions  to  the  herd  were  first  subjected  to  the  tuberculin  test,  but 
many  farmers  have  not  recognized  the  value  of  this  simple  precaution 
until  they  have  learned  their  lesson  in  the  severe  and  costly  school  of 
experience.  (See  Fig.  3.) 

Where  the  disease  establishes  itself  in  herds  that  are  sold  for  breed- 
ing purposes  the  danger  is  much  increased,  for  animals  from  such 
sources  are  much  more  apt  to  be  widely  disseminated'as  they  generally 
serve  as  a foundation  for  the  breeding  up  of  common  stock.  The 
state  of  Wisconsin,  as  well  as  other  northwestern  states,  have  suffered 
in  this  regard  very  severely  from  some  of  its  finest  breeding  herds. 

One  herd  in  particular  in  this  state  has  had  anything  but  an  enviable 
record  in  this  matter  for  it  has  been  determined  that  tuberculosis  has 
broken  out  in  at  least  sixteen  herds  to  which  members  of  this  original 
herd  were  sold.  While  it  cannot  be  proved  that  the  origin  of  the  dis- 
ease in  each  of  these  sixteen  cases  could  be  traced  to  the  animals  orig- 
inally purchased,  yet  it  is  noteworthy  that  in  a considerable  number 
of  cases  the  first  animals  to  show  evident  symptoms  of  the  disease  were 
those  that  were  introduced  from  this  badly  diseased  herd.  Not  only 
were  a number  of  fine  herds  in  our  own  state  infected  from  this 
source,  but  the  contagion  was  also  spread,  in  a number  of  cases,  to 
Minnesota  and  Iowa.  Had  the  tuberculin  test  been  used  in  such  a 
herd,  no  such  broadcast  distribution  could  have  happened!  It  would 
seem  that  enterprising  breeders  would  be  quick  to  adopt  this  measure 
for  their  own  benefit,  for  a knowledge  of  an  animal’s  actual  condition 
as  to  tuberculosis  is  worth  something  to  any  intending  purchaser.  So 
long  as  buyers  are  indifferent  though,  there  is  not  much  incentive  to 
make  the  test.  And  in  some  herds  owners  are  doubtless  glad  to  dis- 
pose of  animals  without  submitting  them  to  the  test  for  fear  that  con- 
ditions might  be  found  that  would  be  far  from  pleasant. 


Bovine  Tuberculosis  in  Wisconsin. 


9 


In  inaugurating  the  test  in  Wisconsin  herds  we  have  encouraged  as 
far  as  possible  the  use  of  the  same,  especially  among  the  breeding 
herds,  and  from  this  point  of  view  it  is  gratifying  to  note  that  the  per- 
centage of  affected  animals  found  in  these  cases  is  less  than  it  was  in 
the  dairy  or  milk  supply  herds  that  have  been  examined. 

Table  II. — Distribution  of  tuberculosis  in  different  kinds  of  herds 
as.  determined  by  tests  made  under  direction  of  Experiment 
Station. 


Character  of  Herd. 


Breeding. 

Milk 

supply. 

Dairy. 

"Total  number  of  herds  tested 

16 

16 

37 

Total  number  of  animals  tested 

365 

295 

713 

Total  number  of  reacting  animals 

42 

54 

147 

Percentage  of  reacting  animals 

11.5 

18.3 

20.6 

Of  the  42  diseased  animals  found  in  breeding  herds,  one  herd  of  56 
contained  22  affected  animals.  Excluding  this  case,  the  15  remaining 
herds  had  less  than  7 per  cent. 

INTRODUCTION  OF  DISEASE  IN  HERDS  THROUGH  INFECTED  SKIM  MILK. 

Under  some  circumstances  herds  may  become  infected  through  the 
use  of  tuberculous  skim  milk.  If  the  percentage  of  tuberculous  ani- 
mals in  any  region  is  high,  as  has  been  determined  especially  in  Den- 
mark and  Germany,  it  is  quite  possible  that  the  separator  slime  and 
skim  milk  may  contain  sufficient  numbers  of  tubercle  bacilli,  so  as  to 
be  able  to  produce  the  disease  in  calves  and  pigs,  and  in  this  way  new 
foci  of  the  disease  may  be  readily  established.  This  manner  of  infec- 
tion has  proved  to  be  a serious  menace  in  the  countries  mentioned,  and 
at  the  present  time  the  Danish  law  requires  the  treatment  of  all  skim 
milk  that  is  taken  back  to  the  farmers  in  a manner  that  will  insure 
the  destruction  of  the  tubercle  bacillus. 

ADVISABILITY  OF  STATE  QUARANTINE  TO  PREVENT  IMPORTATION  OF  THE 

DISEASE. 

The  course  to  follow  with  a private  herd  is  also  applicable  in  the  state 
at  large.  There  is  no  use  in  a state  attempting  to  eradicate  or  control 
the  disease  so  long  as  it  is  possible  for  persons  to  import  cattle  from 
any  source  whatever  without  having  them  first  tested  to  determine 
whether  they  are  affected  or  not.  Experience  of  eastern  states  has 
shown  that  there  are  unscrupulous  persons  who  will  buy  reacting  ani- 
mals that  show  no  visible  symptoms,  and  ship  them  from  one  section 
to  another.  Not  only  is  this  true,  but  not  infrequently  incipiently  dis- 


10 


Bulletin  No.  8Jf. 


eased  animals  may  be  unwittingly  transferred  from  herd  to  herd,  due 
to  the  ignorance  of  both  seller  and  buyer  as  to  the  actual  condition  of 
the  stock  in  question. 

Protection  in  interstate  traffic  can  be  gained  through  legislative  en- 
actments by  the  different  states.  At  the  present  time  the  United  States 
government  requires  a tuberculin  test  to  be  made  on  all  cattle  imported 
from  other  countries  for  breeding  or  dairy  purposes.  The  same  is 
true  among  many  of  the  states  of  the  Union,  seventeen  of  which  now 
have  legislation  of  this  character  that  is  designed  to  prevent  their  re- 
spective commonwealths  from  being  made  a “dumping  ground”  for  the 
sale  of  such  animals.  This  interference  with  interstate  traffic  has  been 
objected  to  in  some  quarters,  but  the  inconvenience  of  the  measure  is 
largely  diminished  by  confining  it  to  stock  used  for  breeding  and  dairy- 
ing. Such  a law  in  Wisconsin  would  enable  the  state  to  gain  the  great- 
est advantage  with  the  least  interference  with  stock  movement  be- 
cause most  of  the  dairy  or  breeding  animals  brought  into  the  state  are 
of  high  grade  and  are  intended  to  be  used  in  building  up  herds  rather 
than  simply  for  milk  supply. 

MODE  OF  DISSEMINATION  WITHIN  THE  HERD. 

While  it  is  easily  possible  to  keep  tuberculosis  out  of  a herd  by 
quarantining  all  introduced  animals  until  after  they  have  been  tuber- 
culin tested,  it  is  a much  more  difficult  matter  to  control  the  disease 
within  the  herd  after  it  has  once  obtained  a foothold.  The  manner  of 
dissemination  of  the  disease  is  a question  of  prime  importance  for  the 
control  of  the  same  rests  largely  upon  the  mode  of  distribution. 

The  experiments  of  Pearson  and  Ravenel*  on  this  question  of  in- 
dividual infection  have  done  much  to  explain  the  mode  of  transmis- 
sion. These  investigators  tied  nose-bags  over  the  muzzles  of  tubercu- 
lous animals,  and  then  made  an  examination  of  the  saliva  that  dropped 
from  the  mouth  and  also  of  the  material  that  was  coughed  up  from 
the  lungs.  The  results  of  these  tests  showed  in  both  cases  virulent 
tubercle  bacilli.  They  further  found  that  the  expired  air  itself  from 
such  animals  was  not  infectious.  A determination  of  these  condi- 
tions shows  how  readily  the  tubercle  bacilli  from  an  animal  may  be 
discharged  on  mangers,  stalls  and  other  surfaces,  where  it  is  easily 
possible  for  other  animals  to  lick  the  same,  and  so  absorb  the  bacilli  di- 
rectly, or  where  the  germs  may  become  dried  and  spread  more  widely 
throughout  the  barn  by  means  of  any  air  currents. 

AN  INSTRUCTIVE  LESSON. 

That  the  disease  germ  is  practically  scattered  from  one  animal  to 
another  in  this  way  is  often  assured  from  the  manner  in  which  ani- 
mals in  a herd  acquire  the  same.  The  following  instructive  instance 
from  our  own  records  indicates  how  the  disease  was  unquestionably 

♦Kept,  of  Penn.  Dept,  of  Agr.,  1899,  p.  344. 


Bovine  Tuberculosis  in  Wisconsin. 


11 


spread  from  a single  focus.  Fig.  2 shows  the  ground  plan  of  a t>arn 
in  which  a herd  was  housed.  Animal  No.  3 died  of  tuberculosis  and 
this  led  to  the  application  of  the  tuberculin  test  with  the  result  as  in- 
dicated on  the  diagram.  It  should  be  noted  that  a tight  board  parti- 
tion separated  the  row  of  stalls  marked  A from  the  rest  of  the  barn. 
Every  animal  in  this  section  responded  to  the  test,  while  only  four  out 
of  twelve  of  the  remainder  were  affected.  Abundant  opportunity  would 
of  course  be  had  for  the  infection  of  these  four  cases  as  the  whole 
herd  were  turned  out  together  daily  and  were  watered  in  common  from 
a single  water  tank. 


inally  affected  animal  (marked  *).  + = tuberculous  ; — = healthy  animals. 

DISINFECTION  OF  INFECTED  QUARTERS. 

It  is  manifestly  useless  to  eradicate  this  disease  from  a herd  unless 
at  the  same  time  the  infected  quarters  are  subjected  to  a thorough 
disinfection. 

One  case  that  has  come  to  our  attention  sufficiently  illustrates  this 
point.  Within  the  past  two  years  a herd  of  cows  were  tested  and  the 
larger  part  of  the  herd  condemned  by  the  test  and  slaughtered.  A post- 
mortem examination  showed  many  of  them  to  be  badly  diseased.  . : 
short  time  afterward  a new  herd  was  purchased  and  introduced  into 
the  same  quarters.  Within  a year  it  was  found  that  many  of  this  sec- 
ond herd  had  also  acquired  the  same  disease.  Undoubtedly  they  con- 
tracted the  same  from  the  infected  quarters  in  which  they  were  placed. 
Such  a course  of  action  cannot  be  justified  under  any  conditions.  There 
is  no  use  in  attempting  to  rid  a herd  of  the  disease,  there  is  no  use  in 
the  state  paying  for  diseased  animals,  unless  measures  are  employed 
to  render  infected  barns  safe  for  new  herds. 


12 


Bulletin  No.  8J+. 


CONTROL  OF  DISEASE. 

It  needs  no  extended  argument  to  convince  an  intelligent  person  as 
to  the  desirability  of  repressing  or  eradicating  this  disease.  The  ques- 
tion may  be  presented  from  two  points  of  view:  (1)  that  of  public 
health,  (2)  successful  animal  industry. 

Either  of  these  are  of  sufficient  importance  to  merit,  careful  consid- 
eration. The  one  says  the  bovine  phase  of  the  disease  should  be  held 
in  check  because  of  the  menace  to  human  life  from  the  unrestricted 
sale  of  products  from  affected  animals;  the  other  considers  the  case 
from  the  standpoint  of  the  herd  itself.  No  farmer  ought  to  allow  this 
disease  to  remain  in  his  herd  if  he  is  selling  his  product,  especially  if 
it  is  disposed  of  in  the  form  of  milk;  no  farmer  can  afford  simply  for 
the  sake  oi  the  herd  itself  to  permit  this  disease  to  continue  to  develop 
among  his  stock. 

The  problem  as  to  what  should  be  done  to  eradicate  the  disease  is, 
under  any  condition,  a difficult  one  to  solve. 


on  the  basis  of  the  tuberculin  test. 


A close  co-operation  between  the  owner  and  the  commonwealth  is- 
necessary  before  successful  restrictive  measures  can  be  inaugurated. 
Generally  speaking,  the  state  recognizes  the  advisability  and  necessity 
of  sharing  the  burden  incurred  in  repressing  the  disease  by  granting 
to  the  owner  partial  compensation  at  least  for  losses  sustained  on  ac- 
count of  the  public  good.  On  the  other  hand  it  is  necessary  to  restrict 
these  payments  in  order  to  avoid  a free  live  stock  insurance  system  be- 
ing foisted  on  the  state.  This  can  best  be  done  by  paying  only  a pro 
rata  proportion  of  the  value  of  the  animals  as  determined  at  time  of 
slaughter. 


Bovine  Tuberculosis  in  Wisconsin. 


13 


TREATMENT  OF  REACTING  ANIMALS. 

A question  which  is  of  most  interest  to  stock  owners  is  what  should 
be  done  with  reacting  animals?  The  tuberculin  test  is  now  generally 
admitted  to  be  a much  more  reliable  means  of  determining  whether 
animals  are  affected  with  this  disease  than  any  other  method.  It  is 
objected  to  by  some  on  the  ground  that  it  is  too  sensitive,  that  it  may 
show  a reaction  long  before  the  animal  is  a source  of  danger  to  other 
animals  directly,  or  through  her  milk.  This  is  true,  but  at  the  same 
time  it  is  indeed  fortunate  that  it  is  so,  for  it  permits  of  the  recogni- 
tion of  animals  that  are  potentially  tubercular,  i.  e.,  liable  to  develop 
the  disease  more  severely  at  a later  date.  If  these  animals  are  al- 
lowed to  remain  in  a herd  for  a long  enough  period  of  time,  the  disease 
will  frequently  increase  in  extent,  and  no  one  can  tell  at  just  what  stage 
an  animal  may  reach  a condition  that  makes  her  dangerous  to  the  rest 
of  the  herd.  It  is  therefore  much  better  to  be  able  to  detect  all  ani- 
mals that  are  infected  even  in  the  slightest  degree  than  to  allow  some 
to  remain  in  the  herd  to  cause  trouble  later  (See  figures  3 and  4). 


Fig.  4.— Same  animal  as  in  Fig.  3,  eighteen  months  later,  in  the  last  stages  of 
“quick  consumption.” 

In  some  states  the  method  of  disposal  of  all  reacting  animals  has 
been  by  immediate  slaughter,  regardless  of  the  physical  condition  of 
the  animal,  but  such  a system  soon  meets  with  active  opposition  on  the 
part  of  the  stock  owners — and  justly  so,  for,  in  many  cases  it  is  not 
the  best  method  of  getting  rid  of  the  disease. 

Many  of  these  animals — in  fact  the  greater  majority  as  the  disease 
usually  goes — are  infected  in  the  earlier  stages,  and  the  disease  may 
develop  so  slowly  that  for  years  the  animal  may  show  no  physical  symp- 
toms oi  the  malady.  During  such  stages  the  milk  may  contain  abso- 
lutely no  tubercle  bacilli  and  the  meat  be  perfectly  wholesome  for  use. 
Moreover,  the  progeny  from  such  reacting  animals,  and  also  from  those 


14: 


Bulletin  No.  8J/.. 


more  severely  affected,  is  at  birth  almost  without  exception  free  from 
any  taint  of  the  disease  whatever,  and  if  such  calves  are  removed  from 
quarters  occupied  by  tubercular  animals,  and  fed  on  pasteurized  or 
boiled  milk,  or  that  of  healthy  cows,  they  will  continue  to  remain  free. 
When  these  facts  are  taken  into  consideration,  it  is  clearly  evident  that 
to  destroy  by  immediate  slaughter,  every  animal  that  responds  to  the 
tuberculin  test,  without  regard  to  its  condition,  is  imposing  an  unwise 
and  needlessly  severe  restriction  on  animal  industry. 

Where  only  a single  animal  or  two  in  a herd  is  affected  with  the 
disease,  manifestly  the  most  economical  way  to  eradicate  the  trouble 
would  be  to  immediately  kill  such,  but  if  a large  proportion  of  the  herd 
are  found  to  be  affected,  more  particularly  if  the  same  are  especially 
valuable  animals,  immediate  condemnation  and  slaughter  of  such  may 
often  be  unwise.  If  such  animals  can  be  removed  from  the  healthy 
part  of  the  herd,  and  kept  under  quarantine,  and  the  calves  from  the 
same  cared  for  as  suggested  above,  it  is  possible  to  use  these  diseased 
animals  as  a foundation  for  a perfectly  healthy  herd  and  in  this  way 
preserve  the  valuable  characteristics  of  the  herd. 

That  this  can  be  done  under  practical  conditions  is  shown  by  the 
fact  that  this  method  of  “weeding”  out  instead  of  “stamping”  out  the 
disease  has  been  practiced  for  some  years  with  great  success  in  Den- 
mark and  other  countries  of  continental  Europe.  Several  badly  dis- 
eased herds  within  our  own  state  have  also  been  handled  in  this  way 
with  signal  success.  In  one  of  these  a valuable  but  affected  animal 
has  given  birth  to  five  healthy  calves.  In  keeping  these  reacting  ani- 
mals in  a separate  herd,  it  is  necessary  to  treat  the  milk  product,  so 
as  to  insure  the  destruction  of  the  tubercle  organisms  that  may  possi- 
bly be  present.  This  can  be  readily  done  by  pasteurization.  An  ap- 
plication of  heat  at  a temperature  of  140°  P.  for  15  minutes  in  a closed 
pasteurizing  apparatus,  or  at  a temperature  of  155-165°  F.  for  a briefer 
exposure  will  result  in  the  destruction  of  all  tubercle  bacilli.  If  pas- 
teurization is  carried  on  at  this  lower  temperature,  there  is  no  chang9 
in  the  taste  of  the  milk  or  even  in  its  creaming  properties.  Such  a 
treatment  ensures  thorough  safety  without  changing  the  character  of 
the  milk. 

It  is  true  that  such  a practice  involves  some  trouble,  but  when  a 
farmer  finds  that  his  herd  is  invaded  with  the  scourge  of  tuberculosis 
he  must  make  up  his  mind  to  either  one  of  two  things:  either  to  suf- 
fer the  financial  loss  incurred  from  the  destruction  of  affected  animals, 
or  to  take  the  trouble  of  caring  for  his  herd  so  as  not  to  further  spread 
the  disease,  and  still  handle  the  product  in  any  way  that  will  not  en- 
danger public  health. 

The  state  should  give  him  the  option  of  eradicating  the  disease  with 
the  least  possible  expense,  and  still  safeguard  the  interests  of  the  con- 
sumer of  milk  and  milk  products.  Such  a course  as  this  would  allay 


Bovine  Tuberculosis  in  Wisconsin . 


15 


much  of  the  opposition  to  the  tuberculin  test,  for  it  would  enable  the 
owner  to  keep  the  more  valuable  affected  animals  until  healthy  calves 
could  be  raised. 


SUMMARY. 

1.  The  disease  of  bovine  tuberculosis  is  dangerous  not  only  to  human 
health,  but  to  successful  dairying  or  stock  raising,  and  this  danger  is 
aggravated  because  of  the  insidious  nature  of  the  malady. 

2.  Tuberculosis  is  widely  distributed  in  various  portions  of  our  state, 
but  it  is  impossible  to  give  any  definite  figures  because  only  a very 
small  percentage  of  herds  have  been  examined.  In  all  probability  the 
condition  in  Wisconsin  is  not  materially  different  from  other  surround- 
ing states  that  have  been  engaged  in  dairying  for  similar  periods  of 
time.  The  fact  that  probably  only  a small  percentage  of  our  stock  is  af- 
fected at  this  time  makes  it  all  the  more  desirable  that  measures  shall 
be  taken  to  prevent  its  further  dissemination  at  a time  when  the  ex- 
pense involved  will  be  moderately  small  in  comparison  with  what  it 
would  cost  if  the  disease  was  wider  spread. 

3.  In  considering  measures  that  are  of  value  in  restricting  this  dis- 
ease, especial  emphasis  should  be  laid  on  the  matter  of  education.  The 
rank  and  file  of  dairymen  are  not  yet  awake  to  the  importance  of  this 
question,  more  especially  as  to  the  effect  of  the  disease  on  their  own 
herds. 

4.  The  use  of  the  tuberculin  test  should  be  widely  extended,  for  in  this 
method  we  possess  a means,  not  infallible  in  every  case,  but  so  superior 
to  all  other  methods  of  diagnosis  known,  that  it  is  of  the  greatest  aid 
in  determining  the  presence  or  absence  of  the  disease. 

5.  When  dairymen  in  general  have  determined  whether  their  herds 
have  the  disease  or  not,  they  can  easily  prevent  its  further  spread.  In 
case  of  herds  now  free  from  the  disease  future  safety  is  insured  by 
testing  all  animals  introduced  into  the  same.  In  case  of  affected  herds, 
separation  of  reacting  animals  and  thorough  disinfection  of  quarters 
occupied  by  the  herd  will  stop  further  progress. 

6.  A most  important  question  is  what  shall  be  done  with  the  reacting 
animals?  By  far  the  larger  majority  of  animals  that  respond  to  the 
test  have  the  disease  in  a latent  form,  or  at  so  early  a stage  of  develop- 
ment that  neither  their  milk  nor  meat  is  of  necessity  dangerous  for  use. 
Still,  inasmuch,  as  they  react  to  the  test  they  show  the  presence  of  the 
disease  germ  in  their  systems,  and  as  there  is  no  simple  way  in  which 
it  is  possible  to  detect  just  when  the  product  may  become  dangerous,  it 
is  wise  of  course  to  regard  the  milk  of  all  reacting  animals  as  unsuit- 
able for  use  until  it  is  first  treated  in  a way  so  as  to  render  it  safe, 
which  can  be  done  by  pasteurizing  it  in  closed  pasteurizers  at  140°  F. 
for  15  minutes. 

7.  The  calves  from  reacting  mothers  can  in  almost  every  instance  be 
raised  in  a perfectly  healthy  condition  by  removing  them  from  the  cow 


1 G 


Bulletin  No.  8Jf. 


at  birth  (a  day  or  so  after)  and  feeding  them  upon  boiled  or  pasteurized 
milk  or  that  from  non-reacting  animals.  It  has  been  fully  demon- 
strated that  healthy  herds  can  thus  be  raised  from  the  originally  dis- 
eased animals.  This  often  furnishes  the  least  expensive  way  of  con- 
trolling the  disease,  and  meets  the  objection  of  those  who  insist  that 
immediate  slaughter  is  unnecessary.  Only  such  infected  animals  should 
be  saved,  for  the  time  being,  as  show  no  well  marked  physical  symptoms 
of  the  disease. 

8.  Revision  of  our  veterinary  laws.  The  present  veterinary  law  of 
Wisconsin  was  framed  and  passed  before  the  nature  of  bovine  tuber- 
culosis was  understood,  hence  its  provisions  do  not  meet  the  condition's 
that  surround  this  disease.  As  it  has  been  carried  out,  all  animals 
reacting  to  the  test  are  considered  ^o  be  affected  with  a contagious 
malady  and  have  been  slaughtered  forthwith.  This  provision  should  be 
modified  so  that  under  the  auspices  of  the  state,  the  owner  may  have 
the  option  of  retaining  valuable  animals  under  quarantine  in  order  to 
permit  him  to  raise  from  these  affected  animals  healthy  progeny.  The 
milk  from  such  reacting  animals  should  be  rendered  safe  by  the  appli- 
cation of  heat. 

The  state  should  give  a partial  compensation  for  the  destruction  of 
affected  animals  as  is  done  at  present,  but  only  where  the  infected 
quarters  have  been  thoroughly  and  efficiently  disinfected  to  kill  disease 
organisms  present  in  the  barns. 

Furthermore  the  state  should  require  that  all  cattle  imported  for 
breeding  or  dairy  purposes  (cattle  intended  for  immediate  slaughter 
exempted)  should  be  subjected  to  the  tuberculin  test  before  shipment 
or  as  soon  as  they  are  brought  into  the  state. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN 


— 

Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


BULLETIN  NO.  85. 


DEVELOPMENT  AND  DISTRIBUTION  OF  NITRATES  AND 
OTHER  SOLUBLE  SALTS  IN  CULTIVATED  SOILS. 


MADISON,  WISCONSIN,  MARCH,  1901. 


mrr,ie  “•*  - »« 


UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN 


AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 


BOARD  OF  REGENTS. 

PRESIDENT  of  the  UNIVERSITY,  ex-officio. 

STATE  SUPERINTENDENT  of  PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION,  bx-officig. 
State-at-large,  GEORGE  W.  PECK,  Milwaukee. 

State-at-large,  WILLIAM  F.  VILAS,  Madison. 

First  District,  OGDEN  H.  FETHERS,  Janesville. 

Second  District,  B.  J.  STEVENS,  Madison. 

Third  District,  JOHN  E.  MORGAN,  Spring  Green. 

Fourth  District,  GEORGE  II,  NOYES,  Milwaukee. 

Fifth  District,  JOHN  R.  RIESS,  Sheboygan. 

Sixth  District,  C.  A.  GALLOWAY,  Fond  du  Lac. 

Seventh  District,  BYRON  A.  BUFFINGTON,  Eau  Claire. 

Eighth  District,  ORLANDO  E.  CLARK,  Appleton. 

Ninth  District,  GEORGE  F.  MERRILL,  Ashland. 

Tenth  District,  J.  H.  STOUT,  Menomonie. 

Officers  of  the  Board  of  Regents. 

GEORGE  H.  NOYES,  President.  I STATE  TREASURER,  Ex-officio  Treasurer. 
J.  H.  STOUT,  Vice-President.  j E.  F.  RILEY,  Secretary,  Madison. 


Agricultural  Committee. 

Regents  CLARK,  STOUT,  FETHERS,  RIESS,  MORGAN  and  ACTING  PRES. 
BIRGE. 


OFFICERS  OF  THE  STATION. 

THE  PRESIDENT  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY. 

W.  A.  HENRY,  ..........  Director 

S.  M.  BABCOCK,  . . . Assistant  Director  and  Chief  Chemist 

F.  H.  KING, Physicist 


E.  S.  GOFF, 

W.  L.  CARLYLE, 

F.  W.  WOLL,* 

R.  H.  SHAW,  - 
H.  L.  RUSSELL, 

E.  H.  FARRINGTON, 

A.  R.  WHITSON, 

ALFRED  VIVIAN, 

H.  G.  HASTINGS, 

R.  A.  MOORE, 

U.  S.  BAER, 

FREDERIC  CRANEFIELD, 

F.  DEWHIRST. 

LESLIE  H.  ADAMS, 

IDA  HERFURTH, 

EFFIE  M.  CLOSE 


Horticulturist 
. . Animal  Husbandry 

Chemist. 

Acting  Chemist 
. . . Bacteriologist 

. Dairy  Husbandry 

. Assistant  Physicist 
. . Assistant  Chemist 

Assistant  Bacteriologist 
. Assistant  Agriculturist 
. . . . Dairying 

Assistant  in  Horticulture 
. Assistant  in  Dairying 
. Farm  Superintendent 

Clerk 

Librarian  and  Stenographeb 


FARPdERS’  INSTITUTES. 

GEORGE  McKERROW,  .......  Superintendent 

HATTIE  V.  STOUT,  ......  Clerk  and  Stenographeb 

General  Offices  and  Departments  of  Agricultural  Chemistry,  Animal  Hus- 
bandry, Bacteriology,  Farmers’  Institutes  and  Library,  in  Agricultural  Hall, 
near  University  Hall,  on  Upper  Campus. 

Dairy  Building  and  Joint  Horticulture-Physics  Building,  west  end  of  Obser- 
vatory Hill,  adjacent  to  Horticultural  Grounds  and  Experiment  Farm. 
Telephone  to  Station  Office,  Dairy  Building  and  Farm  Office. 

•Absent  on  leave. 


DEVELOPMENT  AND  DISTRIBUTION  OF  NITRATES  AND 
OTHER  SOLUBLE  SALTS  IN  CULTIVATED  SOILS. 


F.  H.  KING  and  A.  R.  WHITSON. 


SUMMARY. 

In  this  bulletin  there  is  presented  a series  of  studies: 

1st.  Aiming  to  observe  and  record  the  amounts  of  nitric  nitrogen 
and  the  total  soluble  salts  found  in  field  soils  under  growing  crops 
during  the  whole  of  the  growing  season.  This  study  has  covered 
nine  field  plots  aggregating  ten  acres,  and  has  been  made  to  cover 
the  first,  second,  third  and  fourth  feet  separately  in  each  case. 

2nd.  Aiming  to  show  the  difference  between  the  amounts  of  nitric 
nitrogen  and  of  soluble  salts  in  the  soil  under  growing  crops  and  In 
that  immediately  adjacent  which  has  been  kept  fallow,  cultivated,  and 
free  from  weeds. 

3rd.  Aiming  to  show  the  influence  of  both  the  depth,  and  frequency 
of  cultivation  on  the  development  of  nitric  nitrogen  and  of  total  sol- 
uble salts. 

4th.  Aiming  to  show  the  amounts  of  nitric  nitrogen  in  a soil  when 
crops  begin  to  turn  yellow  from  lack  of  it  and  the  amount  present 
in  the  soil  when  they  are  still  green  and  growing. 

5th.  Aiming  to  show  what  difference  in  the  amount  of  nitric  nitro- 
gen and  of  total  soluble  salts  may  occur  in  the  soil  under  the  hills 
of  corn  and  at  different  distances  from  the  hills,  between  the  rows,  at 
different  depths. 

6th.  Aiming  to  show  what  relations  may  exist  between  the  quan- 
tity of  nitric  nitrogen  and  total  soluble  salts  in  the  soil  water  of  the 
field  and  in  that  of  the  deeper  ground  water  of  wells  in  the  same  lo- 
cality. 

7th.  Aiming  to  devise  an  accurate,  rapid  and  sensitive  method  of 
determining  the  nitric  nitrogen  in  soils. 

It  has  been  found: 

1st.  That  the  nitrates  and  total  soluble  salts  in  the  surface  foot 
start  in  the  spring  comparatively  small  in  amount,  then  increase 
somewhat  rapidly  until  June  1st  on  clover  and  oat  ground,  and  un- 
til July  1st  on  corn  and  potato  ground;  from  these  dates  they  fall 
more  or  less  rapidly  until  August  1st,  when  crops  are  growing  most 
vigorously.  After  this  date  they  remain  nearly  constant  with  a gen- 
eral tendency  to  rise  slightly  until  September.  In  the  third  and  fourth 
feet  the  seasonal  changes  are  comparatively  small  and  show  but  lit- 
tle progression,  and  they  are  not  marked  in  the  second  foot. 

2nd.  The  amounts  of  nitrates  and  of  soluble  salts  in  the  soil  under 
the  clover  and  oat  crops  were  much  smaller  than  in  the  soil  under 


4 


Bulletin  No.  85. 


corn  and  potato  crops  through  the  entire  season,  the  greatest  differ- 
ences occurring  during  the  month  of  June. 

3rd.  There  has  been  no  strong  concordance  between  the  yields 
of  dry  matter  per  acre  and  the  amounts  of  nitrates  found  in  the 
soils  during  the  season,  but  where  the  yields  have  been  relatively 
quite  small  there,  too,  there  has  been  found  a marked  deficiency  of 
both  nitrates  and  total  soluble  salts.  In  the  case  of  the  three  corn 
crops  the  largest  yields  of  dry  matter  are  associated  with  the  largest 
total  soluble  salts. 

4th.  The  relation  between  the  amount  of  nitrates  in  a soil  and  the 
total  soluble  salts  varies  between  wide  limits,  when  the  salts  are 
measured  by  the  electrical  method.  It  occasionaly  happens  that  there 
may  be  as  much  or  even  more  nitrates  than  the  total  salts  indicated. 
This  may  be  due  to  the  destruction  of  bicarbonates  by  the  nitric  acid 
when  it  is  forming. 

5th.  The  amount  of  nitrates  and  soluble  salts  under  growing  crops 
and  in  fallow  ground  at  the  same  time  is  very  different.  Our  observa- 
tions showing  a relation  for  nitrates  of  10.88  pounds  in  the  surface 
foot  per  acre  as  a mean,  to  473.65  pounds  for  immediately  adjacent 
fallow  ground  at  the  same  time. 

6th.  It  was  found  that  stirring  the  soil  once  per  week,  as  compared 
with  the  stirring  of  it  once  in  two  weeks,  left  the  soil  stirred,  after 
91  days,  with  98.16  as  compared  with  53.01  pounds  of  nitric  nitrogen 
per  million  of  dry  soil.  In  the  second  series  of  experiments  which 
covered  258  days  the  soil  stirred  once  per  week  had  acquired  a mean 
of  225.41  parts,  and  that  once  in  two  weeks  158.79  parts  per  million 
of  dry  soil,  showing  the  largest  gains  with  the  more  frequent  culti- 
vation. 

7th.  It  was  found  that  stirring  the  soil  to  depths  of  one  inch,  two 
inches,  three  inches  and  four  inches  during  an  interval  of  258  days 
resulted  in  an  increasing  amount  of  nitric  nitrogen  until  the  three 
inch  depth  was  passed,  but  that  cultivation  four  inches  deep  gave  a 
smaller  nitrification  than  the  three-inch  depth  did. 

8th.  In  the  plant  house  cylinders  nitrification  appears  to  have 
taken'place  to  a depth  of  three  feet,  but  was  most  rapid  in  the  surface 
foot. 

9th.  There  was  22  per  cent,  more  nitric  nitrogen  developed  in  soil 
upon  which  clover  had  grown  than  from  that  after  corn,  and  13  per 
cent,  more  than  from  that  after  oats,  during  the  same  time,  under  like 
conditions. 

10th.  Virgin  soil  which  had  grown  corn  continuously  the  same 
number  of  years  that  like  soil  had  grown  clover  contained  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  cultivation  experiment,  nearly  three  times  as  much 
nitric  nitrogen  as  that  upon  which  the  clover  had  grown,  and  it  closed 
the  cultivation  period  with  17  per  cent.  more. 

11th.  Virgin  soil  growing  oats  began  the  cultivation  experiment, 
after  the  same  number  of  years  of  cropping  as  the  soil  bearing  clover, 
with  2.6  times  as  much  nitric  nitrogen  and  closed  the  91  days  with 
13.8  per  cent.  more. 

12th.  Clover  and  alfalfa  appear  to  hold  the  nitric  nitrogen  In  the 
soil  down  to  a lower  limit  than  corn,  oats  and  potatoes  do,  but  when 
the  crop  is  removed  from  the  ground  nitrification  appears  to  go  on 
faster  in  the  clover  and  alfalfa  soil. 

13th.  The  amount  of  nitric  nitrogen  left  in  the  surface  foot  of  soil 
before  crops  begin  to  turn  yellow  for  lack  of  available  nitrogen  be- 
comes very  small,  the  amount  found  being  .213  parts  per  million 


Development  of  N Urates  in  Cultivated  Soils. 


5 


where  oats  were  yet  green,  and  .025  parts  per  million  where  they  were 
turning  yellow.  In  corn  it  was  found  as  low  as  .95  parts  where  corn 
Was  green,  and  .10  parts  per  million  where  it  was  strongly  yellow. 

14th.  The  amounts  of  nitric  nitrogen  and  of  soluble  salts  were 
found  greatest  between  the  rows  of  corn,  as  they  were  coming  into 
tassel,  and  least,  directly  beneath  hills,  except  in  the  surface  six 
inches,  and  in  the  fourth  foot  where  the  relations  were  slightly  re- 
versed. 

15th.  The  amounts  of  nitric  nitrogen  and  of  total  soluble  salts  are 
less  in  the  deeper  ground  water  of  wells  of  this  vicinity  than  in  the 
soil  moisture  of  the  fourth  foot,  the  nitric  nitrogen  being  only  about 
one-third  of  the  amount. 

16th.  Observations  indicate  that  when  the  textural  equilibrium  of 
soils  is  destroyed  in  the  presence  of  salts  in  solution  the  refloccula- 
tion and  regranulation  of  the  soil  may  take  out  of  solution  a portion 
of  the  salts  leaving  a smaller  per  cent,  present  after  establishing  the 
new  equilibrium. 


INTRODUCTORY. 

Work  reported  under  this  head  in  the  16th  Annual  Report,  p.  219,  has 
been  continued  the  past  year  under  better  conditions  and  has  been 
pushed  more  systematically  and  extensively. 

The  chief  effort  has  been  devoted  to  a study  of  the  amount  of  nitric 
nitrogen  in-field  soils  under  crop  conditions  throughout  the  season;  at 
the  same  time  following  a parallel  control  series  of  studies  in  our  plant 
house  cylinders  as  a check  upon  the  field  work. 

Work  in  the  field  was  begun  as  soon  as  the  frost  was  out  of  the 
ground  and  the  nitric  nitrogen  content  of  the  nine  field  plots,  covering 
ten  acres,  has  been  determined  at  the  middle  and  beginning  of  each 
month  from  April  j.8  to  Sept.  18,  or  eleven  times,  and  again  on  Nov.  1 
and  29. 

In  ten  of  these  cases  samples  were  taken  in  one  foot  sections  to  a 
depth  of  four  feet,  at  the  other  intervals  to  a depth  of  two  feet.  By 
doing  this  we  have  secured  a detailed  record  of  the  changes  in  the 
amount  and  distribution  of  nitric  acid  through  an  entire  growing  season 
for  three  plots  of  corn,  two  plots  of  potatoes,  two  plots  of  clover,  one 
plot  of  alfalfa  and  one  plot  of  oats. 

Besides  this  we  have  made  other  studies  in  our  plant  house  cylinders 
where  the  amount  of  soil  and  moisture  are  not  only  known  but  under 
•complete  control. 

Side  by  side  with  the  nitric  acid  determinations  we  have  made  a study 
of  the  total  soluble  salts  as  indicated  by  the  electrical  resistance,  the 
two' sets  of  determinations. being  usually  made  on  each  set  of  samples. 

The  amounts  of  water  present  in  the  field  soil  have  been  recorded  at 
•each  interval  and  for  each  depth  ana  the  total  amount  of  dry  matter 


6 


Bulletin  No.  85. 


produced  on  each  plot  has  also  been  recorded;  so  that  we  are  now  in 
possession  of  a fairly  accurate  set  of  data  showing  the  amount  of  nitric 
acid  and  the  amount  of  water  present  in  the  soil,  throughout  the  season, 
upon  which  known  amounts  of  nine  crops  have  been  grown. 

The  samples  of  soil  have  been  taken  by  our  Field  Assistant,  Harvey 
Sandel;  the  nitric  acid  was  determined  by  the  junior  and  the  soluble 
salts  by  the  senior  authors  of  the  paper.  Our  data  are  derived  from 
more  than  3,000  cores  of  soil,  each  one  foot  long. 


INFLUENCE  OF  TILLAGE  ON  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  NITRIC  ACID  AND  SOLUBLE 

SALTS. 

Series  I. 

The  field  work  reported  in  1899  in  the  16th  Annual  Report  was  re- 
peated during  the  winter  in  our  plant  house  cylinders,  which  are  52 
inches  deep  and  either  three  feet  or  eighteen  inches  in  diameter. 

On  Dec.  2nd  to  9th,  after  the  crops  had  all  been  removed,  four  inches 
of  soil  were  taken  from  each  cylinder  and  placed  in  one  vessel  and  then 
a second  layer  removed  to  place  on  top.  The  soil  was  then  spaded  to  a 
depth  of  eight  inches,  water  enough  added  to  bring  the  cylinders  tp 
standard  weight  and  after  this  had  been  absorbed  the  soil  removed  was 
returned.  The  cylinders  were  allowed  to  stand  five  days,  for  the  sur- 
face soil  to  become  moistened  by  capillarity,  when  the  surfaces  of  all 
were  leveled  and  tamped  with  a flat  metal  disk  one  foot  in  diameter, 
weighing  27.5  lbs. 

The  cylinders  were  divided  into  three  groups  as  follows: 

1.  Those  not  cultivated. 

2. '  Those  cultivated  once  per  week. 

3.  Those  cultivated  once  in  two  weeks. 

The  stirring  of  the  soil  was  done  to  a depth  of  three  inches  with  a flat 
tined  potato  fork  provided  with  a gauge  to  fix  the  depth  to  which  the 
soil  was  stirred.  The  cylinders  were  all  weighed  on  Dec.  14,  and  the 
experiment  started,  continuing  until  March  15,  or  91  days,  no  water  be- 
ing added  to  either  group  of  cylinders  in  that  time. 

The  soluble  salts  contained  in  the  first,  second  and  third  feet  of  these 
cylinders  were  determined  before  the  soil  was  disturbed  for  the  experi- 
ment and  samples  were  quickly  dried  at  a low  temperature  for  the  de- 
termination of  the  nitric  nitrogen*  after  the  junior  author  should  take 
up  his  work  at  the  Station. 

In  the  table  which  follows  are  given  the  total  soluble  salts  .as  found 
by  the  electrical  method,  described  on  page  48,  and  the  total  nitric 
nitrogen  as  found  by  the  method  described  on  page  38.  In  this  table 
are  given  the  amount  of  salts  found  at  the  close  of  the  tillage  experi- 
ments and  at  its  beginning,  together  with  the  loss  or  gain. 


t 


Development  of  Nitrates  in  Cultivated  Soils. 


7 


Table  showing  the  changes  which  had  occurred  in  the  amount  of 
nitric  nitrogen  and  the  total  soluble  salts  in  the  soil  of  plant  house 
cylinders  when  cultivated  once  per  week , once  in  two  weeks , or 
not  at  all  during  an  interval  of  91  days.  Amounts  are  expressed 
'in  parts  per  million  of  dry  soil. 


Not  Cultivated.  Cultivated  Once 

Cultivated.  Once  Per  Week.  in  Two  Weeks. 


Depth  of  soil: 

1st 

foot. 

22d 

foot. 

I 3d 

J foot. 

1st 

foot. 

1 2d 

1 foot. 

| 3d 

1 foot.  . 

1st 

foot. 

1 2d 

I foot. 

1 3d 
foot. 

CLAY  LOAM  UPON 

WHICH 

: CORN 

WAS  GROWN. 

Total  sol.  salts  at  close. . 

182.1 

136.0 

170  8 

133.7 

120.7 

140.7 

139.6 

119.7 

113.9 

Total  sol.  salts  at  start. . 

74  3 

101.9 

118.9 

74.3 

101.9 

118.9 

74.3 

101.9 

118.9 

Total  gain  or  loss  . 

107.8 

34.1 

51.9 

59.4 

18.9 

21.8 

65.3 

17.8 

—5.0 

Total  nitric  nitrogen  at 

close  

30.68 

19.87 

28.34 

21.07 

13.49 

24.77 

23.13 

16.00 

24.82 

Total  nitric  nitrogen  at 

start  

4.23 

8.03 

16.07 

4.23 

8.03 

16.07 

4.23 

3.03 

16.07 

Gain 

26.45 

11.84 

12.27 

16.84 

5.46 

8.70 

18.90 

7.97 

8.75 

CLAY  LOAM  WHICH  HAD  BEEN  IN  CLOVER. 


Total  sol.  salts  at  close . . 

185.3 

119.2 

133.7 

180.1 

177  4 

137.0 

153.7 

107.1 

131.0 

Total  sol.  salts  at  start. . 

58.4 

70.0 

108.0 

58.4 

70.0 

108.0 

58.4 

70.0 

108.0 

Gain 

126.9 

149.2 

25.7 

121.7 

107.4 

29.0 

105.3 

37.1 

23.0 

Total  nitric  nitrogen  at 

close  

28.50 

15.81 

17.06 

28.28 

12.44 

16.99 

24.39 

13.31 

16.02 

Total  nitric  nitrogen  at 
start  

2.32 

2.41 

5.07 

2.32 

2.41 

5.07 

2.32 

2.41 

5.07 

Gain  . . .^ 

26.18 

13  40 

11.99 

25.96 

10.03 

11.92 

22.07 

10.90 

10.95 

CLAY  LOAM  WHICH  HAD  BEEN  IN  OATS. 


Total  soluble  salts  at  close 

186.6 

147.6 

143.7 

145.1 

120.1 

142.1 

Total  soluble  salts  at  start 

100.8 

1 94.2 

119.6 

100.8 

94.2 

119  6 

Gain 

85.8 

53.4 

24.1 

43.3 

25.9 

22.5 

Total  nitric  nitrogen  at  close 

33.46 

19.38 

24.19 

13.99 

15.93 

24.20 

Total  nitric  nitrogen  at  start 

4.40 

8.96 

12  68 

4.40 

8.96 

12.68 

Gain  . . 

29.06 

10.42 

11  51 

9 59 

6 97 

11.52 

CLAY  LOAM  WHICH  HAD  BEEN  IN  POTATOES. 


Total  soluble  salts  at  close 

218.8 

149.7 

137.8 

188.0 

132.7 

171.0 

Total  soluble  salts  at  start 

333.9 

134.4 

135.6 

338.9 

134.4 

135.4 

Gain  or  loss 

-120.1 

15.3 

2.2 

-150.9 

-1.7 

35.6 

Total  nitric  nitrogen  at  close 

41.17 

26.31 

2jb60 

347)6 

2lT08 

28798 

Total  nitric  nitrogen  at  start 

63.42 

15.01 

16.91 

63.42 

15.01 

16.91 

Gain  or  loss 

-22.25 

11.30 

8.69 

-29  36 

6.07 

12.07 

CLAY  LOAM  WITH  BEANS,  TIMOTHY  AND  OATS. 


Total  soluble  salts  at  close 

313  4 

186.2 

19».0 

239.7 

161.8 

154.0 

Total  soluble  salts  at  start 

201.4 

297.0 

184.5 

201.4 

297.0 

184.5 

Gain  or  loss 

112.0 

-110.8 

10.5 

38.3 

-135.2 

—30.5 

Total  nitric  nitrogen  at  close 

69/20 

33.31 

32.50 

47.70 

23  37 

22.55 

Total  nitric  nitrogen  at  start 

34.67 

29.59 

24  59 

34.67 

29.59 

24.59 

Gain  or  loss 

34.53 

1 3.75 

7.91 

13.03 

—6.22 

' -2.04 

8 


Bulletin  No.  85. 


Table  showing  the  changes  which  had  occurred  in  the  amount  of 
nitric  nitrogen  and  the  total  soluble  salts  in  the  soil  of  plant  house 
cylinders , etc. — Continued. 


Not  Cultivated. 


Cultivated 
Once  Per  Week. 


Depth  of  soil. 

1st 

| 2d 

3d 

1 1st 

2d  1 

3d 

foot. 

I foot. 

foot. 

' foot. 

foot.  ! 

foot . 

BLACK  MARSH  SOIL  WHICH  HAS  BEEN  IN  CORN  YIELDING  POOR  CROPS. 


Total  soluble  salts  at  close 

2,300. 

1.955. 

1,595. 

2,  1m2. 

1,972. 

1,522. 

Total  soluble  salts  at  start 

1,650/ 

b826. 

1,507. 

1,650 

1,826 

1,507. 

Gain 

650. 

129. 

88. 

542. 

146. 

15. 

Total  nitric  nitrogen  at  close 

236.0 

228.7 

17V9* 

~m.2 

250T 

168.2 

Total  nitric  nitrogen  at  start 

l:  0.5 

251.4 

149.5 

130.5  ' 

251.4 

149.5 

Gain  or  loss 

105.5 

—22.7 

26.4 

97.7 

- .8 

18.7 

ELACK  MARSH  SOIL  WHICH  HAD 

BEEN  IN  CORN  YIELDING 

BETTER  CROPS. 

Total  soluble  salts  at  close 

1,587. 

1,145. 

1,  172. 

1,510. 

4,371. 

Total  soluble  salts  at  start 

910.4 

1,374. 

1,538. 

910.4 

1,374. 

1,538. 

Gain  or  loss 

401.6 

213. 

--93. 

231.6 

166. 

-167. 

Total  nitric  nitrogen  at  close 

~i33ir 

192.5 

170.2 

81.9 

152.0 

142.0 

Total  nitric  nitrogen  at  start 

97.4 

137.8 

196.9 

97.4 

137.8 

196.9 

Gain  or  loss 

35.8 

54.7 

—26.7 

-15.5 

21.2 

-54.9 

No  water  was  given  to  any  of  these  cylinders  during  the  91  days  ex- 
cept that  added  at  the  start  to  bring  them  to  standard  weight,  and  there 
was  no  leaching  so  that  whatever  gain  or  loss  of  nitric  nitrogen  oc- 
curred must  be  explained  by  its  production  in  the  soil  or  its  conversion 
into  some  form  not  responding  to  the  method;  unless,  indeed,  they  be 
explained  by  errors  of  method  or  of  observation. 

If  we  bring  together  into  a condensed  table  the  gains  and  losses  in  the 
several  groups  the  results  below  will  be  found. 

Table  showing  the  gains  and  losses  of  nitric  nitrogen  and  of  soluble 
salts  from  clay  loam  cultivated  once  per  week , once  in  two  weeks 
and  not  at  all  after  91  days  and  without  crops.  Amounts  are  in 
parts  per  million  of  dry  soil. 


Not1 

Cultivated 

Cultivated  Once 

Cultivated. 

Once  Per  Week. 

in  Two  Weeks. 

Nitric  nitrcg3n  in  parts  per  million  of  dry  soil. 


1 ft. 

2 ft. 

3 ft. 

1 ft. 

2 ft.  3 ft.  1 1 ft. 

i 1 

2 ft. 

3 ft. 

After  corn 

26.45 
26.18 
29.06 
2°  25 

34.53 

11.84 

13.40 

10.42 

11.30 

3.75 

12.26 

11.99 

11.51 

8.69 

7 91 

16.84 
25.96 
9 59 
-29.36 

13.03 

5 46  8.70  18.90 
10.03  11.92,  22.07 

7.97 

10.90 

8.75 

10.95 

After  clover 

After  oats 

6.971  11.52 
6.071  12.07 

Aftp.r  pnt.atops  ....  , 

After  beans,  timothy 

cinci  boots* 

-6.22 

I 

-2.04 

Average  

18.79 

10  14 

1 10.47 

7.21 

4 16 

! 8.43 

20  49 

9 44 

9.85 

After  corn 

After  clover 

Total  soluble  salt  in  parts  per  million  of  dry  soil. 

107.8 

126.9 
85.8 

-120.1 

112.0 

34  1 

49.2 
53.4 

15.3 

-110.8 

51.9 

25.7 

24.1 

2.2 

10.5 

59.4 

121.7 

44.3 
—150.9 

38.3 

18.8 

107.4 

25.9 

—1.7 

—135.2 

21.8 
29.0 
22  5 
35.6 

-30.5 

65.3 

105.3 

I 17  8 
37.1 

-5.0 

23.0 

After  potatoes  

After  beans,  timothy 
and  beets 

Average 

62.5 

1 8.24 

22.88 

22.56 

3.04 

15.68 

85.3 

27.45 

9.00 

Develovment  of  Nitrates  in  Cultivated  Soils.  9 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  grouping  of  the  data  in  this  and  the  preceding 
table  that — 

1st.  Nitrification  has  taken  place  at  all  depths  down  to  three  feet 
below  the  surface,  and  hence  that,  in  these  cases,  the  process  has  not 
been  limited  to  the  surface  few  inches. 

2nd.  As  a general  rule  there  has  been  the  highest  increase  of  nitric 
nitrogen  in  the  surface  foot  and  the  increase  in  the  third  foot  has  gen- 
erally exceeded  that  in  the  second  foot. 

3rd.  The  increase  of  nitric  nitrogen  has  been  greater  at  all  depths, 
as  a rule,  where  the  soils  have  not  been  cultivated  than  where  they 
have  been  cultivated. 

4th.  In  two  groups  of  cylinders  there  has  been  a tendency  for  the 
nitric  nitrogen  to  decrease  rather  than  10  increase. 

5th.  There  has  been  22  per  cent,  more  nitric  nitrogen  developed  from 
the  soil  after  clover  than  from  the  soil  after  corn,  and  13  per  cent,  more 
than  from  that  after  oats  during  the  91  days. 

6th.  But  the  soil  which  had  grown  corn  the  same  number  of  years 
that  the  other  soil  had  grown  clover  began  this  experiment  with  nearly 
three  times  as  much  nitric  nitrogen  in  it  as  the  soil  bearing  clover  did 
and  it  closed  the  cultivation  period  with  17  per  cent,  more  nitric  nitro- 
gen. 

7th.  The  soil,  growing  oats,  began  the  experiment  with  2.6  times  as 
much  nitric  nitrogen  as  the  clover  soil  did  and  it  closed  the  cultivation 
period  with  13.8  per  cent,  more  nitric  nitrogen. 

8th.  The  fertilizing  power  of  clover  appears  to  depend  more  upon 
the  form  of  nitrogenous  material  left  in  the  soil  which  is  capable  of 
rapid  nitrification  rather  than  upon  nitrogen  accumulated  by  it. 

9th.  With  the  marsh  soil  yielding  poor  crops  there  was  in  both  cases 
a heavy  gain  of  nitric  nitrogen  in  the  first  foot  but  in  the  soil  giving 
better  yields  there  was  only  a small  gain  in  the  not  cultivated  ground 
and  a loss  in  the  surface  foot  of  cultivated  ground.  Indeed  there  was  a 
total  mean  gain  in  the  poorer  soil  of  37.47  parts  per  million  but  one  of 
only  2.97  parts  per  million  in  the  better  soil  for  all  three  feet,  while  in 
the  case  of  clay  loam  the  total  mean  gain  was  8.77  parts  per  million  of 
nitric  nitrogen. 

We  have  in  the  plant  house  9 cylinders  with  plastering  sand  upon 
which  clover  and  alfalfa  were  grown  during  1898  and  the  total  product 
returned  to  the  sand,  with  a view  of  developing  humus  in  it.  There  are 
four  other  cylinders  containing  the  Minong  pine  barrens  soil  upon  which 
alfalfa  was  grown,  the  total  crop  being  returned  to  the  soil  after  each 
cutting. 

These  cylinders  were  carried  through  the  season  of  91  days,  with  those 
reported  above,  as  fallow  ground  and  the  nitric  nitrogen  determined  at 
the  close  with  the  results  given  in  the  table  which  flows’: 


10 


Bulletin  No.  85. 


Table  showing  the  changes  in  nitric  nitrogen  in  sands  which  had 
occurred  after  an  interval  of  91  days  of  fallowing . Results  are  in 
• parts  per  million  of  dry  sand.  Amounts  are  in  parts  per  million 
of  dry  soil. 


After  Clover  on 
Plastering  Sand. 

After  Alfalfa  on 
Plastering  Sand. 

After  Alfalfa  on 
Pine  Barrens  Sand. 

1st  ft. 

2nd  ft. 

3rd  ft. 

1st  ft 

2nd  ft. 

3rd  ft. 

1st  ft. 

2nd  ft. 

3rd  ft. 

Total  nitric  ni- 

trogen at  close 

14.5 

5.95 

3.40 

23.92 

12.60 

12  53 

52.03 

23.22 

12.68 

Total  nitric  ni- 

trogen at  start 

0.00 

0.00 

0.00 

1 40 

1.28 

0.83 

1 65 

0.50 

0.62 

Gain 

14.50 

5.55 

3 40 

22.52 

11.32 

11.80 

50.37  . 

22.72 

12.06 

It  will  be  seen  that  in  this  case  there  has  been  a notable  change  in  the 
nitric  nitrogen,  amounting  to  17.18  parts  per  million  of  dry  sand  as  a 
mean  of  the  whole  series  for  the  three  feet  in  depth;  while  the  mean 
gain  in  the  clay  loam  after  clover  was  only  15.93  parts  per  million  of 
dry  soil. 

These  results  corroborate  the  statement  made  under  8th,  and  suggest 
that  the  clovers  leave  a soil  in  such  a condition  that  the  rate  of  develop- 
ment of  nitric  nitrogen  in  them  is  more  rapid  than  after  other  crops, 
like  oats  and  corn. 

NITRIC  NITROGEN  AND  SOLUBLE  SALTS  IN  THE  STIRRED  SOIL  OF  CULTIVATED 
GROUND  AND  NEAR  THE  SURFACE  OF  THAT  NOT  STIRRED. 

The  data  presented  in  the  last  section  do  not  indicate  that  surface  til- 
lage to  a depth  of  three  inches  exerts  a notable  influence  on  the  forma- 
tion of  nitrates  or  other  salts  below  the  soil  stirred.  What  evidence 
they  bear  appears  to  suggest  that  under  those  conditions  the  tillage  may 
even  have  retarded  the  process  under  consideration. 

At  the  close  of  that  experiment  a composite  sample  of  soil,  from  all  of 
the  loam  cylinders  not  cultivated,  was  taken  of  the  surface  half  inch 
and  of  the  second  and  third  half  inches  to  note  the  degree  of  concen- 
tration of  salts  there.  Similar  samples  were  taken  from  the  marsh 
soils.  Composites,  too,  were  taken  of  all  of  the  mulches  developed  in 
the  cultivation  of  the  several  groups  of  cylinders.  The  determination 
of  the  salts  in  these  samples  are  given  in  the  table  below: 


Development  of  Nitrates  in  Cultivated  Soils.  11 


Table  showing  the  nitric  nitrogen  and  soluble  salts  in  the  surface  of 
soils  not  cultivated  and  in  the  stirred  portion  of  cultivated  soils. 
Amounts  are  in  parts  per  million  of  dry  soil. 


Surface 

half-inch. 

2nd  and  3d 
half-inch. 

Dif- 

ference. 

\ Soluble  salts  . . . 

1,198 

170.4 

1,027  6 

( Nitric  nitrogen 

330.6 

26  91 

303 . 69 

Marsh  soil  yielding  poorest  crops.. 

5 Soluble  salts  . . . 

] Nitric  nitrogen. 

4,685 

839  44 

2,300 

324.0 

2,385 

505.44 

Marsh  soil  yielding  better  crops 

\ Soluble  salts 

) Nitric  nitroeen. 

2,678 

297.16 

1,250 

75.39 

1,428 

221.77 

Cultivated 
once  per 
week. 

Cultivated 
once  in  two 
weeks. 

Dif- 

ference. 

Stirred  portion  of  soil,  clay  loam. .. 

( Soluble  salts 

( Nitric  nitrogen. 

321.6 

98.16 

244  2 
53.01 

77.4 

45.15 

Marsh  soil  yielding  poorest  crops. .. 

\ Soluble  salts 

1 Nitric  nitrogen 

2,174 

353.16 

1,566 

168.72 

608 

184.44 

Marsh  soil  yielding  better  crops 

j Soluble  salts  — 

1 Nitric  nitrogen. 

1,418 
99.14 

7 §2 

65  02 

636 

34.12 

In  this  table  it  will  be  seen  that  the  soils  stirred  once  per  week  have 
developed  much  more  nitric  acid  than  those  stirred  but  once  in  two 
weeks,  the^clay  loam  showing  an  increase  of  85.17  per  cent.,  and  since 
the  soil  was  stirred  three  inches  deep  it  represents  one-fourth  of  an  acre- 
foot,  or,  for  this  soil,  about  685,000  lbs.  in  round  numbers,  In  which 
there  was  a gain  of  45.15  parts  per  million  of  nitric  nitrogen  and  where 
this  is  expressed  as  calcium  and  magnesium  nitrates  would  weigh  170 
lbs.  per  acre.  This  is  nearly  enough  for  20  bushels  of  wheat. 

In  the  case  of  the  marsh  soil  yielding  the  poorest  crops  there  was  an 
increase  of  nitric  nitrogen  of  109.3  per  cent,  but  on  the  other  soil  of 
the  same  type,  giving  the  better  yields,  the  increase  was  only  52.48  per 
cent. 

These  observations  stand  in  such  sharp  and  strong  contrast  as  to  the 
influence  of  frequency  of  cultivation  on  the  development  of  nitrates  in 
a soil  that  it  appears  strange  that  stronger  evidence  is  not  found  when 
the  samples  of  the  first,  second  and  third  feet  are  compared  and  that 
there  is  clearly  stronger  nitrification  in  the  cylinders  of  clay  loam  not 
cultivated.  To  this  it  should  be  said  that  the  stronger  drying  of  the 
soil  in  cylinders  not  cultivated  resulted  in  more  or  less  shrinkage  away 
from  the  walls  and  that  this  would  permit  better  aeration,  because 
where  the  mulches  were  maintained  there  was  less  shrinkage  and  if 
shrinkage  did  occur,  the  stirring  of  the  mulch  would  keep  shrinkage 
cracks  closed  so  far  as  a mulch  could  do  so. 

The  larger  amount  of  nitric  nitrogen  in  the  bottom  foot  of  so  many 
cylinders  may  be  due  to  one  or  all  of  three  causes:  1st.  The  cylinders 
have  the  construction  and  are  filled  as  represented  in  Fig.  1.  No  water 
stood  in  the  bottom  of  the  cylinders  and  the  caps  on  the  outlets  are 


12 


Bulletin  No.  85, 


only  screwed  on  with  the  fingers  and  are  not  likely  to  be  perfectly  air- 
tight. It  is  not  impossible  therefore  that  some  aeration  may  have  oc- 
curred here  but  it  is  not  clear  how  it  could  have  been  large.  2nd.  In 
those  cases  where  we  have  washed  out  the  roots  of  plants  grown  in  such 
cylinders  we  have  found  that  they  form  a dense  mat  on  the  bottom  of 
the  can  and  if  this  had  occurred  in  these  cases  there  would  be  more  or- 
ganic matter  to  decompose  and  give  rise  to  nitric  nitrogen.  3rd.  The 
capillary  rise  of  soil  moisture  may  have  caused  more  salts  to  pass  from 
the  second  into  the  first  foot  than  passed  from  the  third  into  the  second 
tending  to  develop  such  a distribution  as  that  observed. 


Fig.  1.— Showing  construction  of  plant  house  cylinders.  A,  outlet;  B,  tile;  C, 

layer  of  sand. 


SERIES  II.  INFLUENCE  OF  FREQUENCY  AND  DEPTH  OF  TILLAGE  ON  THE  FOR- 
MATION OF  NITRIC  NITROGEN  AND  SOLUBLE  SALTS. 

We  have  conducted  a second  series  of  observations  bearing  upon  the 
influence  of  tillage  on  the  formation  of  nitrates,  using  the  cylinders  rep- 
resented in  Fig.  2.  Twenty  of  these  were  filled  with  a thoroughly 
mixed  and  uniform  clay  loam  a little  coarser  than  that  used  in  the  plant 
house.  When  filled  they  were  divided  into  two  groups  of  ten  each,  one 
set  to  be  cultivated  once  per  week  and  the  other  once  in  two  weeks.  In 
each  set  there  were — 

1st.  2 cylinders  not  cultivated. 

2d.  2 cylinders  cultivated  1 inch  deep. 

3d.  2 cylinders  cultivated  2 inches  deep. 

4th.  2 cylinders  cultivated  3 inches  deep. 

5th.  2 cylinders  cultivated  4 inches  deep. 

In  developing  the  mulch  it  was  done  by  removing  the  soil  from  the 
full  cylinder  to  a depth  of  the  desired  thickness  of  mulch  and  then  re- 
turning so  much  of  it  as  needed  to  fill  the  cylinder  level  full  without 
jarring  or  tamping. 

The  cultivation  was  done  by  removing  the  entire  mulch  into  a dish 
and  then  returning  it  to  place  again  each  time. 

The  experiment  was  begun  in  Dec.,  1899,  and  closed  August  27,  1900. 


Development  of  Nitrates  in  Cultivated  Soils. 


13 


On  this  date  the  soil  was  removed  from  each  cylinder  in  layers  having 
the  thickness  designated  in  the  table  below. 


Fig.  2. — Showing  construction  of  small  cylinders  used  in  studying  influence  of 
depth  and  frequency  of  cultivation  on  the  formation  of  nitrates  in  the  soil. 

Table  showing  the  influence  of  depth  and  frequency  of  tillage  on  the 
development  of  nitric  nitrogen  in  clay  loams . 


Depth  of 
sample. 

Not 

cultivat- 

Cultivated to  the 
Depth  of 

ed. 

1 in. 

1 2in- 

| 3 in. 

j 4 in. 

Parts  per  million  of  dry  soil. 

Cultivated  once  per  week ... . 
Cultivated  once  in  two  weeks 

| Surface  to  1 in, 

544.92] 

170.45 

240.50 

266.20 

195.20 

278.73 

257.58 

267.68 

223.25 

Difference 

70.05 

71.00 

21.15 

44.43 

Cultivated  once  per  week .... 
Cultivated  once  in  two  weeks 

| 1 in.  to  2 in 

173.52] 

134.48 

105.41 

256.52 

65.39 

278.98 

281.43 

295.74 

129.60 

Difference  

29.07 

191.13 

+2.45 

166.14 



Cultivated  once  per  week  — 
Cultivated  once  in  two  weeks 

| 2 in.  to  3 in 

54.10 -j 

53.79 

59.54 

114761 

84.32 

_ 113j69 
119.04 

~ 127751 
97.92 

Difference 

+5.75 

30.29 

+5.36 

29.59 



Cultivated  once  per  week  — 
Cultivated  once  in  two  weeks 

|^3  in.  to  4 in 

30.62] 

43.30 

28.36 

72^82 

38.84 

59.76 

52.36 

73  35 
56.20 

Difference 

14.94 

33.98 

7 40 

17.15 

Cultivated  once  per  week  — 
Cultivated  once  in  two  weeks 

j-  4 in.  to  8 in 

26.78] 

34.14 

28.06 

~53789 

31.43 

5C31 

39.31 

55.11 

32.83 

Difference  .. 

6.08 

22.46 

12.00 

22.28 

Cultivated  once  per  week  — 
Cultivated  once  in  two  weeks 

^8  in.  to  12  in. .. 

16.54] 

28^56 

23.46 

36.14 

21.89 

~ 35.91 
25.14 

33~28 

24.62 

Difference  .. 

5.10 

14.25 

10.77 

8 66 

Cultivated  once  per  week .... 

^ 12  in.  to  16  in . . 

4.84] 

Cultivated  once  in  two  weeks 

8.04 

7.33 

6.68 

6.60 

Difference  







Cultivated  once  per  week 

Cultivated  once  in  two  weeks 

j 16  in.  to  20  in.. 

0.00  ] 

.66 

.00 

.00 

.00 

Diffpronoo  

14 


Bulletin  No.  85. 


It  will  be  seen  from  this  table  that  there  are  but  four  cases  where  the 
nitrates  developed  under  the  cultivation  once  in  two  weeks  are  not  less 
than  those  where  the  cultivation  was  once  per  week  and  this  is  true 
to  a depth  of  a full  foot  at  least. 

It  is  unfortunate  that  only  one  of  the  series  of  cylinders  was  exam- 
ined in  the  two  lower  layers,  for  the  figures  indicate  that  there  would 
have  been  a difference  even  in  the  next  layer. 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  lower  layer  which  was  completely  saturated 
with  water  shows  no  nitric  nitrogen  and  yet  the  cylinders  were  kept 
supplied  with  water  containing  an  average  of  about  5.4  parts  per  mil- 
lion of  nitric  nitrogen  when  fresh  from  thu  well,  but  this  amount  was 
decreased  on  standing  in  the  tank. 

Since  there  was  no  nitric  acid  in  the  lower  zone  of  soil  it  would  ap- 
pear that  the  nitric  nitrogen  found  in  the  zones  above  must  have  either 
existed  in  the  soil  when  the  cylinders  were  filled  or  else  it  must  have 
been  developed  during  the  interval  of  the  experiment,  either  from 
humus  in  the  soil,  or  in  part  from  the  humus  and  in  part  from  a reduc- 
tion product  of  the  nitrates  in  the  water  added. 

The  amounts  of  nitric  nitrogen  in  the  surface  foot  of  the  plant 
house  cylinders  described  under  series  I,  page  6,  after  the  91  days  of 
fallowing  were,  on  the  average  for  the  clay  loam 


Not  cultivated.. 162.42  lbs. 

Cultivated  once  per  week 116.20  lbs. 

Cultivated  once  in  two  weeks 95.04  lbs. 


The  amounts  of  nitric  nitrogen  in  the  surface  foot  in  the  series  of 
smaller  cylinders  at  the  close  of  258  days  were: 

Pounds  per  acre  foot. 


Not  cultivated 325.48 

Cultivated  once  per  week  1 inch  deep 217.60 

Cultivated  once  per  week  2 inches  deep 323.44 

Cultivated  once  per  week  3 inches  deep. 441.21 

Cultivated  once  per  week  4 inches  deep 287.96 

Cultivated  once  in  two  weeks  1 inch  deep 213.29 

Cultivated  once  in  two  weeks  2 inches  deep 199.00 

Cultivated  once  in  two  weeks  3 inches  deep 401.68 

Cultivated  once  in  two  weeks  4 inches  deep 245.26 


This  is  counting  4,000,000  pounds  of  dry  soil  to  the  acre  foot. 

It  will  be  seen  that  here  is  a very  large  increase  of  nitric  nitrogen  in 
a form  immediately  available  in  crop  production.  The  amount  pro- 
duced under  the  three  and  four  inch  cultivation  was  in  round  numbers, 
400  lbs.  per  acre  of  soil  one  foot  deep.  This  is  available  nitrogen  enough 
per  acre  to  produce  250  bushels  of  wheat. 

THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  NITRIC  ACID  IN  FALLOW  GROUND  AND  ITS  LOSS  THROUGH 
THE  WINTER  AND  EARLY  SPRING. 

In  the  16th  Annual  Report,  p.  237,  it  was  shown  that  the  mean  amount 
of  nitric  nitrogen  found  in  the  upper  four  feet  of  the  nine  fallow  plots 
had  come  to  be  95.5  lbs.  per  acre  on  Aug.  22.  Before  winter  set  in 


Development  of  Nitrates  in  Cultivated  Soils. 


15 


trenches  were  made  on  all  sides  of  the  fallow  ground,  throwing  up  the 
earth  to  form  a border  preventing  any  water  which  fell  upon  the  ground 
running  away,  and  to  prevent  any  surface  wash  upon  it,  the  object  being 
to  secure  all  leaching  possible  to  natural  precipitation  and  to  prevent 
any  other. 

On  April  30,  1900,  samples  of  soil  were  taken  in  one  foot  sections  in 
each  of  the  nine  plots  to  a depth  of  four  feet  and  the  nitric  nitrogen  de- 
termined, with  results  given  in  the  table  below. 


Table  sho  wing  the  amount  of  nitric  nitrogen  found  in  fallow  ground 
after  the  leaching  of  winter  and  early  spring.  Pounds  per  mil- 
lion of  dry  soil. 


No.  of  plot. 


Apr.  3C,  1900.. 
Aug.  22,  1899... 

Apr.  30,  1900.. 
Aug.  22, 18*9.. 

Apr.  30,  1900.., 
Aug.  22,  1889... 

Apr.  30,  1900.., 
Aug.  22,  1899... 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 ' 

9 

j-  1st  foot..'! 

75.90 

16.81 

58.31 

13.58 

58.08 

26.67 

55.22 

26.80 

51.66 

19.09 

51.25 

16.82 

88.02 

5.50 

44.34 

24.07 

48.26 

19.60 

J"  2nd  foot.  | 

15.81 

4.34 

16.75 

7.75 

7.97 

1.81 

6.51 

9.07 

13.06 

5.74 

15.66 

2.76 

17.33 

1.43 

18  56 
6.06 

14.85 

6.61 

j-  3rd  foot. . -J 

2.46 

.70 

4 75 
0.51 

4.93 

2.48 

4.89 

.80 

3.94 

0.54 

7.35 

1.37 

6.04 

0.95 

8.24 

0.54 

6.71 

3.01 

4th  foot. . \ 

2.95 

.80 

2.37 

3 05 

1.04 

2.35 

2.01 

1.55 

2 36 
0.52 

3 65 
0.26 

5.60 

0.53 

5.08 
3 51 

From  this  table  it  will  be  seen  that  there  was  more  nitric  nitrogen 
in  the  soil  at  the  beginning  of  May,  1900,  than  was  found  after  being 
cultivated  every  week  or  two  weeks  from  May,  1899,  until  Aug.  22  of  that 
year  with  no  crop  on  the  ground. 

Since  we  do  not  know  how  much  nitric  nitrogen  was  formed  between 
Aug.  22  and  the  time  of  freezing  in  the  winter  we  do  not  know  how 
much  leaching,  if  any,  may  have  occurred.  We  do  know,  however, 
that  the  amount  of  leaching  was  so  small  as  to  leave  the  nitrates  in 
the  soil  very  large. 


AMOUNT  OF  NITRIC  NITROGEN  IN  FALLOW  GROUND  IN  THE  SPRING  COMPARED 
WITH  THAT  NOT  FALLOW. 

If  an  average  of  the  amounts  of  nitric  nitrogen  found  in  the  surface 
four  feet  of  the  nine  field  plots  in  the  spring  is  compared  with  the 
amounts  found  in  the  upper  four  feet  of  the  nine  fallow  plats  they  will 
stand  as  given  in  the  table  below,  and  as  shown  graphically  in  Fig.  3. 


Table  shpwing  the  differences  in  the  amounts  of  nitric  nitrogen  after 
the  winter  and  early  spring  rains  in  ground  kept  fallow  and  free 
from  weeds  the  previous  season  and  that  bearing  crops. 


Deptfe. 

1st  ft 

2nd  ft. 

3rd  ft. 

4th  ft. 

Fallow  plots,  pounds  per  acre  of  dry  soil  

Plots  not  fallow,  pounds  per  acre  of  dry  soil 

212.00 

25.24 

56.22 

15.08 

21.91 

10.00 

13.11 

7.24 

Difference 

186.76 

41.14 

11.91 

5.87 

This  is  counting  4,000,000  pounds  of  dry  soil  to  the  acre  food. 


16 


Bulletin  No.  85. 


CHANGES  IN  THE  AMOUNTS  OF  NITRIC  NITROGEN  AND  SOLUBLE  SALTS  UNDER 
FIELD  CROPS  DURING  THE  GROWING  SEASON. 

The  work  of  studying  the  seasonal  changes  of  nitrates  and  other 
soluble  salts  which  was  begun  in  1899,  was  carried  through  1900,  the 
work  beginning  in  April,  just  after  the  frost  left  the  ground,  and  con- 
tinuing until  Sept.  19,  when  most  of  the  crops  had  completed  their 
growth  and  some  had  been  harvested.  Determinations  of  nitrates  were 
also  made  on  Nov.  1 and  Nov.  29.  These  are  included  in  the  general 
table,  pages  18  and  19,  but  not  in  the  plotted  curves. 

The  observed  amounts  of  nitric  nitrogen  expressed  as  equal  molecular 
weights  of  calcium  and  magnesium  nitrates  are  given  for  the  thirteen 
dates  under  the  respective  plots  in  the  two  tables  on  pp.  18  and  19,  and 
with  these  data  are  given  the  total  salts  as  indicated  by  the  electrical 
method  described  under  that  head  on  page  40. 

Referring  to  the  nine  plots  under  observation  it  will  be  seen  that 
there  are  three  of  corn  and  two  of  potatoes  and  four  of  clover  and  al- 
falfa, but  one  of  these  carrying  oats  up  to  July  5th  when  they  were  cut 
for  hay.  Each  of  the  clover  plots  was  cut  three,  the  alfalfa  four  times 
and  the  oat  plot  twice  during  the  interval  of  observation  and  as  these 
plots  were  irrigated  when  the  rain  was  deficient  they  have  produced  as 
heavy  yields  as  water  and  the  fertility  of  the  land  would  permit  under 
the  seasonal  conditions  which  existed. 

We  have  in  this  series  of  studies  therefore  two  types  of  conditions, 
1st,  one  where  the  crop  covers  the  entire  surface  and  intertillage  cannot 
be  practiced,  and  2nd,  the  other  where  the  crop  occupies  a portion  only 
of  the  surface,  where  intertillage  may  be  practiced,  and  where  a por- 
tion of  the  soil  approaches  the  conditions  which  would  be  given  by  cul- 
tivated fallow  ground,  during  the  earlier  part  of  the  season. 


Development  of  Nitrates  in  Cultivated  Soils. 


17 


To  convey  an  idea  of  the  differences  in  the  nitrates  and  total  soluble 
salts  which  developed  under  these  two  types  of  cultivation  we  have 
combined  the  data  so  as  to  show  the  mean  amounts  of  nitrates  and  of 
total  salts  in  each  of  the  four  feet  on  the  eleven  dates  from  April  18  to 
Sept.  19,  under  the  two  types  of  conditions. 


Fig.  4.— Showing  changes  in  the  amounts  of  calciurp  anti  magnesium  nitrates 
and  of  total  soluble  salts  during  the  growing  season  in  soils  under  culti- 
vated crops,  corn  and  potatoes,  and  under  crops  not  cultivated,  clover,  al- 
falfa and  oats.  The  shading  of  the  nitrate  curves  for  the  first,  second,  third 
and  fourth  feet  correspond  with  those  of  the  total  salts  in  the  cultivated 
ground. 


18 


Bulletin  No.  85, 


These  combined  data  are  given  in  the  table  on  page  20  and  they 
are  shown  graphically  in  the  plate,  Fig.  4,  where  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
nitrates  of  the  surface  foot  of  the  culitvated  ground  increased  rapidly 
until  the  first  of  July,  then  falling  very  rapidly  until  August  1 when 
the  crops  were  making  the  most  rapid  growth.  From  this  point  there 
was  a slow  rise  until  the  corn  was  cut  Sept.  1,  and  then  one  more  rapid 
until  Sept.  19.  On  Nov.  1,  the  nitrates  had  increased  to  85.43  on  the  cul- 
tivated plots,  falling  again  to  51.09  on  Nov.  29. 


Table  giving  the  amounts  of  nitric  nitrogen  as  calcium  and  magne- 
sium nitrates  and  of  total  soluble  salts  in  parts  per  million  of 
the  dry  soil  on  different  dates  during  the  season  of  19C0.' 


Date. 

First  Foot. 

Second  Foot. 

Third 

Foot. 

Fourth 

Foot. 

Ca.  and 
Mg. 

nitrates. 

Total 

salts. 

Ca.  and 
Mg. 

nitrates. 

Total 

salts. 

Ca  and 
.Mg. 
nitrates. 

Total 

salts. 

Ca.  and 
Mg. 

nitrates 

Total 

salts. 

r 

Apr.  18 

14.19 

61.21 

34  65 

126.70 

31.51 

97.72 

26.40 

91.79 

May  2 

88.44 

123.40 

54  01 

138.90 

29.20 

90.46 

16.22 

52.72 

162  05 

246.80 

50  98 

152  10 

a 

May  31 

141.79 

151.50 

33.22 

109.10 

19.96 

84.05 

14.19 

60.52 

o 

209.84 

74  84 

o 

July  2 

150.61 

150.80 

57.71 

147.00 

13.40 

99.52 

11.99 

71.71 

▼H 

July  18 

28.38 

38.66 

12.88 

6.41 

+3 

O 

Aug.  1 

12.45 

63.01 

41.74 

131.10 

33.93 

122.50 

12.87 

■**68!80 

rr* 

21.09 

68  50 

28.43 

112.30 

Aug.  30 

12.41 

69.31 

17.46 

111.10 

8.21 

100.30 

7.02 

59.92 

Sept. 19 

34.04 

71.47 

30.63 

106.10 

13.97 

79  92 

10.89 

57.95 

| 

N ov.  1 

39.27 

25.66 

21.72 

9.68 

Nov . 29 

40.59 

41.03 

20.79 

11.77 

r 

Apr.  18 

36.63 

163.10 

28.87 

244.00 

33.60 

196.10 

17.60 

134.20 

May  2 

48.78 

175  50 

37.84 

207.40 

27.77 

149.10 

21.17 

95.39 

May  16 

157  52 

217.40 

57.75 

241.70 

May  31 

114  40 

202  70 

35.03 

259.40 

22.00 

198.80 

16.28 

143.10 

0 

June  14 

133  90 

53.92 

f- 

o 

July  2 

125.73 

222  70 

36.60 

240.30 

20.98 

138.90 

14.38 

64.00 

O -j 

* July  18 

13  42 

35.11 

19.25 

12.04 

00 

Aug.  1 

6*98 

116.40 

s!o9 

168.70 

11.77 

"ie2!io 

16.44 

174.50 

4-> 

Aug.  15 

7.95 

127.30 

3.99 

180.80 

JO 

Aug.  30 

7.01 

102.00 

4.08 

140.20 

8.05 

85.76 

13.46 

79.34 

QLi 

Sept.  19 

15.51 

107.10 

5.39 

140.30 

8.96 

103.60 

13.86 

60.77 

N ov.  1 

44.89 

21.12 

21.01 

17.98 

Nov.  29 

22.22 

10.89 

11.93 

10.39 

r 

Apr.  18 

14  90 

143.70 

5.67 

136.90 

8.25 

153.70 

3.19 

60.38 

May  2 

19.91 

110.50 

15.34 

213.00 

8.09 

110.10 

6.32 

71.83 

May  16 

72.23 

110.10 

15.12 

173.90 

May  31 

89.01 

134.60 

11.52 

161.40 

3.26 

99.91 

4.32 

59.35 

0 I 

June  14 

90  09 

12  48 

July  2 

57.45 

127.80 

6.44 

168.60 

2.92 

93  95 

2.06 

51.58 

o -i 

July  18 

4.19 

5.12 

1.98 

1.92 

oT 

Aug.  1 

2.54 

69  07 

0.83 

177  20 

3.05 

134 !20 

3.25 

66.10 

Aug.  15 

2.78 

86.36 

1.38 

156.70 

o 

1 

Aug.  30 

6.24 

68.00 

1.41 

173.60 

2.06 

102.30 

2.91 

61.67 

Oh  I 

Sept.19 

12.76 

73.98 

0.00 

189.30 

0.69 

108.70 

3.24 

43.94 

Nov.  1 

25.68 

3.36 

2.86 

2.97 

i 

Nov.  29 

30.58 

7.92 

1.15 

3.08 

r 

Apr.  18 

34.21 

89.41 

10.89 

131.40 

9.79 

128.50 

11.39 

83.93 

May  2 

42.18 

126.30 

7.01 

154  70 

8.42 

128.40 

3.30 

62.98 

May  16 

103.18 

191  60 

13  88 

153  90 

<D 

£ 

May  31 

150  35 

308! 50 

20 ! 13 

153.00 

4.76 

105.30 

2.65 

78.87 

JuD0  14 

162  14 

13  54 

£ 

Q 

July  2 

276/28 

392.00 

1315 

178.80 

4.22 

117.80 

2.85 

78.59 

ft  < 

July  18 

91  08 

51  78 

5.06 

4 73 

Aug.  1 

37.83 

121.50 

46.12 

269.60 

8.58 

235.00 

4.99 

210  50 

Augy  25 

30.58 

132 . 70 

29  32 

226  10 

£ 

Aug.  30 

30!66 

108 ! 60 

27.39 

192.30 

18.59 

146.90 

9.47 

87.02 

£ 

Sept.  19 

42.79 

130.70 

26.67 

199.70 

9.57 

150.90 

7.48 

99.83 

113.90 

51.98 

15.51 

10.07 

i 

Nov.  9 

66!  00 

36!  96 

17,55 

12.64 



Development  of  Nitrates  in  Cultivated  Soils. 


19 


Table  giving  the  amounts  of  nitric  nitrogen  as  calcium  and  magne- 
sium nitrates  — Continued. 


Date. 

First  Foot. 

Second 

Foot. 

Third  Foot. 

Fourth 

Foot. 

Ca.  and 
Mg. 

nitrates. 

Total 

salts. 

Ca.  and 
Mg. 

nitrates 

Total 

salts. 

Ca.  and 
.Mg. 
nitrates. 

Total 

salts. 

Ca.  and 
Mg. 

nitrates. 

Total 

salts. 

r 

Apr.  18 

39.05 

70.71 

26.73 

127.00 

6.76 

101.40 

7.64 

46.98 

. i 

May  2 

27.77 

69.84 

13.53 

97.65 

6.60 

98  05 

9.19 

34.52 

May  16 

82  74 

116.70 

6.65 

91  01 

p 

May  SI 

152.46 

187.90 

12.21 

94.32 

3.00 

111.40 

8.63 

58  20 

cd 

Jure  14 

142.45 

14.70 

o 1 

July  2 

174.59 

188.60 

8 58 

116  60 

3.83 

116  30 

6.74 

55.00 

ft  J 

July  18 

60  28 

7.62 

8.52 

CD  1 

Aug.  1 

16.85 

72.02 

31.08 

198.90 

13  24 

135.40 

7.98 

70l72 

21.75 

73.08 

37.12 

167.40 

Aug-  30 

45.92 

98  02 

32.61 

119.40 

11.44 

131.70 

9.24 

98.84 

1 

Sept.  19 

79.11 

120.90 

30.25 

158.20 

14.41 

146.50 

9.35 

79.28 

Nov.  1 

203.39 

87  62 

21.50 

13.92 

l 

f 

96.08 

38.61 

22.99 

14.30 

Apr.  18 

21.78 

117.90 

17.05 

169.50 

23.26 

94.95 

13.36 

30.44 

May  2 

28.87 

99.43 

20  51 

134.10 

12.21 

69.20 

10  83 

23.22 

May  16 

36.68 

109.00 

7.45 

119  90 

May  31 

33.41 

120.00 

6.16 

119.00 

3.67 

72.21 

4.60 

177.00 

> 

June  14 

4 98 

3 68 

o 

July  2 

22  00 

109.50 

2.80 

124.50 

2.40 

59.06 

2 83 

26.12 

July  18 

10.28 

4.05 

2.82 

3.60 

Aug.  1 

13.42 

88.3* 

6.05 

i 63 ' 20 

3.30 

92.82 

2. 87 

42  71 

o 

Aug.  15 

30.85 

116.20 

6.62 

127.40 

S ' 

Aug.  30 

30.54 

110.M) 

6.85 

>77.20 

.68 

72.92 

3.13 

33.63 

1 

Sept.19 

6.85 

75.30 

4.70 

124.30 

3.53 

57.46 

2.66 

38.89 

Nov.  1 

10.32 

4.52 

3.47 

1.85 

L 

Nov.  29 

9.30 

2.97 

2.09 

1.60 

r 

Apr.  18 

19.52 

89.72 

24.97 

211  20 

12.37 

169.40 

8.91 

75.26 

May  2 

24.31 

102.60 

20.95 

194  30 

20.29 

89.50 

13.31 

73.31 

rQ  \ 

May  16 

57.53 

112.10 

41.0-4 

215.10 

<D  \ 

© -J  1 

May  31 

60.74 

127.00 

56.32 

216.40 

19.02 

130  90 

10.39 

119.00 

“ £ 

June  14 

12.24 

35.75 

m > 1 

July  2 

3.49 

64.67 

.81 

130.00 

4.40 

121.40 

6.10 

97.65 

July  18 

2.67 

4 . 52 

5.61 

5.99 

O © 1 

' o 

Aug.  1 

6.93 

80.36 

6 38 

i72M0 

6 73 

122.00 

7.18 

* 124 ' 50 

I 

Aug.  15 

2.81 

78.36 

2.83 

146.80 

O ] 

Aug.  30 

9.62 

77.98 

.71 

133.60 

0.00 

86.00 

4.42 

58.58 

Oj  | 

N ov.  1 

5 82 

3.51 

1.41 

6.17 

l 

r 

Nov.  29 

5.72 

2 91 



3.85 

4.84 

.£pr.  18 

18  26 

79  29 

14.62 

141  20 

4.18 

148.50 

3.30 

104.70 

1 

May  2 

21.94 

120.30 

10.34 

149.90 

4.89 

155.00 

4.88 

145.30 

! 

May  16 

25.09 

105.70 

3.35 

149.40 

© i 

May  31 

10.45 

68.58 

4.7.7 

127.80 

i 96 

140.60 

2.72 

189.20 

o I 

June  14 

4 18 

3.59 

r-H  ! 

© J 

July  2 

16.88 

90.16 

3 19 

i32.00 

0.00 

152.40 

0.68 

202.70 

July  18 

7.70 

2.65 

0.00 

1.09 

■S 1 

Aug.  1 

4.43 

" 88*  6i 

2.43 

"moo 

0.00 

176.60 

0 00 

164 . 50 

£ 

Aug.  15 

22.61 

93.41 

5.72 

156.90 

ft  1 

Aug.  30 

30.77 

105.30 

4.59 

140.70 

1.11 

135.60 

1.91 

204.20 

Nov.  1 

10.28 

4.46 

4.7:- 

2.86 

l 

Nov.  29 

9.18 

, 3.96 

1.48 

2.58 

f 

Apr.  18 

3.66 

65  39 

4.29 

111  20 

3.38 

107.60 

3.79 

37  71 

1 

May  2 

10.17 

74.23 

6.93 

132.00 

6.65 

85.57 

4.62 

53.84 

- 

May  16 

19.44 

65.81 

8.11 

97  97 

<2  1 

May  31 

8.16 

13.11 

6.14 

105.30 

4.50 

106.10 

5.66 

62.66 

3 

J une  14 

3.84 

4 26 

July  2 

5.79 

59  02 

.2.69 

i03 . 90 

2.14 

93.61 

1.28 

79.27 

C3  \ 

July  18 

5.20 

2 24 

2.02 

1.90 

OO 

Aug.  1 

5.25 

' 63.76 

2.24 

135.10 

2.41 

120.20 

2.62 

87.59 

4-3  1 

Aug.  15 

4.67 

56 . 63 

3.15 

116.50 

SI 

Aug.  30 

12.32 

67.03 

2 83 

116.60 

l.3t 

80.30 

1.82 

65.78 

ft  1 

Nov.  1 

6.22 

0 88 

3 1! 

1 32 

l 

Nov.  29 

8.52 

2.881 



• 2.3] 

2.80 

20 


Bulletin  No.  85. 


Table  giving  the  mean  amounts  of  nitric,  nitrogen  as  calcium  and 
magnesium  nitrates  and  of  total  soluble  salts  in  parts  per  million 
of  the  dry  soil  on  different  dates  during  the  season  of  1900  for  the 
five  plots  in  corn  and  potatoes  and  the  four  plots  in  clover , in 
oats  seeded  to  clover  and  in  alfalfa. 


First 

Foot. 

Second 

Foot. 

Third  Foot. 

Fourth  Foot. 

• 

Date. 

Ca.  and 

Total 

Ca.  and 

Total 

Ca.  and 

Total 

Ca.  and 

Total 

Mg. 

nitrates. 

salts. 

Mg. 

nitrates 

salts. 

Mg. 

nitrates. 

salts. 

Mg. 

nitrates. 

salts. 

, r 

Apr  18 

27.79 

105.63 

21.35 

153.20 

17.97 

155.48 

13  25 

83  46 

g'2  1 

May  2 

45  42 

181.46 

25.55 

161.32 

16.01 

113.27 

11.23 

71.40 

May  16 

115.54 

28  87 

« § | 

May  81 

129.17 

197.04 

22.66 

166.54 

10.60 

119.89 

9.21 

80.94 

05  03 

June  14 

147  68 

31.89 

w o 

J uly  2 

156.94 

“216.38 

21.50 

170.26 

8.91 

113.29 

7.60 

64.18 

50'S  - 

July  18 

40.68 

38 . 19 

9 36 

6.72 

03  o . 

Aug.  1 

14.91 

88.40 

26.97 

"mu 

14.42 

157.85 

9.11 

118.12 

- 

Aug.  15 

17.43 

20  05 

Aug.  30 

20.45 

”‘89 ’.28 

19.59 

149.32 

10.31 

113.39 

8.43 

77.36 

"o  3 ^ I 

Sept  19 

36  83 

18.59 

9.52 

8 97 

& 

Nov.  1 

85.43 

37.95 

16.52 

10.92 

£ 

Nov.  29 

51.09 

27.08 

14.88 

10  44 

n f 

Apr.  18 

15.80 

90.35 

15.18 

165.78 

10.80 

130.11 

7.35 

62.03 

> O 

May  2 

21.32 

105.24 

14.68 

158.10 

11.66 

110.17 

8.41 

85.39 

O C3 

May  16 

34.69 

14.96 

’«  - 

May  31 

28.19 

85.42 

18.35 

142.13 

7.15 

112  45 

5.60 

112.14 

oojS^  1 

June  14 

6.31 

11.82 

tS  a a J 

July  2 

12.02 

80.84 

2.38!  122.60 

2.47 

106.62 

2.72 

101.43 

CS  | 

July  18 

6.46 

3.37 

2.61 

3 15 

Aug.  1 

7 . 52 

80.12 

4.27 

155: is 

2.97 

127.75 

3.00 

”i04‘83 

Aug.  15 

15  24 

4 58 

a 3 I 

3 O 

Aug.  30 

20.78 

90.28 

3.75 

117.03 

6.78 

93  50 

2.77 

90.40 

N ov.  1 

8.16 

3.34 

3.20 

3.05 

a l 

Nov.  29 

8.18 

3.17 

2.43 

2.96 

With  the  clovers,  on  the  other  hand,  or  crops  not  cultivated,  the 
nitrates  of  the  first  foot  had  increased  much  more  slowly,  reaching  a 
maximum  less  than  one-fifth  as  great  June  1st  or  a month  earlier. 
From  this  point  they  declined  slowly,  reaching  their  lowest  limit  with 
the  other  plots  on  Aug.  1,  when  they  again  rose  until  Aug.  31,  hut  fall- 
ing to  8.16  Nov.  1,  and  8.18  Nov.  29. 

The  curves  show  that  the  nitrates  in  the  surface  foot  under  the  corn 
and  potatoes  rose  rapidly  above  those  in  any  other  depth  until  the  1st 
of  July  when  they  were  six  times  as  concentrated  as  in  the  2nd  and 
twenty-one  times  as  in  the  fourth  foot;  but  in  thirty  days  more,  at  the 
beginning  of  August,  when  these  crops  were  growing  rapidly,  the 
nitrates  had  been  reduced  from  a mean  of  423.9  lbs.  per  acre  to  40.5 
lbs.  which  means  that  nitric  nitrogen  enough  for  383.4  lbs.  of  calcium 
and  magnesium  nitrates  had  disappeared  from  the  surface  foot  of  the 
corn  and  potato,  or  cultivated  ground.  After  August  1,  the  nitrates  of 
the  surface  foot  rose  very  slowly  until  the  corn  was  cut  Sept.  1 and 
then  more  rapidly  until  the  soil  contained  99.36  cn  Sept.  19,  instead  of 
40.5  lbs.  per  acre  and  23.41  lbs.  on  Nov.  1. 

In  the  case  of  the  not  cultivated  crops,  clover,  alfalfa  and  oats,  the 
fields  startecbApril  18th  with  42.66  lbs.  of  nitrates  per  acre  in  the 
surface  which  increased  to  76.14  lbs.  on  June  1st;  from  this  date 

the  nitrates  fell  somewhat  rapidly  until  July  1 and  then  more  slowly 


Develovment  of  Nitrates  in  Cultivated  Soils.  21 

Wntil  Aug.  1,  when  there  was  but  20.3  pounds  per  acre  in  the  surface 
foot.  By  the  end  of  August,  however,  the  nitrates  in  the  surface  foot 
had  become  56.1  lbs.  per  acre  but  had  fallen  to  22.3  lbs.  Nov.  1. 

In-  the  case  of  the  total  soluble  salts  there  was  at  first  on  the  culti- 
vated ground  a more  rapid  rise  in  the  surface  foot  from  285.2  lbs.  per 
acre  on  April  18  to  489.9  lbs.  on  May  1,  and  reaching  the  highest  point 
with  the  nitrates  July  1st  when  the  amount  was  584.2  lbs.  per  acre. 
From  this  date  there  was  a rapid  decrease  to  238.7  lbs.  Aug.  1st. 

Turning  next  to  the  not  cultivated  fields  of  clover,  alfalfa  and  oats 
they  start  at  the  going  out  of  the  frost  April  18  with  243.9  lbs.  of  solu- 
ble salts  per  acre  in  the  surface  foot,  but  rise  rapidly  in  14  days  to 
284.1  lbs.  From  this  date  there  is  a slow  decrease  until  the  time  of 
maximum  amounts  in  the  cultivated  soils,  when  there  is  only  218.3 
for  the  clovers  instead  of  584.2  lbs.  where  corn  and  potatoes  were  grow- 
ing. After  the  first  of  July  the  total  salts  in  the.  surface  foot  remain 
stationary  until  August,  when  they  begin  to  rise,  reaching  243.8  lbs. 
Sept.  1st,  or  the  same  as  at  the  beginning  of  the  season. 

If  comparison  is  made  between  the  changes  in  nitrates  in  the  sec- 
ond, third  and  fourth  feet  and  in  the  total  soluble  salts  for  correspond- 
ing depths  it  will  be  seen  that  the  curves  generally' go  through  the  same 
phases  throughout  the  season  under  both  the  cultivated  and  not  cul- 
tivated crops,  each  rising  and  falling  together  but  through  a much 
greater  amplitude  with  the  total  salts  where  the  amounts  are  so  much 
larger. 

The  most  striking  difference  between  the  seasonal  changes,  both 
of  nitrates  and  total  salts,  in  the  first  foot  of  soil,  and  in  the  next  three 
feet,  is  found  in  the  much  greater  fluctuations  recorded  for  the  surface 
foot. 

RELATIVE  AMOUNTS  OF  NITRATES  AND  TOTAL  SOLUBLE  SALTS  IN  FIELD  SOILS. 

The  relation  existing  between  the  amount  of  nitric  nitrogen  in  field 
soils  computed  as  calcium  and  magnesium  nitrates  and  the  total  soluble 
salts  as  indicated  by  the  electrical  resistance  appears  to  be  widely  varia- 
ble under  different  conditions. 

As  a general  rule  when  the  amounts  of  nitric  nitrogen  in  clay  loams 
are  very  high  the  total  salts  are  relatively  very  low.  It  even  happens 
that  the  electrical  resistance  will  indicate  but  little  more  salts  than  are 
required  to  account  for  the  nitric  nitrogen  computed  as  calcium  and 
magnesium  nitrates.  Examples  like  the  following  will  be  found  in  the 
tables  on  p.  7,  multiplying  the  nitric  nitrogen  by  5.5  to  reduce  it  to  cal- 
cium and  magnesium  nitrates: 


Total  soluble  salts  .• 

182.1 

1*6  fi 

338.9 

S13.4 

Nitric  nitrogen  as  calcium  nitrates 

168.7 

181.0 

348  8 

380.6 

Results  like  these  suggest  that  the  electrical  resistance  fails  sig- 
nally to  give  the  amounts  of  salts  dissolved  in  the  soil  water.  But  in 
the  absence  of  positive  data  as  to  just  what  salts  may  have  been  present 


22 


Bulletin  No.  85. 


with  the  nitrates  in  the  above  samples  it  does  not  appear  impossible 
and  perhaps  not  improbable  that  the  nitrates  were  the  only  water  solu- 
ble salts  present.  It  is  to  be  expected  that  if  nitric  acid  is  being  formed 
in  the  presence  of  calcium  and  magnesium  carbonates  these  would  be 
decomposed  to  form  the  nitrates,,  and  if  the  nitric  acid  was  sufficiently 


Pig.  5. — Showing  changes  in  the  amount  of  calcium  and  magnesium  nitrates  dur- 
ing the  growing  season  under  three  plots  of  corn.  The  shadings  for  depths 
correspond  with  those  for  the  soluble  salts  in  Fig.  6. 

abundant  possibly  no  bi-carbonates  might  remain  in  solution.  If  such 
cases  do  ever  occur  it  is  quite  likely  that  the  remaining  water  soluble 
salts  in  our  clay  loams  would  be  sufficiently  small  to  leave  the  results 
consistent. 


Development  of  Nitrates  in  Cultivated  Soils.  23 

Again  in  the  absence  of  evidence  it  may  be  anticipated  that  a strong 
solution  of  nitrates  may  be  incompatible  with  the  bicarbonates  of  lime 
and  magnesia  in  the  same  solution,  the  strong  nitrate  solution,  by  phys- 
ical action,  causing  precipitation  just  as  the  nitrates  will  cause  floccu- 
lation of  clays  in  turbid  waters. 


Fig.  6.— Showing  the  changes  in  the  amount  of  total  soluble  salts,  as  indicated 
by  the  electrical  resistance,  during  the  growing  season,  under  three  plots 
of  corn.  These  curves  are  plotted  on  two-thirds  the  scale  of  that  used  for 
the  nitrates. 


Bulletin  No.  85. 


24 


The  ratio  of  total  soluble  salts  to  the  nitrates  in  the  surface  foot  of 
the  five  cultivated  fields  is,  on  the  average  for  the  whole  season,  2.14  to 
1,  while  in  the  surface  foot  of  the  clover  fields  it  is  4.8  to  1.  For  the 
•2nd,  3rd  and  4th  feet  for  the  season  the  ratio  is  7.29  to  1 for  the  corn 
•’and  potato  fields,  and  9.97  to  1 for  the  clover,  alfalfa  and  oats. 

If  the  formation  of  nitrates  in  a soil  does  cause  a destruction  of  the 
bic&roonates  in  the  soil  water  some  such  ratios  as  are  found  should  be 
expected. 


Relation  of  the  amount  of  nitric  nitrogen  and  soluble  salts  in  field 

SOILS  TO  THE  CROP  PRODUCED. 

In  the  two  plates,  Figs.  5 and  6,  pp.  22,  23,  are  plotted  the  amounts 
of  nitric  nitrogen  as  calcium  and  magnesium  nitrates  and  the  total 
salts  found  in  the  surface  four  feet  of  soil  under  three  corn  plots  at 
eleven  different  dates  during  the  growing  season.  We  have  an  accur- 
ate determination  of  the  yield  of  dry  .matter  above  ground  in  these 
cases,  but  have  not  yet  determined  the  total  nitrogen  and  ash  removed 
with  the  crops. 

It  is  clear  from  the  curves  plotted  that  marked  differences  existed  in 
the  amounts  both  of  nitrates  and  of  .soluble  salts  in  the  soils.  These 
differences  are  associated  with  marked  differences  of  yield.  On  plot  9, 
where  the  nitrates  did  not  reach  110  parts  per  million  in  the  surface 
foot,  the  mean  yield  of  dry  matter  per  acre  was  8,010  lbs.  and  the  nitro- 
gen removed  was  102.07  lbs.,  computed  from  the  tables  in  the  Year  Book, 
U.  S.  Dept,  of  Agriculture.  Plot  3,  where  the  nitrates  were  133.9  parts 
per  million  in  the  first  foot,  gave  a yield  of  11,440  lbs.  of  dry  matter, 
and  removing  146.05  lbs.  of  nitrogen,  while  plot  1,  with  an  amount  of 
nitrates  in  the  first  foot  at  one  time  reaching  nearly  210  lbs.  per  mil- 
lion, gave  a yield  of  dry  matter  of  11,215  lbs.  per  acre  and  removed 
139.88  lbs.  of  nitrogen. 

In  the  case  of  these  three  fields  of  corn  the  largest  yield  was  not  as- 
sociated with  the  soil  having  the  highest  per  cent  of  nitrates,  either 
in  the  surface  or  lower  feet.  The  heaviest  yield  is,  however,  associated 
with  the  largest  amount  of  soluble  salts  as  shown  in  Fig.  6. 

In  the  case  of  the  two  clover  plots  and  the  plot  of  alfalfa  the  yields 
of  dry  matter  per  acre  and  of  nitrogen  removed  were 


Plot  2. 

Plot  4. 

Plot  7. 

Plot  8. 

Yield  of  dry  matter 

5,839  lbs. 
134.5 

6,289  lbs. 
82.6 

8,151  lbs. 
187.7 

8,502  lbs. 
198.4 

Computed  nitrogen  removed 

If  we  count  the  changes  in  the  amounts  of  nitric  nitrogen  in  the  soil 
between  the  time  when  they  were  highest  and  when  they  were  lowest 
as  representing  nitrogen  taken  by  the  crops,  the  results  will  stand  as 
below: 


Development  of  Nitrates  in  Cultivated  Soils. 


25 


Plot  1, 
corn. 

Plot  2, 
clover. 

Plot  3, 
corn. 

Plot  4, 
oats  and 
clover. 

Plot  7, 
clover. 

Plot  8, 
alfalfa. 

Plot  9, 
corn. 

Nitrogen  taken  by 
crop,  lbs.  per  acre 
Nitrogen  lost  from 
soil,  lbs.  per  acre 

139.88 

i55 . 99 

101.8 

27.31 

146.05 

125.68 

82.6 

105.92 

187.7 

23.43 

198.4 

* 16.75 

102.11 

51  63: 

Difference  . .. 

— 16. 11 

64.49 

20.37 

-23.32 

164.27 

181.67 

50.48'. 

From  this  table  it  appears  that  for  the  corn  of  plot  1 and  for  the 
oats  and  clover  of  plot  4 there  was  a loss  of  nitrogen  from  the  soil 
greater  than  that  computed  as  being  removed  by  the  crop;  but  in  each 
of  the  other  cases  there  has  been  a gain  of  nitric  nitrogen  in  the  soil 
since  the  amount  removed  by  the  crop  is  greater  than  the  change. 

In  the  case  of  the  three  crops  of  alfalfa  the  nitrates  were  held  so  low 
at  all  times  during  the  season  that  the  soil  shows  a loss  of  only  16.73 
lbs.,  and  this  makes  it  appear  that  there  must  have  been  formed  in  the 
soil  during  the  season  nitrates  enough  to  supply  the  182.67  lbs.  addi- 
tional needed  or  else  that  the  crop  obtained  it  indirectly  from  the  air. 
If  it  came  from  nitrates  in  the  soil  then  there  must  have  been  formed, 
to  supply  the  deficiency,  1,004.69  lbs.  of  calcium  and  magnesium  ni- 
trates per  acre.  But  referring  to  Fig.  7 it  will  be  seen  that  both  the 
total  salts  and  the  nitrates  were  lower  at  all  times  under  the  alfalfa 
than  under  either  of  the  other  plots. 

The  nitrates  and  total  salts  in  the  soil  of  the  two  potato  plots  are 
represented  in  Fig.  8.  The  yield  of  plot  5 was  399  bushels  per  acre  and 
of  plot  6,  368.9  bushels. 

THE  CLOSENESS  WITH  WHICH  NITRATES  ARE  FED  DOWN  IN  THE  SOIL  BY 
DIFFERENT  CROPS. 

One  of  the  most  surprising  results  to  us  which  has  been  brought  out 
by  the  past  season’s  work  is  the  extremely  small  amounts  of  nitric 
nitrogen  which  may  exist  in  a soil  at  any  one  time  and  yet  vigorous 
plant  growth  and  large  yields  be  produced. 

Referring  to  the  curves  of  Figs.  4,  5,  7 and  8,  or  to  the  tables  of  pp. 
18,  19,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  nitrates  in  the  field  were  held  down  so 
low  in  the  several  feet  during  the  45  days  following  July  15th,  that 
there  were  only  the  amounts  per  acre*  given  in  the  table  below: 


Table  showing  the  mean  amount  of  nitrates  per  acre  under  differ- 
ent crops  between  July  18  and  Sept . 1 . 


Corn, 
Plot  1. 

Clover, 
Plot  2. 

Corn, 
Plot  3. 

Oats 
and 
clover, 
Plot  4. 

Pota- 
toes, 
Plot  5. 

Pota- 
toes, 
Plot  6. 

Clover, 
Plot  7. 

Alfalfa 
Plot  8. 

Corn, 
Plot  9. 

Nitrates  in  1st 

Lbs.pr. 

acre. 

Lbs.pr. 

acre. 

Lbs.pr. 

acre. 

Lbs.pr. 

acre. 

Lbs.pr. 

acre. 

Lbs.pr. 

acre. 

Lbs.pr. 

acre. 

Lbs.pr. 

acre. 

Lbs.pr. 

acre. 

foot 

50.94 

58.32 

2i.ll 

15.07 

130.21 

105  32 

44.91 

18.84 

10.85 

Nitrates  in  2d 
fo  t 

127.35 

23. 7 4 j 

48.81 

14.42 

155.95 

172.62 

15.63 

10.65 

8.88 

Nitrates  in  3d 
foot 

83.52 

10  28 1 

59.44 

18.81 

49  65 

50.66 

1.75 

9.53 

10.79 

Nitrates  in  4tli 
foot 

40.83 

14.80 

64.82 

27  05 

24.08 

39  82 

4.59 

9.73 

12.51 

*The  weights 

of  dry 

soil  in 

the  1st 

, 2d,  3d 

and  4th  feet 

are  2,740,000;  4,034,000; 

4,557,000  and  4,637,000  respectively. 


Bulletin  No.  S3. 


a 6 

It  will  be  seen  from  this  table  that  with  the  right  amount  and  dis- 
tribution of  water,  such  as  we  had  this  year,  enormous  yields  may  be 
produced  when  the  nitrates  in  the  surface  foot  of  soil  are  reduced  be- 
tween July  18  and  Sept.  1 as  low  as  24  lbs.  for  corn,  45  lbs.  for  clover, 
19  lbs.  for  alfalfa  and  105  lbs.  for  potatoes. 


Fig.  7. — Showing  changes  in  the  amounts  of  nitrates  and  total  soluble  salts  in 
the  first  and  second  feet,  during  the  growing  season  under  clover  and  al- 
falfa. The  nitrate  curves  are  shaded  to  correspond  with  those  of  the  total 
soluble  suits  for  the  two  depths. 


2? 


Development  of  Nitrates  in  Cultivated  Soils. 

When  these  amounts  are  expressed  as  nitric  nitrogen  in  parts  per 
million  of  the  dry  soil  they  stand  3.38,  1.61  and  0.72  for  corn;  3.87,  2.98 
and  1.00  for  clover;  1.25  for  alfalfa,  and  8.64  and  6.99  for  potatoes. 


Fig.  8.— Showing  the  changes  in  the  amount  of  nitrates  and  of  total  soluble 
salts  In  the  first  and  second  feet,  during  the  growing  s#ason,  under  potatoes 
and  oats  seeded  to  clover. 


28 


Bulletin  No.  85. 


THE  LIMIT  OF  NITRIC  NITROGEN  IN  FIELD  SOIL  AT  WHICH  THE  LEAVES  OF 
CORN  AND  OATS  TURN  YELLOW. 

The  oats  of  plot  4 were  sown  with  a drill  after  corn  without  plow- 
ing the  ground,  the  surface  having  been  pulverized  with  a disc  harrow. 
After  the  oats  had  reached  the  stage  when  stems  were  beginning  to 
form,  June  8 to  12,  it  was  observed  that  lighter  and  darker  green  streaKs 
could  be  seen  stretching  across  the  field  the  same  distances  apart  that 
the  rows  of  corn  had  been  planted  the  year  before.  Examination 
showed  that  the  dark  green  streaks  were  over  the  former  corn  rows 
and  the  light  green  were  half  way  between.  This  was  probably  due  to 
the  ridging  of  the  rows  for  irrigation,  causing  an  accumulation  of  sur- 
face soil  at  the  row  and  a definciency  between.  We  took  advantage  of 
this  opportunity  to  determine  the  amount  of  nitric  nitrogen  in  the  soil 
at  which  oats  did  show  yellow  for  lack  of  nitrogen,  and  that  at  which 
they  still  held  the  normal  green  color. 

It  was  found  as  an  average  of  two  duplicate  determinations  on  June 
10  that  the  nitric  nitrogen  under  the  yellow  oats  in  the  surface  foot 
was  .025  parts  per  million,  while  under  the  green  it  was  .213  parts;  and 
again  on  June  11  a similar  set  of  determinations  showed  .027  parts 
for  the  yellow  and  .297  parts  per  million  of  nitric  nitrogen  where  the 
oats  were  green.  These  amounts,  when  expressed  as  nitrates  per  acre 
in  the  surface  foot,  are  as  low  as  .392  lbs.  where  the  oats  are  yellow 
and  3.843  lbs.  where  the  oats  are  still  green. 

A similar  study  was  made  in  regard  to  corn  on  Aug.  3 to  8,  and  In 
the  next  table  are  given  the  amounts  of  nitric  nitrogen  found  under 
the  yellow  stalks  or  stalks  where  the  leaves  were  turning  yellow  along 
the  midrib  and  finally  browning  at  the  tip  and  then  dying.  The  de- 
ficiency of  nitrates  in  this  case  was  due  to  the  fact  that  the  soil  had 
been  taken  from  this  area  for  sodding  before  this  field  was  plowed. 


Table  showing  the  amounts  of  nitric  nitrogen  under  corn  rows  ivhere 
, leaves  are  turning  yellow , and  where  they  are  normal  green. 
Pounds  per  million  of  the  dry  soil. 


Depth. 

Plot  9. 

Marsh  Soil. 

Hand  all  Field. 

Corn, 
yellow . 

Corn, 

green. 

Corn, 

yellow. 

Corn, 

green. 

Corn, 

yellow. 

Corn, 

green. 

First  font 

0 61 

0.92 

0.95 

3.62 

0.10 

0.95 

Second  foot 

0.14 

1.70 

0.40 

1.41 

0.06 

0.60 

Third  foot 

0.41 

2.95 

0.07 

0.52 

0.25 

0.37 

Fourth  foot 

0.42 

1.82 

0.00 

0.00 

0.30 

0.30 

In  these  cases  it  will  be  seen  that  the  amount  of  available  nitrogen 
in  the  soil  within  reach  of  the  corn  is  extremely  small,  and  yet  on  plot 
9 tne  average  yield  was  over  8,000  lbs.  of  dry  matter  per  acre;  on  the 
marsh  soil  it  was  larger  than  this,  and  on  Randall  Field  the  corn  on 
the  ground  where  the  plants  were  yellow,  contained  at  the  time  3,213 
lbs.  of  ary  matter  per  acre,  and  on  the  other,  where  the  plants  were 


Development  of  Nitrates  in  Cultivated  Soils. 


20 


green,  the  stand  was  at  the  rate  of  6,887  lbs.  per  acre  August  8 when 
the  corn  was  in  full  tassel,  but  the  kernels  only  just  setting. 

Referring  to  the  data  in  the  table  on  page  18  it  will  be  seen  that 
the  corn  on  plot  3 August  15  had  reduced  the  nitric  nitrogen  In  the  first 
foot  to  1.446  parts  per  million  and  in  the  second  foot  to  .726  parts  and 
yet  the  yield  per  acre  was  11,440  lbs.  of  water  free  dry  matter  per  acre. 

DIFFERENCE  BETWEEN  TIIE  AMOUNTS  OF  NITRIC  NITROGEN  UNDER  GROWING 
CROPS  AND  IN  CULTIVATED  FALLOW  GROUND  AT  THE  SAME  TIME. 

On  June  27  samples'  of  soil  were  taken  in  one  foot  sections  to  a depth 
of  four  feet,  two  feet  in  from  the  margins  of  plots  upon  which  were 
growing  peas,  oats,  barley  and  spring  rye.  Between  these  plots  there 
were  fallow  cultivated  strips  either  8 feet  or  4 feet  wide  kept  free  from 
weeds;  in  these  strips,  2 feet  out  from  the  growing  crops,  a second  set 
of  samples  were  taken  in  one  foot  sections  to  a depth  of  four  feet.  Both 
the  total  soluble  salts  and  the  nitric  nitrogen  were  determined  to  ascer- 
tain what  differences  might  have  been  developed  under  the  two  sets  of 
conditions.  The  results  appear  in  the  next  table: 

Table  showing  the  amounts  of  nitrates  and  total  soluble  salts  in  soils 
under  crops  and  in  soil  immediately  adjacent  which  has  been 
kept  fallow , cultivated  and  free  from  weeds.  Pounds  per  million 
of  dry  soil. 


Oats. 

Fallow. 

Barley. 

Nitrates. 

Total  salts. 

Nitrates. 

Total  salts. 

Nitrates. 

Total  salts. 

1 

5.91 

70.94 

246  40 

199.3 

2.62 

61.72 

2 

8.12 

114.6 

26.75 

123.5 

5.10 

87.08 

3 

4.73 

124.7 

6.50 

108.0 

4.04 

112.6 

4 

4.60 

39.44 

2 81 

42.10 

3.03 

51.76 

Oats. 

Fallow. 

Peas. 

1 

3.25 

80.35 

143.05 

206.1 

8.38 

77.00 

2 

3.22 

162.1 

29.50 

254  3 

18.57 

197.2 

3 

2.95 

102.7 

8.87 

115.0 

6.59 

135.8 

4 

2.70 

58.24 

4.10 

95.32 

2.66 

44.62 

Oats. 

Fallow. 

Spring  Rye. 

1 

2.47 

78.56 

129.15 

211.3 

1.24 

77.34 

2 

2 46 

102  9 

35.60 

254.7 

2.62 

102.1 

3 

3.83 

72.98 

9.11 

117.8 

2 07 

94.82 

4 

3.16  | 

33.99 

4.08 

61.91 

2.78 

48  85 

It  is  clear  from  this  table  that  a crop  growing  upon  the  ground  ex- 
erts a very  profound  influence  upon  the  soluble  salts  the  soil  contains, 
and  particularly  upon  the  nitric  nitrogen.  If  the  mean  amounts  of  ni- 
trates in  the  surface  foot  under  the  crops  and  in  the  fallow  ground  are 
expressed  in'  pounds  per  acre  they  stand  10.88  lbs.  under  the  crops 
and  473.65  lbs.  where  no  crop  has  grown.  This  difference  is  enough  for 
85  bushels  of  oats  per  acre  wh^re  the  ratio  of  gffrin  to  gtraw  is  a§  3 
to  5, 


30 


Bulletin  No.  85. 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  NITRATES  AND  OTHER  SOLUBLE  SALTS  IN  SOIL  UNDER 
GROWING  CORN  AS  IT  COMES  INTO  FULL  TASSEL. 

|; 

In  our  studies  of  the  distribution  of  soil  moisture  under  growing 
corn  it  has  appeared  that  the  moisture  is  not  withdrawn  from  the  soil 
at  the  same  rate  in  all  portions.  This  year  we  have  determined  the 
distribution  of  nitric  nitrogen  and  of  total  salts  with  reference  to  the 
hills  of  corn  m the  soil  occupied  by  the  roots  at  the  stage  of  growth  at 
which  it  has  reached  full  tassel. 

To  do  this  a composite  sample  of  10  cores  of  soil  was  taken  six  inches 
deep  directly  beneath  ten  hills  of  corn,  using  the  soil  tube;  then  a simi- 
lar sample  was  taken  of  the  next  six  inches  in  the  same  holes.  In  this 
way  the  soil  was  sampled  to  a depth  of  three  feet  and  then  the  next 
core  was  made  to  cover  the  fourth  foot. 

Three  other  similar  sets  of  samples  were  taken,  one  six  inches  out 
from  the  hill,  one  twelve  inches  out  and  another  eighteen  inches  out 
from  the  hill,  this  set  being  in  the  middle  between  the  rows.  The  hills 
in  the  rows  were  30  inches  apart. 

The  composite  samples  were  thoroughly  mixed  and  out  of  each  fifty 
grams  of  soil  were  taken  for  the  determination  of  the  nitric  nitrogen, 
while  another  lot  was  taken  to  be  used  in  .measuring  the  electrical  re- 
sistance. 

When  the  results  obtained  are  used  in  computing  the  amounts  of  ni- 
trates in  the  soil  and  of  total  soluble  salts  the  results  given  in  the  table 
which  follows  are  found. 


Table  showing  the  distribution  of  nitrates  and  of  soluble  salts  in  the 
soil  under  a field  of  corn  in  full  tassel.  Amounts  in  parts -per 
million  of  dry  soil. 


Depth  of 

Nitric  Nitrogen,  Calcium 
and  Magnesium  Nitrates. 

Total  Soluble  Salts. 

Sample. 

Under 

hill. 

6 in. 

12  in. 

18  in. 

Aver- 

age. 

Under 

hill. 

6 in. 

12  in. 

18  in. 

Aver- 

age. 

Surface  to  6 in- 
ches   

17.67 

9 04 

15.16 

8.39 

12.56 

100.1 

80.3 

98.5 

79.7 

89.65 

6 inches  to  12  in- 
ches   

31.10 

52.39 

86.13 

61.73 

57.81 

102.9 

125.2 

157.1 

123.0 

127.05 

12  inches  to  18  in- 
ches   

27.35 

53.99 

76.03 

83.07 

60.11 

118.7 

190.7 

200.7 

211.8 

180  47 

18  inches  to  24  in- 
ches   

32.89 

42.57 

45.03 

49.66 

42.67 

231.4 

240.0 

235.1 

261.3 

241.95 

24  inches  to  30  in- 
ches   

17.03 

19.73 

19.38 

17.67 

18.45 

16$.  7 

165.3 

218.8 

164.4 

179.3 

30  inches  to  36  in- 
ches   

13.46 

9.43 

11.13 

11.41 

11.36 

109.3 

95.96 

121.7 

110.8 

109.44 

.36  inches  to  48  in- 
ches   

6.06 

5.62 

5.62 

5.06 

5.59 

52.82 

39.02. 

41.54 

44.24 

44.40 

It  will  be  seen  from  this  table  that  very  large  differences,  both  in  the 
amounts  of  nitrates  and  of  total  salts,  are  found  under  the  different 
distances  from  the  corn  row.  These  differences  have  been  plotted  in 
the  curves  shown  in  Fig.  9,  where  the  mean  amount  of  salts  found  in  a 
given  zone  of  soil  has  been  taken  as  a datum  line  and  the  departures 
Jxom  the  mean  have  been  expressed  in  distances  above  and  below  this 


Dcvelovmcnt  of  Nitrates  in  Cultivated  Soils.  31 

datum  line,  according  as  the  amounts  of  salts  were  greater  or  less  than 
the  mean  value. 


Fig.  9.  Showing  variations  in  the  amounts  of  nitrates  and  of  total  soluble  salts 
under  and  between  hills  of  corn  at  different  depths  at  the  time  when  it  is 
coming  into  full  ‘tassel.  The  dotted  lines  represent  the  total  soluble  salts 
and  the  solid  lines  the  nitrates,  the  soluble  salts  being  plotted  on  one-half 
the  scale  of  the  nitrates. 


Referring  to  the  curves  of  the  surface  6-inches  it  will  be  seen  that 
each,  at  every  point,  goes  through  the  same  phase,  the  curve  of  soluble 
salts  differing  from  the  curve  of  nitrates  only  in  going  through  a little 
more  than  double  the  amplitude,  but  shown  only  about  the  same  because 
it  is  plotted  on  one-half  the  scale.  This  regular  variation  in  amounts  of 


Bulletin  No.  85. 


32 

salts  appears  to  be  due  to  the  fact  that  the  surface  was  left  slightly 
ridged  by  the  cultivator  when  the  corn  was  laid  by.  It  so  happened 
that  the  distances  chosen  for  the  lines  of  samples  brought  them  alter- 
nately in  the  grooves  and  on  the  ridges  left  by  the  cultivator  teeth. 
The  smallest  amounts  of  salts  are  found  under  the  furrows  and  the 
largest  amounts  under  the  ridges.  The  table  shows  about  16  pounds  of 
nitrates  per  million  in  the  soil  under  the  ridges  and  only  about  one- 
half  this  amount  under  the  furrows.  Of  total  salts  the  amount  under 
the  ridges  is  nearly  100  lbs.  per  million  as  against  80  lbs.  under  the 
furrows.  j 4 j vA 

In  the  next  depth  the  differences  in  the  distribution  of  salts  are 
much  greater  but  the  amounts  rise  and  fall  with  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  except  that  under  the  corn  hills  the  salts  are  much  less  than 
anywhere  else,  as  though  the  rate  of  feeding  or  of  percolation  had  been 
more  rapid  or  else  that  the  rate  of  nitrification  had  been  less.  The 
amount  of  nitrates  at  this  level,  six  to  twelve  inches,  is  nearly  five 
times  the  amount  at  the  surface  at  this  time  and  the  amount  in  the  soil, 
twelve  inches  out  from  the  hill,  is  nearly  three  times  that  found  under 
the  hill. 

In  the  third  six  inches  below  the  surface  the  curve  of  nitrates  is  much 
simpler  than  at  any  other  level  and  the  amounts  larger.  While  at  the 
lower  levels  the  differences  in  distribution  of  both  nitrates  and  total 
salts  are  less  than  above,  these  are  still  strongly  marked. 

It  is  difficult  to  understand  how  such  differences  in  the  amounts  of 
salts  can  be  developed  in  such  close  proximity  as  here  appears,  but  the 
two  sets  of  observations  agree  in  a general  way  at  so  many  points  that 
there  can  be  no  question  but  that  the  samples  themselves  did  possess 
these  differences.  Moreover,  we  are  unable  to  see  in  what  way  it  was 
possible  for  the  method  of  taking  the  samples  to  develop  so  systematic 
a set  of  quantitative  relations  as  here  exist. 

If  the  whole  set  of  observations  is  not  a remarkable  example  of  coinci- 
dences it  must  be  that  the  rigid  surface,  the  distribution  of  corn  roots 
and  percolation  have  worked  together  to  develop  the  differences  the  fig- 
ures indicate.  There  had  certainly  been  some  percolation  from  the 
rains  of  July  20  and  21,  8 days  earlier,  and  it  is  clear  that  the  ridged 
surface  would  cause  the  water  to  percolate  along  planes  vertically  be- 
low the  bottoms  of  the  furrows;  that  this  would  both  dilute  and  move 
forward  the  soluble  salts,  while  capillarity  would  produce  lateral  move- 
ment under  the  ridges  to  cause  concentration  of  salts  there.  But  our 
observations  are  clearly  too  limited  to  attempt  a full  explanation  of 
the  distribution  of  salts  observed. 

A similar,  though  not  quite  comparable,  series  of  samples  had  been 
taken  July  23  near  the  same  place,  and  the  amount  of  nitrates  and  other 
salts  tnen  present  indicate  that  at  every  depth  there  had  been,  on  July 
28,  an  increase  in  the  amount  of  both  under  the  corn  hills  and  also  be- 
tween the  row$  in  the  third  and  fourth  feet,  as  though  water  from  above 


Development  of  Nitrates  in  Cultivated  Soils. 


had  moved  into  these  places,  carrying  salts  with  them,  or  else  that  rapid 
nitrification  had  occurred. 

The  table  below  indicates  the  changes  which  had  taken  place: 

Table  showing  changes  in  soluble  salts  under  growing  corn  between 

July  S3  and  S8. 


Depth. 

Date. 

Per  Cent,  of 
Water. 

Nitrates  in 
Parts  Per  Million 
of  Dry  Soil. 

Total  Soluble 
Salt  in  Parts  Per 
Million  of  Dfiy 
Soil. 

Under 

hill. 

9 in. 

18  in. 

Under 

hill. 

9 in. 

18  in. 

Under 

hill. 

9 in. 

18  in. 

i 

July  23.. 

27.21 

26  53 

26.51 

14.37 

24.37 

51.95 

92.97 

98.60 

124.11 

1st  foot. . •< 

July  28 . . 

21.29 

22  52 

24.:-  8 

35  06 

101  50 

101.40 

1 

Change  . 

—5.92 

—3*99 

+10.01 

—16.89 

+8.53 

—22.71 

( 

July  23.. 

20.78 

21.57 

21.73 

7.04 

74.32 

35.46 

138.00 

228.7 

255.2 

2d  foot  . < 

July  28 . . 

20.74 

20  50 

30.22 

66.37 

175.0) 

236.6 

? 

Change . 

— .04 

— 1.23 

+23 . 18 

+30.91 

+37.00 

—18.6 

{ 

July  23  . . 

19.24 

18.03 

18.03 

13.31 

15.93 

13  92 

101.97 

83  73 

78.45 

3d  foot  . . ■< 

July  28.. 

20.40 

20.11 

15  25 

14.54 

139.00 

137.60 

Change  . 

+1.11 

+2.08 

+1.91 

+ 62 

4-37.03  

+59.15 

l 

July  23.. 

15.74 

15.68 

15.89 

5.52 

5.21 

4.71 

36  30 

35.31 

34.30 

July  28.. 

15.76 

14.62 

6.06 

5.06 

52.82 

44  24 

4th  foot  . -j 

Change  . 

+ .02 

-1.27 

+ .54 

+ .35 

+16.52 

” .... 

+9  94 

THE  STRENGTH  OF  SOIL  SOLUTIONS  UNDER  FIELD  CROPS. 

The  rate  at  which  nitrates  can  make  their  way  into  the  roots  of 
plants  to  serve  as  food  depends  partly  upon  the  strength  of  the  soil 
water  solution  and  partly  upon  the  rate  at  which  the  plant  is  able  to 
fix  the  nitrogen  of  the  nitrates  when  brought  to  it.  When  the  rate  of 
fixation  in  the  plant  is  so  raipd  as  to  keep  the  nitrates  in-  the  sap  low 
and  the  conditions  for  nitrification  are  such  as  to  keep  the  soil  solution 
outside  strong  then  the  growth  may  be  rapid  if  other  conditions  are 
right.  ! 14/  } : 

The  changes  in  the  strength  of  the  soil  solution  under  the  plots  of 
corn  and  potatoes  is  given  in  the  next  table:  (1)  at  the  commencement 
of  the  season;  (2)  at  the  time  when  the  salts  were  strongest;  and  (3) 
again  at  the  end  of  the  growing  season  when  they  were  weakest. 

Table  showing  mean  changes  in  the  strength  of  soil  solutions  under 
growing  corn  and  potatoes.  Amounts  in  parts  per  million  of 
water. 


Depth. 

April  18. 

July  1. 

Sept  1. 

Total 

salts. 

Ni- 

trates. 

Dif- 

feience 

Total 

salts. 

Ni- 

trates. 

Dif- 

ference 

Total 

salts. 

Ni- 

trates. 

Dif- 

ference 

1st  foot 

397.7 

112  2 

285.5 

1,015 

757.6 

287.4 

463.3 

106.1 

357  2 

2nd  foot 

639.7 

89.14 

550.56 

933.9 

134.3 

799  6 

832.2 

109.2 

723.0 

3rd  foot 

735.7 

85.05 

650.65 

639.4 

52  28 

587.12 

649.1 

59.03 

590.07 

4th  foot 

476.9 

75.71 

401.19 

469.8 

55.61 

414.16 

490.9 

53.49 

437.11 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  nitrates  constitute  about  three-fourths  of  the 
salts  in  solution  in  the  soil  water  of  the  surface  foot  in  July;  in  Sep- 

§ 


34 


Bulletin  No.  85. 


tember  they  are  less  than  one-third,  while  in  April  they  constitute  be- 
tween a third  and  a half.  In  the  fourth  foot  the  salts  in  solution  are 
nearly  one-sixth  nitrates  in  April,  less  nan-  one-eighth  in  July,  and  less 
than  one-ninth  in  September.  The  soil  water  in  the  fourth  foot  is  rich- 
est in  nitrates  in  April  and  grows  leaner  until  September,  while  in 
other  salts  it  is  weakest  in  April  and  strongest  in  September. 

In  connection  with  our  soil  studies  we  have  followed  the  changes  in 
the  salt  content  of  the  water  of  nine  wells  situated  either  on  or  imme- 
diately adjacent  to  the  Station  farm,  and  the  results  are  given  in  the 
table  below.  The  water  in  these  wells  is  in  no  case  nearer  than  20  feet 
of  the  surface  and  in  five  it  is  more  than  40  feet  below  the  surface.  It 
will  be  seen  that  the  table  shows  a small  but  clear  increase  both  in  ni- 
trates and  in  total  salts  as  the  summer  advances.  There  seems  to  be  a 
small  falling  off  in  nitrates  at  August  2,  and  of  total  salts  on  August  16. 
After  this  date  the  total  salts  and  the  nitrates  increase  again.  We  have 
shown  that  in  the  surface  four  feet  of  soil  there  is  a strong  falling  off 
in  soluble  salts  in  July  and  August  and  that  after  this  date  the  salts 
increase  again  so  that  in  these  particulars  the  superficial  soil  water  and 
the  deeper  ground  water  go  through  changes  of  similar  phase. 


Table  showing  nitrates  and  total  soluble  salts  in  well  waters  on  dif- 
ferent dates.  Amounts  in  parts  per  million  of  the  water. 


No. 

June  4. 

July  3. 

July  17. 

Aug.  2. 

Aug 

. 16. 

Sept.  3. 

Total  salts. 

Nitrates. 

Total  salts. 

Nitrates. 

Total  salts. 

Nitrates. 

Total  salts- 

Nitrates. 

i 

Total  salts. 

Nitrates. 

Total  salts. 

Nitrates. 

] 

i 

387.3 

26.40 

407.1 

34.32 

436.8 

27.06 

434.0 

28.61 

430.5 

33.00 

440  4 

32.12 

2 

433.9 

24.20 

440.5 

24.20 

442.0 

20.24 

444.2 

19.80 

443.1 

23.32 

443  1 

23 ! 32 

3 

376.6 

11.44 

376.9 

13  64 

387.1 

15  84 

335.3 

14.96 

381.4 

15  84 

379.4 

17.60 

4 

413  2 

5.50 

397.8 

5.72 

427.0 

4.68 

416.9 

5.45 

413.2 

5.61 

415  9 

5.61 

5 

405  6 

5.06 

416.5 

4.40 

377  1 

3.69 

420.4 

4.07 

425  0 

4.90 

415.9 

4.95 

6 

409.7 

5.45 

413.6 

7 04 

438.3 

6.49 

422.8 

6 18 

424.8 

7 04 

429.0 

7.92 

7 

372.4 

13.20 

377.1 

14  08 

375.0 

13.20 

375.8 

14.08 

379.7 

15.40 

386.8 

16.72 

8 

515.5 

36.08 

520.8 

35  20 

538.2 

41  36 

547.7 

36.96 

526.5 

29.48 

534.3 

31.24 

9 

395.8 

22.88 

396.7 

27.72 

401.6 

29.48 

405  8 

31.24 

398.2 

33.88 

403.8 

30.36 

Mean  — 

412  2 

16  69 

416.3 

18.48 

424.8 

18.00 

428.1 

17.88 

1 424.7 

18.72 

427.6 

18.87 

It  is  not  clear  what  explanation  is  to  be  given  for  the  much  larger 
amounts  of  nitrates  in  the  fourth  foot  than  are  found  in  the  deeper 
water  of  the  wells,  unless  it  be  that  there  is  a superficial  drainage  from 
the  upper  surface  of  the  water  table  which  carries  the  stronger  solu- 
tions into  our  adjacent  lakes.  It  does  not  appear  impossible  that  there 
is  an  underflow  of  water  southward  through  the  sandstone  in  which  sev- 
eral of  these  wells  are  and  that  this  water  is  not  as  rich  in  nitrates  or 
other  salts  as  the  soil  water  of  the  fourth  foot  is.  It  is  true  that  the 
water  of  the  deeper  wells  of  the  city  waterworks  here  in  Madison  has 
thus  far  shown  not  even  a trace  of  nitric  nitrogen  after  evaporating 
200  c.  c.  of  it. 


Development  of  Nitrates  in  Cultivated  Soils. 


OK 

oO 


RESULTS  OF  WARINGTON’S  NITRIC  NITROGEN  STUDIES  AT  ROTHAMSTED. 

So  far  as  we  know,  the  only  studies  which  have  heretofore  heen  made 
on  the  amount  of  nitrates  in  field  soils  under  crop  conditions  which  are 
comparable  to  ours  are  those  made  by  «Warington  at  the  Rothamsted  ex- 
periment station  in  England  and  published  in  a paper  on  “The  Nitro- 
gen as  Nitric  Acid  in  the  Soils  and  Subsoils  of  some  of  the  Fields  at 
Rothamsted”  in  Vol.  V of  the  Rothamsted  Memoirs  in  1883. 

Determinations  were  made  in  September  and  October  of  the  nitric 
nitrogen  in  soils  which  had  been  fallow  through  the  season,  in  soils 
which  had  grown  beans,  clover,  wheat  and  barley,  and  in  a few  cases 
in  July,  in  soils  while  the  crop  was  growing,  and  again  in  the  spring  on 
soils  which  had  grown  crops  and  others  which  had  been  fallow.  To 
make  these  results  comparable  with  ours  we  have  expressed  them  as 
calcium  and  magnesium  nitrates. 


Table  sho  wing  nitrates  in  pounds  per  acre  in  the  surface  27  inches  in 
soils  of  Rothamsted  in  September. 


No'. 

Previous  Cropping  and  Manuring. 

Nitrates  in  lbs. 
per  acre. 

Fallow  (ordinary  cultivation) 

323.4 

Fallow  (ordinary  cultivation) 

310.7 

Fallow  (rotation,  fully  manured) 

268.4 

Beans  (rotation,  fully  manured) 

112  7 

) 

Fallow  (rotation,  superphosphate  only) 

199.6 

\ 

Beans  (rotation,  superphosphate  only) 

58.3 

Clover  (rotation,  fullv  manured) 

107.8 

I 

Wheat  (unmanured  land) 

14.3 

In  July  the  soil  growing  Bokhara  clover  and  white  clover  showed 
33.0  lbs.  and  91.3  lbs.  respectively,  of  nitrates  per  acre  as  a total  in  the 
first  three  feet.  In  April  land  which  had  been  fallow  the  previous  sea- 
son snowed  151.2  lbs.  Oi.  nitrates  per  acre  in  the  first  three  feet. 

In  order  that  these  results  may  be  compared  with  those  we  have  ob- 
tained we  give  the  most  nearly  comparable  data  in  the  following  table: 


Table  showing  the  amounts  o f nitrates  found  in  soils  at  Rothamsted 
and  in  Wisconsin. 


Rothamsted. 

Nitrates 

Date. 

Depth . 

- Crop. 

in  lbs.  per 
acre. 

Oct.  3.. 

27  in. 

Fallow 

300.7 

Sept.  25. . 

18  in. 

Beans  

85.5 

Sept.  8.. 

27  in. 

Clover 

107.8 

Sept.  28.. 

27  in. 

Wheat 

14.3 

July  30.. 

36  in. 

Clover,  Bok- 
hara   

33.0 

July  30.. 

36  in. 

Clover,  white 

91.3 

Apr 

36  in. 

After  fallow.. 

151.2 

Wisconsin. 


Date. 

Depth 

Crop. 

Niti-ates 
in  lbs.  per 
acre. 

Aug.  22 

24  in. 

Fallow 

286.0 

June  27. 

18  in. 

Peas 

60.3 

Aug.  30 

21  in. 

Clover  

101.4 

Aug.  27. 

27  in. 

Oats  .... 

11.8 

Aug.  1 

36  in. 

Alfalfa 

36.2 

Aug.  1 

36  in. 

Red  clover.. 

22.0 

April  30. 

36  in. 

After  fallow! 

1254  0 

i 

36  Bulletin  No.  85. 

METHOD  OF  DETERMINING  SOU' DLE  SALTS  AND  NITRIC  NITROGEN  IN  FIELD 

SOILS. 

The  work  of  last  season  made  it  evident  that  there  were  difficulties  in 
both  the  method  of  determining  thp  nitric  nitrogen  and  the  total  soluble 
salts  which  prevented  sufficient  accuracy  of  results  to  enable  us  to  de- 
termine such  small  differences  as  we  must  expect  to  measure  in  order 
to  show  whether  differences  of  tillage  and  other  practical  operations 
materially  modify  the  formation  of  the  nitrates  or  other  soluble  salts  in 
a soil.  Several  important  modifications  of  the  details  of  both  the 
method  for  determining  the  nitric  nitrogen  and  the  total  soluble  salts 
have  been  made  which  have  enabled  more  satisfactory  results  to  be  ob- 
tained. 

To  do  the  work  we  wished  to  accomplish  in  field  studies  it  was  im- 
perative that  methods  of  detail  be  used  which  would  reduce  the  time  re- 
quired for  each  step  as  far  as  possible.  For  both  lines  of  work  it  was 
necessary  to  procure  a satisfactory  sample  and  for  the  nitrate  work  it 
was  imperative  that  the  salts  be  washed  out  quickly  and  completely. 
We  give  below  the  methods  we  have  finally  come  to  adopt  for  the  nitric 
nitrogen  determinations  and  the  total  water  soluble  salts,  although 
these  as  we  explain  belowr  are  not  fully  satisfactory. 

Method  of  Procuring  the  Sample. — The  method  of  taking  the  samples  ' 
of  soil  for  the  field  studies  has  consisted  in  procuring  five  cores  of  soil 
with  the  soil  tube  shown  in  Fig.  10  in  as  many  equally  distant  places 
along  a middle  line  extending  across  the  plot  which  are  put  together  to 
form  a composite.  The  several  cores  of  a sample  are  subdivided  as 
finely  as  practicable  and  thoroughly  mixed  and  from  this  mixed  com- 
posite the  samples  for  both  the  nitric  nitrogen  determinations  and  the 
total  soluble  salts  are  taken.  The  diameter  of  the  soil  core  taken  was 
.875  inches  and  the  length  usually  one  foot  making  the  total  sample 
43.08  cubic  inches.  Where  the  cores  are  sticky  they  must  be  picked 
into  small  pieces  or  subdivided  by  rubbing  them  through  a screen  of 
four  meshes  to  the  inch. 

The  Soil  Solution  for  Nitric  Nitrogen. — To  prepare  these  solutions,  as 
many  pint  Mason  jars  twice  rinsed  in  distilled  water  are  arranged  in 
series  as  there  are  determinations  to  be  made,  and  into  each  of  these  is 
placed  a close  textured  muslin  sac.  11.5  x 5%  inches  with  mouth  open 
and  rolled  down.  The  sacs  are  kept  in  quantity  in  a tank  containing  5 
cubic  feet  of  water  free  from  nitric  nitrogen  and  are  wrung  out  from 
this  as  dry  as  practicable  at  the  time  of  using.  We  first  used  well 
water  showing  a content  of  less  than  one*  part  in  ten  million.  It  was 
found  after  the  bags  had  been  several  times  used  and  returned,  after 
washing,  to  this  tank  that  denitrification  was  set  up  in  the  water  which 
maintained  the  water  constantly  so  free  from  nitric  nitrogen  that  none 
could  be  detected  ip  100  cc.  of  the  water.  This  method  was  adopted 
after  it  was  found  that  the  water  of  the  third  rinsing  of  the  bags  in  dis- 
tilled water  still  showed  .144  parts  per  million  of  nitric  nitrogen. 


Fig.  10.— Showing  soil’  tube,  and  soil  trays  7,  soil  sample  5,  mallet  6,  and  Whit  ;ey’s  apparatus,  1,  2,  3 and  4,  used  in  determining  the 

soluble  salts  in  sons. 


38 


'Bulletin  No.  85. 


After  weighing  into  each  sac  its  sample  of  soil,  usually  50  gms.,  the 
sacs  are  taken  in  rotation,  placed  in  a wedgewood  mortar  and  washed 
in  250  cc.  of  a .1  per  cent,  solution  of  formaldehyae  made  up  of  244  cc. 
of  distilled  water,  5.36  cc.  of  a saturated  solution  of  potassium  alum 
crystals  and  .64  cc.  of  commercial  formalin.  The  water  is  poured  into 
the  sac  upon  the  soil,  then  closing  the  sac  the  soil  is  kneaded  with  the 
pestle  during  usually  two  but  not  more  than  three  minutes  with  con- 
stant turning  and  shifting  of  the  bag,  finely  divide  the  soil,  when 
the  water  is  wrung  from  the  sac,  poured  into  its  can  and  set  away 
to  clear.  The  alum  is  used  to  flocculate  the  sediment  and  give  a 
clear  solution  quickly,  the  time  required  varying  usually  from  two  to 
six  hours.  The  formalin  is  used  as  an  antiseptic  to  prevent  changes  in 
the  nitrates,  and  it  is  important  to  get  the  sample  of  soil  under  the  in- 
fluence of  the  formalin  as  quickly  as  possible  after  removing  it  from 
the  field.  Our  samples  are  usually  taken  during  the  forenoon  and 
washed  at  once  after  dinner.  The  nitrates  in  a soil  sample  are  liable 
to  materially  change  if  allowed  to  stand  over  night,  and  this  makes  it 
necessary  to  use  a fresh  instead  of  a water-free  sample. 

Evaporating  the  Solution. — When  the  solutions  are  clear  usually  50  cc. 
are  measured  into  an  evaporating  dish  with  a pipette  and  evaporated 
over  a water  bath. 

Adding  Disulphonie  Acid  and  Ammonia. — When  dry,  twelve  to  twenty 
drops  of  disulphonie  acid  are  added  and  with  a glass  rod  thoroughly 
worked  over  the  surface  of  the  evaporating  dish  covered  by  the  resi- 
due. After  standing  not  less  than  ten  minutes,  including  the  time  of 
working,  about  20  cc.  of  distilled  water  is  added  and  enough  ammonia 
about  one-half  ordinary  strength  to  make  the  solution  alkaline.  The 
disulphonie  acid  is  made  after  the  method  of  Gill*  using  pure  sul- 
phuric acid  and  phenol  in  the  ratio  of  37  to  3.  These  are  put  together 
in  a flask  and  boiled  in,  not  on,  a water  bath  during  six  hours,  the 
mouth  of  the  flask  being  closed  with  a loose  glass  stopper.  Judging 
from  comparisons  the  prepared  acid  may  be  kept  under  laboratory 
conditions  at  least  a year. 

Determining  Nitric  Nitrogen  with  the  Colorimeter. — The  form  of 
colorimeter  used  is  represented  and  described  under  Fig.  11.  The  solu- 
tion in  the  evaporating  dish  is  rinsed  into  a narrow  Nessler  tube,  filter- 
ing, if  a precipitate  is  formed.  If  the  color  produced  is  too  dark  for  ac- 
curate comparisons  with  the  standard  it  is  made  up  to  100  cc.  and  a 
convenient  aloquot  taken  with  a pipette  and  placed  in  the  determination 
tube.  This  is  diluted  with  distilled  water  until  it  has  about  the  in- 
tensity of  color  of  the  standard  and  a volume  such  that  the  final  ad- 
justment will  permit  the  reading  to  be  made  between  40  and  80.  We 
prepare  our  standard  of  color  by  heating  in  a platinum  crucible  nearly 


*A.  H.  Gill,  Tech. — Quarterly,  vol.  VII,  1894,  pp.  55-62. 


Development  of  Nitrates  in  Cultivated  Soils. 


39 


to  fusion  a quantity  of  C.  P.  pottasium  nitrate  and  from  this  make  a 
solution  in  distilled  water  containing  ten  parts  of  nitric  nitrogen  per 
million;  then  when  a color  standard  is  desired  ten  cc.  of  this  solution 
is  treated  in  the  same  manner  as  a soil  solution  is  treated,  diluting  an 
aliquot  of  this  colored  solution  until  it  contains  two  parts  of  nitric  nitro- 
gen in  ten  million.  This  extent  of  dilution  is  necessary  to  give  the  best 
intensity  for  comparison.  It  is  safest  to  make  this  standard  anew  each 
day  or  two  at  most  as  the  color  is  not  permanent  in  the  light.  The 
amount  of  chlorine  present  in  our  samples  is  not  sufficient  to  interfere 
with  the  determinations  b,y  this  method. 


FRONT  VIFW  SECTION 

Fig.  11.— Showing  construction  of  colorimeter. 


Correction  for  the  Waler  in  the  Sample. — To  calculate  the  amount  of 
nitric  nitrogen  in  the  sample  in  terms  of  the  dry  soil  it  is  necessary  to 
know  the  per  cent,  of  water  present.  This  is  determined  by  weighing 
into  a tared  tray  and  drying  200  gms.  of  the  composite  sample,  at  the 
time  the  sample  for  nitrates  is  taken.  The  amount  of  water  found  in 
the  sample  and  that  contained  in  the  sack  in  which  the  sample  was 
washed  are  then  added  to  the  250  cc.  used  in  washing,  for  making  tne 
calculations. 

Solution  Curve  for  Calculating  the  Total  Soluble  Salts. — It  was  found 
in  the  work  of  last  year  that  Whitney’s  formula  for  computing  the 
amount  of  soluble  salts  in  our  soils  from  the  observed  electrical  resist- 
ance did  not  give  as  much  as  a gravimetric  determination  showed  to  be 
present.  This  year  we  have  constructed  a solution  curve  as  he  directs 
for  soluble  salts  for  use  in  calculating  the  amount  of  salts  present.  This 
was  done  by  obtaining  several  of  the  most  concentrated  soil  solutions 
we  could  find  and  determining  gravimetrically  the  total  salt  content. 
The  electrical  resistance  was  measured  and  then  it  was  diluted  by 


40 


bulletin  No.  8§. 

measured  steps  of  short  intervals  determining  the  resistance  for  each 
dilution  until  it  became  too  high  for  the  bridge.  The  observations  were 
then  plotted  on  a large  scale  and  the  values  read  off  to  obtain  a table 
which  is  given  on  pages  41  and  42.  For  use  with  Whitney’s  apparatus 
this  curve  has  been  found  accurate  for  our  conditions  to  within  three  or 
four  per  cent,  when  used  in  determining  ordinary  well  and  drainage 
waters. 

Determining  the  Soluble  Salts  in  Drainage  and  Well  Waters. — To  do 
this  by  the  electrical  method  it  is  only  necessary  to  fill  the  cell  with 
the  solution  to  be  measured,  read  the  resistance,  reduce  this  to  60°  F. 
and  take  out  the  parts  per  million  directly  from  the  table. 

Determining  the  Soluble  Salts  in  Soils. — Place  about  100  grams  of 
the  soil  into  a porcelain  cup  carefully  rinsed  with  distilled  water  and 
work  this  into  a rather  stiff  paste  by  adding  distilled  water,  stirring 
with  a glass  spatula.  Fill  the  cell,  first  rinsed  with  distilled  water,  with 
the  paste,  using  the  spatula  and  strike  off  level  full.  Wipe  the  sides  of 
cell  dry,  clean  top  with  a but  of  filter  paper,  then  weigh,  using  a tare  for 
the  cell. 

Next  read  the  resistance,  note  the  temperature,  and  then  remove  the 
paste  into  a tray  with  a spatula  rinsing  everything  into  the  tray  to  se- 
cure all  the  soil  which  is  dried  at  110°  C.  It  is  best  to  have  a set  of  trays 
all  of  exactly  the  same  weight  so  they  may  be  tared  to  save  labor  in 
weighing  and  calculation. 

To  Compute  the  Soluble  Salts  in  the  Soil. — When  the  resistance  of  a 
soil  sample  has  been  measured  and  computed  to  60°  F.  the  total  salts  In 
parts  per  million  of  dry  soil  may  be  calculated  by  the  formula 

= parts  per  million  of  dry  soil 
S 

where  A is  the  parts  per  million  taken  from  the  table  entering  it  with 
the  observed  resistance  multiplied  by  the  “factor  of  texture”  whose 
mean  value  is  given  by  Whitney  as  .548. 

W.  is  the  weight  of  water  in  the  cell. 

S.  is  the  weight  of  dry  soil  in  the  cell. 


41 


Development  of  Nitrate 9 in  Cultivated  Soils. 


Table  for  soluble  salts  in  soil  solutions. 


R.  at 
60°  F. 

Parts 
per 
mil- 
lion . 

R.  at 
60°  F. 

Parts 

per 

mil- 

lion. 

R.  at 
60°  F. 

Parts 

per 

mil- 

lion. 

R.  at 
CO-’F 

Parts 

per 

mil- 

lion. 

R.  at 
60°  F. 

Parts 

per 

mil 

lion. 

R.  at 
60°  F. 

Parts 

per 

mil- 

lion. 

R.  at 
60°  F. 

Parts 

per 

mil- 

lion. 

68 

3500 

128 

1700 

188 

1121 

218 

796 

308 

640 

'306 

549 

400 

489 

on 

400 

129 

685 

189 

1114 

249 

79.' 

303 

638 

366  5 

548 

400.8 

488 

70 

300 

130 

670 

190 

107 

250 

788 

310 

636 

367 

547 

401 .6 

487 

71 

250 

131 

655 

191 

100 

251 

734 

311 

634 

367.5 

546 

402.4 

486 

72 

20 

132 

640 

192 

91 

252 

780 

312 

632 

368 

545 

403 

485 

73 

150 

133 

6*6 

193 

86 

253 

776 

313 

610 

368.5 

544 

403.8 

484 

74 

100 

134 

6i3 

194 

80 

254 

773 

314 

628 

369 

543 

404.6 

483 

75 

50 

135 

600 

195 

74 

‘J55 

770 

315 

626 

369.5 

542 

405.4 

482 

76 

3000 

136 

587 

196 

68 

256 

767 

3 i 6 

624 

3;  0 

541 

406.2 

481 

77 

2950 

137 

574 

197 

62 

257 

761 

317 

622 

370.5 

540 

407 

4 80 

78 

900 

138 

5 5* 

198 

56 

258 

761 

318 

620 

371 

539 

407  8 

479 

7'- 

850 

139 

550 

199 

50 

259 

758 

319 

618 

371.5 

584 

405.6 

478 

80 

800 

140 

53s 

20. 

44 

260 

755 

320 

616 

372 

537 

4U9.4 

477 

81 

767 

141 

5*7 

201 

38 

261 

752 

321 

614 

372.5 

536 

410  2 

476 

82 

733 

142 

516 

20* 

32 

262 

749 

322 

612 

373 

535 

411 

475 

83 

700 

14  3 

505 

20 -> 

26 

263 

746 

323 

610 

37^.5 

531 

411.8 

474 

81 

667 

144 

494 

204 

*0 

2 4 

743 

3*4 

608 

374 

533 

412.6 

473 

85 

633 

145 

483 

205 

14 

265 

740 

3.5 

606 

374.5 

5 5* 

413  4 

472 

86 

600 

146 

472 

206 

8 

266 

737 

3i0 

604 

375 

531 

414.2 

471 

87 

571 

147 

461 

207 

2 

237 

734 

327 

602 

375  5 

530 

415 

470 

88 

51. 

148 

450 

208 

996 

268 

731 

328 

600 

376 

529 

415.8 

469 

89 

513 

149 

440 

20 

990 

*69 

7*8 

3*9 

598 

376.5 

528 

416  6 

468 

90 

484 

150 

430 

210 

935 

270 

725 

330 

596 

377 

5*7 

417.4 

467 

91 

456 

15 1 

420 

211 

980 

271 

72* 

341 

594 

377  5 

526 

418.2 

466 

92 

427 

152 

410 

212 

975; 

272 

719 

332 

592 

378 

5*5 

419 

465 

9 

400 

1.3 

400 

213 

970, 

273 

716 

383 

590 

378.5 

521 

4 0. 

464 

94 

375 

151 

390 

214 

965 

274 

713 

334 

588 

3,9 

5*3 

4*1.0 

463 

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35n 

155 

330 

215 

960' 

275 

710 

335 

586 

379.5 

52* 

4*2.0 

462 

96 

325 

156 

370 

216 

955 ! 

276 

707 

336 

584 

380 

521 

4*3.0 

461 

97 

300 

157 

360 

217 

950 

277 

704 

337 

582 

380  5 

520 

424 

460 

98 

276 

158 

350 

218 

945, 

*78 

701 

338 

5f-0 

381 

519 

424.8 

4 9 

99 

253 

159 

341 

219 

940 

27.1 

698 

339 

578 

381.5 

51,' 

425  6 

458 

10. 

230 

160 

332 

220 

935' 

280 

696 

340 

577 

382 

517 

426.4 

457 

101 

208 

161 

3*4 

221 

930 

*81 

694 

341 

576 

382.5 

£16 

4*7.2 

456 

10* 

186 

162 

316 

222 

925 

282 

692 

! 342 

575 

383 

515 

428.0 

455 

103 

164 

163 

30S 

223 

920 

*83 

690 

343 

574 

383  5 

514 

429.0 

454 

104 

142 

164 

300 

2*4 

9 5 

284 

688 

344 

573 

384 

513 

430.0 

453 

105 

121 

165 

292 

225 

910 

285 

686 

345 

572 

384.5 

512 

431.0 

452 

106 

100 

166 

28 1 

226 

905 

286 

6-4 

346 

571 

385 

511 

432  0 

451 

107 

79 

167 

276 

227 

900 

237 

632 

317 

570 

7 86 

510 

433 

450 

108 

5' 

163 

26' 

228 

895' 

*88 

680 

348 

569 

386.5 

509 

433  8 

419 

109 

39 

169 

260 

229 

890 

289 

678 

349 

568 

387 

508 

431.6 

448 

110 

19 

170 

252 

230 

885 

*90 

676 

350 

567 

387.5 

507 

435.4 

417 

111 

2000 

171 

244 

231 

880 

291 

674 

351 

566 

388 

506 

436.2 

446 

ii4 

1981 

172 

236 

232 

875 

292 

672 

352 

565 

389 

505 

437 

445 

113 

962 

173 

228 

233 

870 

293 

670 

353 

564 

390 

504 

438  0 

444 

114 

943 

174 

220 

234 

865 

294 

663 

354 

563 

390.5 

503 

439.0 

443 

115 

924 

175 

212 

235 

860 

295 

666 

355 

562 

391 

502 

440.0 

442 

lie 

905 

176 

205 

236 

855 

*96 

661 

356 

v 561 

391.5 

501 

441.0 

441 

117 

887 

177 

198 

237 

850 

297 

662 

357 

560 

392 

500 

442 

440 

118 

869 

178 

191 

238 

845 

298 

660 

358 

559 

392.5 

499 

442.8 

439 

119 

851 

179 

184 

239 

840 

*99 

658 

359 

558 

393 

498 

443.6 

438 

120 

834 

180 

177 

240 

835 

300 

656 

360 

557 

393.5 

497 

445.4 

437 

121 

817 

181 

170 

241 

830 

301 

654 

361 

556 

394 

496 

445.2 

436 

122 

800 

182 

163 

242 

825 

302 

652 

362 

555 

394.5 

495 

446 

435 

123 

783 

183 

156 

243 

820 

303 

610 

363 

554 

395 

494 

447 

434 

124 

766 

184 

149 

244 

815 

304 

618 

361 

553 

396 

493 

448 

433 

125 

749 

185 

14* 

245 

810 

305 

646 

364.5 

552 

397 

492 

449 

43* 

126 

73* 

186 

135 

246 

805 

306 

644 

365 

551 

398 

491 

450 

431 

127 

715 

187 

128 

247 

800 

1 307 

642 

365.5 

550 

399 

490 

451 

430 

42 


Bulletin  No.  85. 


Table  for  soluble  salts  in  soil  solutions  — Continued. 


R.  at 
00°F 

Parts 

per 

mil- 

lion 

R.  at 
60°  F. 

Parts 
per 
mll- 
lon  1 

R,.  at 
60°  F. 

Parts 

per 

mil- 

lion. 

R at 
60°  F. 

Parts 

per 

mil- 

lion. 

R at 
60°  F. 

Parts 

per 

mil- 

lion. 

R.  at 
60°  F. 

Parts 

per 

mil- 

lion. 

R.  at 
60°  F. 

P’rts 

per 

mil- 

lion 

432 

429 

521 

369 

616 

309 

754 

249 

966 

189 

1,394 

129 

2,522 

69 

453 

428 

522 

368 

618 

308 

757 

248 

971 

188 

1,404 

128 

2, 555 

68 

454 

427 

523.5 

367 

620 

30' 

760 

217 

976 

137 

1,414 

127 

2.593 

67 

455 

426 

525 

366 

622 

306 

762 

216 

981 

186 

1,423 

126 

2,631 

66 

45G 

425 

526 

36.3 

624 

305 

765 

245 

985 

185 

1,433 

125 

2,670 

65 

457 

424 

5*27 

364 

626 

304 

76£ 

244 

990 

1»4 

1,443 

124 

2,712 

64 

458 

423 

528  5 

363 

628 

303 

771 

243 

995 

183 

1,453 

123 

2,755 

63 

450 

422 

530 

362 

630 

302 

774 

242 

1,000 

182 

1,461 

122 

2. 798 

62 

460 

421 

531.5 

361 

632 

301 

77: 

241 

1,005 

1 H 1 

1,475 

• 121 

2,842 

61 

461 

420 

533 

360 

634 

300 

780 

240 

1,010 

180 

1 ,486 

120 

2,886 

60 

462 

419 

534.5 

359 

636 

299 

783 

239 

1,016 

179 

1,498 

119 

2, 932 

50 

463 

418 

536 

358 

638 

298 

78" 

233 

1,022 

178 

1,509 

118 

2, 978 

58 

464 

417 

537.5 

3V7 

610 

297 

789 

237 

1,027 

177 

1,520 

1 1 7 

3, 025 

57 

465 

416 

539 

356 

642 

296 

792 

236 

1,032 

176 

1,533 

116 

3,071 

56 

466 

415 

510  5 

355 

644 

295 

795 

235 

1,018 

175 

1,546 

115 

3,120 

55 

467 

414 

542 

334 

616 

294 

798 

234 

1,044 

174 

1,559 

114 

3,170 

51 

468 

413 

543  5 

353 

618 

293 

801 

2:33 

1,019 

173 

1,572 

113 

3, 220 

53 

469 

412 

515 

352 

630 

292 

804 

232 

1,0 '5 

172 

1,535 

112 

3,  ‘?77 

52 

470 

411 

516.5 

351 

652 

291 

807 

231 

1,06 

171 

1,599 

111 

3,336 

51 

471 

410 

548 

350 

634 

29o 

811 

230 

1,067 

170 

1,614 

110 

3, 394 

50 

472.2 

409 

519  5 

319 

656 

239 

814 

229 

1,073 

169 

1,679 

109 

3,  450 

40 

473.4 

4)8 

531 

348 

658 

288 

817 

22- 

1,079 

168 

1,641 

10H 

3, 508 

48 

474.6 

407 

552 . 5 

347 

661.5 

287 

820 

227 

1 , 085 

167 

1,661 

107, 

3,576 

47 

475.8 

406 

554 

346 

663 

286 

821 

226 

1,091 

166 

1,678 

io6; 

3,648 

46 

477 

• 405 

555  5 

345 

665 

285 

827 

225 

1,097 

165 

1,695 

105 

3,717 

45 

47  3 

401 

557 

311 

647 

284 

830 

221 

1,104 

164 

1,712 

101 

3,788 

44 

479 

491 

558.5 

343 

669.5 

283 

834 

223 

1,110 

103 

1,729 

103! 

3, 858 

43 

480 

4021 

560  . 

34 1 

672 

282 

837 

222 

1,118 

162 

1, 746 

102 

3,935 

42 

481 

401 

561  5 

341 

674 

281 

841 

221 

1,125 

161 

1,763 

101  j 

4,005 

41 

432 

400 

563 

340 

676 

280 

841 

220 

1 , 132 

160 

1,780 

100 

4,090 

40 

483  2 

399 

565 

33) 

678.5 

279 

84S 

219 

1,140 

129 

1,797 

99 

4,180 

39 

484.4 

398 

567 

338 

681 

278 

851 

218 

1,147 

158 

1.814 

98 

4,275 

38 

485  6 

397 

568.5 

337 

683 

277 

854 

217 

1,  151 

157 

1,831 

97 1 

4,375 

37 

486.8 

3)6 

570 

336 

685 

276 

858 

216 

1, 161 

156 

1.8)8 

96, 

4 , 475 

36 

488 

395 

571.5 

335 

687  5 

275 

862 

215 

1,168 

155 

1, 855 

95 1 

4, 580 

35 

489  2 

391 

573 

334 

690 

271 

845 

214 

1,176 

151 

1,882 

94 ! 

4,695 

34 

490  4 

39  i 

574.5 

333 

692.5 

273 

869 

213 

1, 181 

153 

1 , 900 

93 

4,810 

33 

491  6 

392 

576 

332 

695 

272 

872 

212 

1,  192 

152 

1,918 

92 

4,925 

32 

492.8 

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578 

331 

697  5 

271 

87  w 

211 

1,200 

151 

1,936 

91 

5,050 

31 

494 

399 

580 

330 

700 

270 

880 

210 

1.  i03 

150 

1,954 

90 

5,195 

30 

495 

389 

581  5 

329 

702 

269 

831 

209 

1,216 

149 

1,972 

89 

5,310 

29 

496 

388 

58  5 

328 

701 

268 

837 

208 

1,221 

143 

1,9.1! 

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5,500 

28 

497.5 

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707 

267 

891 

207 

1,232 

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2,011 

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5,660 

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399 

386 

586 

326 

709 

266 

895 

206 

1,240 

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2,033 

86 

5,820 

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587 . 5 

325 

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265 

899 

205 

1,218 

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2, 055 

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6,020 

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502 

384 

589 

321 

715 

264 

903 

204 

1 , 257 

141 

2,079 

84 

6,2r0 

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503 

383 

591 

323 

717 

263 

907 

203 

1,265 

143 

2,103 

83 

6. 560 

23 

504 

382 

593 

322 

720 

262 

911 

202 

1,274 

142 

2,128 

82 

6,980 

22 

505.5 

381 

594.5 

321 

722 

261 

915 

201 

1,283 

141 

2,152 

81' 

7,210 

21 

507 

380 

596 

320 

725 

260 

920 

200 

1,292 

140 

2, 177 

80| 

7,600 

20 

508 

379 

1 598 

319 

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259 

924 

190 

1,301 

139 

2, 203 

79 

7,  £00 

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378 

600 

318 

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198 

1,310 

138 

2,  232 

78 

8, 250 

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510.5 

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601.5 

317 

73 1 

257 

932 

197 

1,3>0 

137 

2,  259 

77 

8,800 

17 

512 

376 

603 

316 

735 

256 

936 

196 

1,328 

136 

2,238 

76 

9, 300 

16 

513 

375 

605 

315 

738 

255 

940 

195 

1,337 

135 

2,320 

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9,700 

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314 

740 

251 

914 

194 

1,346 

134 

2,351 

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10,087 

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515.5 

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313 

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2,451 

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520 

370 

614 

310 

751 

250 

962 

190 

| 1,384 

130 

2,486 

70 

Development  of  Nitrates  in  Cultivated  Soils.  43 


SENSITIVENESS  OF  THE  METHODS  USED  IN  THE  STUDY  OF  NITRIC  NITROGEN  AND 
• SOLUBLE  SALTS. 

In  order  to  understand  how  it  has  been  possible  to  determine  such  dif- 
ferences in  nitric  nitrogen  and  in  soluble  salts  as  have  been  recorded 
something  should  be  said  regarding  the  sensitiveness  of  the  methods 
used. 

Sensitiveness  of  the  Electrical  Method. — When  the  electrical  method  is 
used  to  determine  the  soluble  salts  in  soils  it  is  possible  to  measure  dif- 
ferences as  small  as  from  one  to  four  lbs.  of  salts  per  million  pounds  of 
the  dry  soil,  A set  of  ten  duplicate  determinations  of  one  lot  of  soil 
gave  the  following  results: 


No.  of  samples. 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

1 ^ 

8 

9 

10 

Mean 

Parts  of  soluble  salts  per  mil- 
lion of  dry  soil 

45.75 

45.88 

41.65 

12.60 

42.84 

42.93 

45.28 

44.03 

45.22 

44.17 

In  two  other  sets  of  Determinations  the  results  were: 


No.  of  Sample. 

First  Set. 

Second  Set. 

1 

2 

3 

1 i 

2 

3 

Soluble  salts  in  parts  per  million 

45.57 

45.92 

44.82 

I 69  59 

69.67 

69.91 

When  a set  of  samples  is  taken  in  the  field  and  then  another  duplicate 
set  of  samples  is  taken  near  the  same  places  we  have  obtained  results 
like  these: 


Soluble  Salts  in  Parts  Per  Million 
of  Dry  Soil. 

1st  ft. 

2nd  ft. 

3rd  ft. 

4th  ft. 

First  set  of  samples 

225.0 

233 

j OOO 

cc*. 

I 

64.14 

68. 2S 

27.21 

.27.53 

Second  set  of  duplicate  samples 

Difference 

8 1 7.9 

4.14 

.32 

In  working  with  drainage  and  well  waters  the  differences  are  much 
less  than  those  obtained  with  soil  samples. 

Sensitiveness  of  the  Nitric  Nitrogen  Method. — To  test  this  five  sets  of 
observations  were  made  upon  five  degrees  of  dilution  of  a solution  of 
potassium  nitrate  making  four  independent  determinations  for  each 
strength.  The  results  are  given  in  the  table  below. 


44 


Bulletin  No.  85. 


Table  showing  variations  in  independent  deter  ruinations  of  nitric 
nitrogen  in  solutions  of  known  strengths  of  potassium  nitrate. 


Solution  contain- 

Solution  contain- 

Solution  contain- 

Solution  contain 

Solution  contain- 

mg 1 

2 parts  per 

ing  .24  parts  per 

mg  .12  parts  oer 

ing  .06  parts  per 

ing  .03  parts  per 

million. 

million. 

million. 

million. 

million. 

•■4 

1 200 

0 204 

1 

i 

0.088 

1 5 

0.056 

‘4 

0.026 

1.216 

0.200 

1 . . 

? 

0.0t8 

1 "I 

0 056 

0.026 

*•4 

1.152 

*4 

0.172 

5 

l 

0 076 

*>  5 

0 054 

0.027 

1 . 104 

0.164 

" 

0.068 

0 054 

2-i 

0.028 

3-4 

1.136 

34 

0.152 

3.. 

5 

l 

0.068 

0.050 

*4 

0 023 

1.136 

0.156 

0.072 

M 

0.018 

0.024 

4 

1.152 

4 $ 

0.204 

4 

( 

0 080 

4..j 

0 060 

44 

0.022 

1.168 

l 

0.212 

7 

0.088 

9.062 

0.021 

The  strengths  of  the  solutions  used  in  this  series  lie  between  those  Ob- 
tained in  washing  the  soil  samples  for  our  general  field  work,  these 
ranging  from  as  high  as  8.64  to  below  .03  parts  per  million. 

Another  series  of  observations  was  made  using  the  solutions  of  the 
last  table  instead  of  the  distilled  water  to  wash  the  nitrates  from  sam- 
ples of  a field  soil.  Two  other  samples  were  washed  in  distilled  water 
to  serve  as  checks.  The  ten  samples  used  are  all  taken  from  a single 
composite  of  the  surface  six  inches  of  Plot  8.  in  the  next  table  are 
found  the  results. 


Table  showing  duplicate  determinations  of  nitric  nitrogen  in  soils 
washed  in  distilled  ivater  aud  in  water  containing  known 
amounts  of  potassium  nitrate. 


Soil  washed  in 
distilled  water. 

Soil  washed  in 
water  containing 
.06  parts  per  mil- 
lion of  KNO3. 

Soil  washed  in 
water  containing 
. 12  parts  per  mil- 
lion KNO3. 

Soil  washed  in 
water  containing 
24  parts  per  mil- 
lion KNO3. 

Soil  washed  in 
water  containing 
1.2  parts  per  mil- 
lion of  KNO. 

Parts  per  million 
found  after 
washing. 

Parts  per  million 
found  after 
• washing. 

Ports  per  million 
found  after 
washing. 

Parts  per;million 
found  after 
washing. 

Parts  per  million 
found  after 
washing. 

1  0 150 

2  0.146 

1...  0206 

2....  0.202 

I 1...J  .256 

1 2 ...1  .248 

1 ...  .328 

2  324 

1....  1.020 

2....  0 940 

In  another  series  sixteen  samples  of  a very  uniform  and  very  rich  soil 
were  determined  independently  and  read  twice  as  has  been  the  general 
practice  for  the  season.  These  results  appear  in  the  next  table: 


Development  of  Nitrates  in  Cultivated  Soils. 


45 


Table  showing  variations  in  the  readings  of  the  amounts  of  nitric 
nitrogen  in  a very  rich  soil  where  samples  are  made  as  close 
duplicates  as  possible. 


■6 

a 

a 

T3 

0 

0 

a 

o 

cd 

_o 

as 

O 

Sh 

CO 

O 

T5 

3 

H3 

■ — ; 

TJ 

—j 

"d 

' 

fl 

ns 

BP 

3 

3 

cd 

SP 

w 

o 

U W 

W ' 

n £ 

w 

u w 

CO 

. o 

e*  w 

*o 

o3 

be 

a)  . 
a C 

0 

0) 

be 

0)  . 

o 

<D 

fcfl 

1 O)  ^ 

O 

O! 

be 

a>  . 

ft  Q 

w 

5s 

WHQ 

w 

cfl 

w-o 

w 

cd 

wt3 

CO 

03 

'a 

<D 

> 

« O 

’a 

03 

S' O 

’3 

<D 

> 

S3  o 

’a 

O) 

P 

◄ 

Pm 

P 

PM 

p 

<Tj 

PM 

P 

< 

CM 

60  ( 
621 

61  0 

305.0 

59  j 
58 1 

58.5 

292.5 

61  ) 
611 

61.0 

305.0 

60  < 
621 

61.0 

305.0 

59  3 
60 1 

59  5 

297.5 

59  ( 
58  1 

58.5 

292.5 

50  j 
60  | 

59.5 

297.5 

58  S 
601 

59.0 

295.0 

62  ( 
601 

61.0 

305.0 

59  j 
58 1 

58,5 

292.5 

60) 
63  1 

61.5 

307,5 

61) 

611 

61.0 

305.0 

59  J 
591 

59.0 

295.0 

60  l 
60| 

60.0 

300.0 

59  ( 
621 

60.5 

302.5 

60  ) 
58  i 

59.0 

295.0 

The  mean  error  in  this  series  is  5.59  parts  per  million  of  the  dry  soil 
or  1 . 87  per  cent,  of  the  nitric  nitrogen  present. 

POSSIBLE  ERROR  IN  RESULTS  DUE  TO  THE  METHODS. 

There  are  several  sets  of  observations  made  by  each  author  of  this 
paper  in  his  own  line  which  suggests  that  there  is  a source  of  error  due 
to  a fundamental  principle  which  present  practice  can  not  avoid  and 
which  affects  the  accuracy  of  both  methods  tending  to  give  results  too 
small. 

Textural  Equilibrium  of  Soil. — Soils  have  a tendency  to  come  into  a 
condition  of  textural  equilibrium  and  in  doing  so  various  salts  appear 
to  have  been  thrown  out  of  solution.  Whenever  this  equilibrium  is  dis- 
turbed in  the  presence  of  a soluble  salt  in  solution  some  of  this  salt  goes 
out  of  solution  with  the  re-flocculation  and  re-granulation  of  the  soil 
particles.  The  results  we  give  below  appear  to  indicate  that  whenever 
a turbid  solution  is  cleared  by  adding  a salt  to  it  to  produce  flocculation 
a part  of  this  salt  is  precipitated  or  if  not  precipitated  then  occluded  so 
as  to  leave  the  solution  more  dilute.  As  a consequence  of  this  when  a 
sample  of  soil  is  worked  up  in  water  a portion  of  the  nitrates,  at  first 
taken  into  solution,  and  of  other  salts  also  are  taken  out  of  solution 
with  the  clearing  of  it  and  if  the  long-fixed  textural  equilibrium  is 
greatly  disturbed  a large  amount  of  the  normal  soluble  salts  may  be  ab- 
sorbed, thus  causing  a given  sample  to  appear  to  contain  less  soluble 
salts  than  it  did  contain  before  its  textural  equilibrium  had  been  de- 
stroyed. 

Apparent  Source  of  Error  in  the  Electrical  idethod. — In  attempting  to 
procure  a stronger  soil  solution  without  evaporation,  for  the  construc- 
tion of  our  solution  curve,  drain  water  was  used  instead  of  distilled 


46 


Bulletin  No.  85. 


water  to  dissolve  out  other  soluble  salts  from  fresh  samples  of  soil  but 
it  was  found  both  by  electrical  observations  and  gravimetric  that  a 
drain  water  so  used  contained  less  salts  after  using  it  to  wash  with  than 
it  did  before.  When  a soil  solution  is  used  to  make  the  soil  into  a 
paste  for  the  filling  of  the  cell  salts  are  again  precipitated  or  occluded 
in  such  a way  as  to  prevent  them  from  influencing  the  conductivity  of 
the  paste. 

This  was  proven  in  the  following  manner: 

A quantity  of  surface  soil  was  thoroughly  mixed  and  the  salt  content 
determined,  several  times,  in  three  ways: 

Series  I.  Soil  worked  to  a paste  with  distilled  water. 

Series  II.  Soil  worked  to  a paste  with  distilled  water  containing  100 
parts  per  million  KN03. 

Series  III.  Soil  worked  to  a paste  with  drain  water  containing  195 
parts  of  soluble  salts  per  million. 

Parts  per  million 
of  dry  soil. 


Series  I.  gave  the  mean  salt  content 41.172 

Series  II.  gave  the  mean  salt  content 46.10 

Series  III.  gave  the  meaa  salt  content 69.72 


There  was  added  to  the  soil  in  Series  II.  with  the  solution  17.2  parts 
per  million  of  the  dry  soil  and  in  Series  III.  38.82  parts.  The  amounts 
which  should  have  been  found  therefore,  were  as  given  below. 


Amount 
in  soil. 

Amount 

added. 

Total. 

Amount 

found. 

Amount 

taken 

out. 

Series  IE 

44  172 

17.2 

61.172 

46.10 

15.072 

Series  III 

44.172 

38.82 

82.992 

69.72 

13.272 

These  results  indicate  that  the  making  of  the  soil  paste  with  dilute 
soil  solutions  resulted  m fixing  some  of  those  salts  in  an  insoluble  form. 
Anoiner  set  of  observations  in  clearing  turbid  solutions  gave  similar  re- 
sults both  with  nitrates  and  with  other  salts,  which  makes  it  appear 
that  breaking  down  the  soil  texture  will  throw  out  of  solution  soluble 
salts  already  contained  in  them. 

Possible  Error  in  Results  of  the  Nitric  Nitrogen  Determinations  Due 
of  the  Method. — It  will  be  seen  from  the  data  in  the  table,  page  44, 
that  not  all  of  the  nitric  nitrogen  known  to  be  in  the  solutions  was  re- 
covered by  the  method,  there  being  the  largest  deficiency  in  the  most  di- 
lute solution  and  the  closest  agreement  in  the  strongest  solutions.  This 
will  appear  from  the  figures  below: 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

Nitric  nitrogen  present  iD  solution 

Nitric  nitrogen  found  in  solution 

Average  per  cent,  of  loss 

0.030 

.025 

16.7 

0.060 

.055 

8.3 

0.120 

0 079 
34.2 

0.240 

0.196 

23.8 

1.200 

1.158 

3.5 

Develovment  of  Nitrates  in  Cultivated  Soils. 


47 


A reptition  of  this  whole  series  of  observations  gave  the  following 
losses:  1.3  per  cent.,  26.7  per  cent.,  23.5  per  cent.,  22  per  cent.,  35 
per  cent.,  respectively.  .. 

If  these  deficiencies  are  due  to  the  method  itself  they  may  result  from 
larger  amounts  of  nitrogen  being  lost  in  evaporating  dilute  solutions 
than  when  they  are  stronger.  It  does  not  appear  to  result  from  evap- 
orating different  quantities  of  water. 

Again  in  the  soil  series  whose  results  are  given  in  the  table  on  page 
44,  cue  amounts  of  nitric  nitrogen  recovered  do  not  agree  with  those 
known  to  be  present  as  shown  below: 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

Nitric  nitrogen  in  soil  and  solution 

Nitric  nitrogen  recovered  from  soil  and 

.207 

.266 

.382 

1.324 

solution 

Per  cent,  of  loss 

.148 

.204 

1.45 

0.252 

5 26  ) 

.326 

14.17 

.980 

25.98 

In  these  cases  the  largest  losses  of  nitrates  have  occurred  where  the 
strongest  soil  solutions  existed  to  exert  their  influence  in  restoring  the 
textural  equilibrium  to  the  soil -particles. 

It  may  be  that  in  using  alum  to  clear  our  solutions  at  the  time  the 
textural  equilibrium  was  being  destroyed  only  this  salt  was  used  in 
'restoring  it  again.  If  so,  then  the  nitric  nitrogen  method  would  give  the 
full  amount  of  nitrates  present  in  the  soil. 

In  studying  the  processes  with  the  electrical  method  it  was  found 
that  where  the  solution  of  nitrates  was  too  dilute  to  produce  evident 
flocculation  and  clearing  of  the  solution;  there  was  little  loss  of  nitrates 
but  wherever  the  turbid  solution  became  clearer  there  the  loss  was  some- 
what in  proportion  to  the  clearness  of  the  solution  resulting. 

Error  Due  to  Denitrification. — Before  using  formalin  to  prevent  deni- 
trification in  the  soil  solutions,  while  standing  over  night  to  clear,  a 
preliminary  test  of  its  action  was  made.  In  this  test  it  was  found  that 
the  solutions  to  which  formalin  had  been  added  lost  none  of  their  ni- 
trates in  four  days,  while  duplicate  solutions  to  which  no  formalin  had 
been  added,  lost  from  12.2  to  71.6  per  cent,  of  their  nitrates  in  that  time. 

Since  the  close  of  the  season’s  work  another  more  extended  test  of 
the  efficiency  of  formalin  in  preventing  denitrification  has  been  made 
on  solutions  of  clay  loam,  black  marsh  soil  and  sandy  soil.  In  this 
test  three  duplicate  samples  were  made  of  the  first  foot,  of  the  second 
foot  and  of  the  third  foot  of  each  of  these  soils.  The  determinations 
were  made  in  from  2 to  5 hours  or  as  soon  as  they  were  clear  and  again 
after  standing  about  16  hours  longer.  In  the  following  table  are  given 
the  colorometric  readings  of  both  determinations  of  each  solution  and 
the  per  cent,  of  change  indicated  by  them: 


•48 


Bull  din  No.  85. 


Table  giving  the  determination  of  nitric  nitrogen  in  soil  solutions  as 
soon  as  clear  and  after  standing  sixteen  hours  longer , with  the 
per  cent,  of  change.  „ 


D«"PTH  of 

Soil. 

Clay  Loam. 

Clay  Loam. 

Black  Marsh 
Soil. 

Sandy  Soil. 

Readings. 

Per  cent,  of 
cnange. 

Readings. 

Per  cent,  of 

change . 

Readings. 

Per  cent,  of 

change. 

Readings. 

Per  cent,  of 

change. 

Standing 
2-5  hrs. 

18-21  hrs. 

to  j 

PI  u 

a “? 

CO 

18-21  hrs. 

. 

Standing 

2-5  hrs. 

18-21  hrs. 

Standing 

2-5  hrs. 

18-21  hrs. 

1st  foot : 

a 

52 

52 

0 0 

54 

53 

— 1 8 

78 

75 

—3  8 

b 

50 

51 

+2.0 

49 

45 

-8.1 

46 

45 

—2.2 

77 

75 

-2.6 

c 

54 

53 

—1.8 

37 

34 

-8.1 

46 

47 

+2.2 

70 

69 

—1.4 

2d  foot : 

a 

79 

80 

+1.3 

26 

26 

0.0 

77 

77 

0.0 

47 

48 

+2  2 

b 

77 

79 

+2  6 

25 

25 

0.0 

77 

77  , 

0 0 

46 

47 

+2.2 

c 

81 

81 

0.0 

25 

25 

0.0 

78 

75 

-3.8 

48 

48 

0.0 

3d  foot  : 

a 

65 

66 

+1.5 

73 

70 

—4  1 

50 

50 

0.0 

b 

68 

68 

0.0 

76 

75 

-1.3 

80 

60 

0.0 

50 

52 

+4.0 

c 

67 

66 

—1.5 

75 

75 

0.0 

59 

61 

+3.3 

51 

51 

0.0 

This  protection  of  the  formalin  against  denitrification  is  not  perma- 
nent and  in  some  cases  samples  rich  in  nitrates  have  lost  the  whole  on 
standing  five  weeks.  In  other  cases  we  have  observed  notable  losses 
on  standing  2 to  3 days,  this  being  greater  than  50  per  cent,  as  a mean 
of  five  cases. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN 


Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


BULLETIN  NO.  86. 


ANALYSES  OF  LICENSED  COMMERCIAL  FERTILIZERS. 

1901. 


MADISON , WISCONSIN . MARCH.  1901. 


Th  e Bulletins  and  A.nnual  Be 
v 


/*fjPOrt£  °f  this  Station  are  sent  free  to  all 
esidents  of  this  State  upon  reauest. 


So^bl^Salts’il5 F^eldSoiK^^v^^V-11*1  distribution  of  Nitrates  and  other 


UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN 


AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 


BOARD  OF  REGENTS. 

ACTING  PRESIDENT  of  the  UNIVERSITY,  ex-officio. 

STATE  SUPERINTENDENT  of  PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION,  HX-OFFICIO. 
State-at-large,  GEORGE  W.  PECK,  Milwaukee. 

8tate-at-large,  WILLIAM  F.  VILAS,  Madison. 

First  District,  OGDEN  H.  FETHERS,  Janesville. 

Second  District,  B.  J.  STEVENS,  Madison. 

Third  District,  JOHN  E.  MORGAN,  Spring  Green. 

Fourth  District,  GEORGE  H.  NOYES,  Milwaukee. 

Fifth  District,  JOHN  R.  RIESS,  Sheboygan. 

Sixth  District,  C.  A.  GALLOWAY,  Fond  du  Lac. 

Seventh  District,  BYRON  A.  BUFFINGTON,  Eau  Claire. 

Eighth  District,  ORLANDO  E.  CLARK,  Appleton. 

Ninth  District,  GEORGE  F.  MERRILL,  Ashland. 

Tenth  District,  J.  H.  STOUT,  Menomonie. 

Officers  of  the  Board  of  Regents. 

GEORGE  H.  NOYES,  President.  I STATE  TREASURER,  Ex-officio  Treasurer. 
J.  H.  STOUT,  Vice-President.  | E.  F.  RILEY,  Secretary,  Madison. 


Agricultural  Committee. 

Regent?  CLARK,  STOUT,  FETHERS,  RIESS,  MORGAN  and  ACTING  PRES. 
BIRGE. 


OFFICERS  OF  THE  STATION. 

THE  PRESIDENT  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY. 

W.  A.  HENRY Director 

8.  M.  BABCOCK,  . . . Assistant  Director  and  Chief  Chemist 

F.  H.  KING Physicist 


B.  S.  GOFF, 

W.  L.  CARLYLE, 

F.  W.  WOLL,* 

R.  H.  SHAW, 

H.  L.  RUSSELL, 

E.  H.  FARRINGTON, 

A.  R.  WHITSON, 

ALFRED  VIVIAN, 

H.  G.  HASTINGS, 

R.  A.  MOORE, 

U.  S.  BAER, 

FREDERIC  CRANEFIELD, 

F.  DEWHIRST, 

LESLIE  H.  ADAMS, 

IDA  HERFURTH, 

EFFIE  M.  CLOSE 


. . . Horticulturist 

. . Animal  Husbandry 

. . . Chemist. 

. . Acting  Chemist 

. . . Bacteriologist 

. Dairy  Husbandry 

. Assistant  Physicist 
. . Assistant  Chemist 

Assistant  Bacteriologist 
. Assistant  Agriculturist 
. . . . Dairying 

Assistant  in  Horticulture 
. Assistant  in  Dairying 
. Farm  Superintendent 

Clerk 

Librarian  and  Stenographer 


FARMERS’  INSTITUTES. 

GEORGE  McKERROW, Superintendent 

HATTIE  V.  STOUT,  ......  Clerk  and  Stenographer 

General  Offices  and  Departments  of  Agricultural  Chemistry,  Animal  Hus- 
bandry, Bacteriology,  Farmers’  Institutes  and  Library,  in  Agricultural  Hall, 
near  University  Hall,  on  Upper  Campus. 

Dairy  Building  and  Joint  Horticulture-Physics  Building,  west  end  of  Obser- 
vatory Hill,  adjacent  to  Horticultural  Grounds  and  Experiment  Farm. 
Telephone  to  Station  Office,  Dairy  Building  and  Farm  Office. 

•Absent  on  leave. 


ANALYSES  OF  LICENSED  COMMERCIAL  FERTILIZERS, 

1901. 


R.  H.  SHAW  and  ALFRED  VIVIAN. 

Tne  present  bulletin  is  published  in  accordance  with  Wisconsin  stat- 
utes of  1898,  sec.  1494d,  and  gives  the  results  of  the  analyses  of  fer- 
tilizers licensed  to  be  sold  in  this  state  during  the  current  calendar 
year.  The  general  subject  of  commercial  fertilizers  has  been  discussed 
in  some  detail  in  earlier  publications  of  our  Station,  and  the  explana- 
tions tnere  given  as  to  the  main  principles  governing  the  application 
of  fertilizers,  will  doubtless  be  of  service  to  those  unfamiliar  with  this 
subject.  It  has  been  thought  well  to  repeat  in  this  place  a few  explana- 
tory remarks  concerning  technical  terms  met  with  in  statements  of  fer- 
tilizer analyses,  and  to  say  a few  words  about  the  fertilizing  elements 
on  which  we  have  to  depend  for  maintaining  or  restoring  the  fertility 
of  our  land. 

The  main  fertilizing  ingredients  which  it  may  be  essential  to  supply 
in  crop  growing,  are  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  and  potash. 

Nitrogen  may  be  present  in  fertilizers  in  three  different  forms,  as 
nitrates , ammonia , or  organic  compounds.  The  first  two  forms  of  ni- 
trogen are  of  immediate  value  to  crops,  since  they  are  easily  soluble  and 
may  be  readily  assimilated  by  plants.  Organic  nitrogen  is  the  form  of 
nitrogen  found  in  fertilizers  of  vegetable  or  animal  origin.  Some  of 
these,  like  leather  or  woolen  scraps,  hoofs,  horn  shavings,  etc.,  possess 
very  little  value  as  fertilizers,  being  insoluble  and  but  slowly  decom- 
posed in  the  soil.  The  fertilizer  laws  of  many  states  do  not  recognize 
nitrogen  contained  in  materials  of  this  kind  as  of  any  value.  Available 
nitrogen  means  nitrogen  supplied  in  nitrates,  ammonia  salts,  and  or- 
ganic compounds  of  easily  decomposable  character,  like  dried  blood, 
tankage,  cotton  seed  meal,  etc. 

The  nitrogenous  fertilizers  met  with  in  this  state  are  nitrate  of  soda, 
tankage,  and  dried  blood.  The  first  mentioned  fertilizer  is  mostly  used 
by  market  gardeners  and  florists,  and  is  of  great  value  in  stimulating 
plant  growth.  Nitrogen  is  the  most  costly  ingredient  of  artificial  fer- 
tilizers. Certain  kinds  of  plants,  like  the  clovers,  alfalfa,  vetches,  and 
other  species  of  the  legume  family,  are  able  through  the  agency  of 
microscopic  organisms,  to  transform  the  free  nitrogen  of  the  air  to  or- 


4 


Bulletin  No.  86. 


ganic  nitrogenous  compounds,  which  may  be  used  for  the  nutrition  of 
farm  animals  and  thus  indirectly,  or  indeed  directly,  contribute  to  the 
supply  of  nitrogenous  plant  food  in  the  soil.  The  farmer  adopting  a 
system  of  crop  rotation  in  which  some  clover  or  other  legumes  are  in- 
■eluded  may  therefore  avoid  a cash  outlay  for  nitrogenous  fertilizers, 
^and  need  only  see  that  the  potash-  and  phosphoric-acid  contents  of  his 
land  are  not  unduly  reduced  through  continuous  cropping. 

Phosphoric  acid  is  found  in  different  forms  in  the  commercial  fertil- 
izers offered  for  sale  in  this  state,  viz.:  in  combinations  with  calcium, 
iron,  or  aluminum,  some  of  which  are  soluble,  and  some  insoluble.  We 
■distinguish  in  fertilizer  analysis  between  soluble , reverted  and  total 
.phosphoric  acid.  Mono-calcium  phosphate  (containing  soluble  phos- 
phoric acid)  is  soluble  in  water;  di-calcium  phosphate  (containing  re- 
verted  phosphoric  acid)  is  insoluble  in  water,  but  soluble  in  a strong, 
hot  solution  of  ammonium  citrate,  while  the  tri-calcium  phosphate  (con- 
taining insoluble  phosphoric  acid)  is  insoluble  in  either  of  these  liquids. 
The  phosphoric  acid  contained  in  raw  animal  bones,  or  bone  meal,  is 
in  the  form  of  tri-calcium  phosphate.  When  applied  to  the  soil  in  a fine 
ground  condition,  it  is  gradually  dissolved  by  the  juices  of  the  plant 
roots  and  thus  rendered  available  to  plants.  Coarse-ground  bone,  on 
the  other  hand,  is  but  slowly  decomposed  in  the  soil  and  therefore  of 
less  value  for  crop  production.  Superphosphates  contain  both  water- 
soluble  and  citrate-soluble  phosphoric  acid.  Broadly  speaking,  the 
water-soluble  and  the  citrate-soluble  phosphoric  asid  are  of  about  equal 
value  to  plants.  The  phosphoric  acid  in  basic  slag  (odorless  phos- 
phate) is  largely  soluble  in  ammonium-citrate  solution.  Available  phos- 
phoric acid  means  the  sum  of  the  water-soluble  and  the  reverted  phos- 
phoric acid,  and  represents  the  pnosphoric  acid  of  immediate  value  to 
plants.  The  results  of  the  analyses  are  calculated  on  a basis  of  the 
phosphoric  anhydrid  (P,05). 

Potash  is  freely  soluble  in  water  in  the  compounds  used  as  potassic 
fertilizers.  There  are  several  kinds  of  potash  fertilizers,  as  potassium 
sulfate,  muriate,  silicate,  and  potassium  magnesium  carbonate  and  sul- 
fate, etc.  Since  muriates  (chlorids)  have  an  injurious  effect  on  the 
quality  of  certain  crops,  notably  tobacco  and  potatoes,  the  use  of  potash 
salts  free  from  muriate  is  in  some  cases  desirable  or  even  essential. 
Wood  ashes  contain  potash  mainly  in  the  form  of  carbonate.  The  re- 
sults of  the  analyses  are  figured  on  a basis  of  the  content  of  potassium 
oxid  (K20). 

The  methods  of  analysis  followed  in  the  chemical  work  of  our  Station 
are  those  adopted  by  the  Association  of  Official  Agricultural  Chemists; 
the  methods  are  revised  from  year  to  year  at  the  annual  conventions  of 
this  Association. 


Commercial  Fertilizers,  1901. 


5 


VALUATION  OF  FERTILIZERS. 

The  cost  of  commercial  fertilizers  in  the  market  is  governed  by  the 
laws  of  supply  and  demand,  as  is  that  of  all  other  commodities.  Raw- 
materials  and  chemicals  containing  one  or  two  fertilizing  ingredients 
furnish  data  for  the  calculation  of  the  average  cost  of  these  ingredients 
in  commercial  fertilizers.  Since  the  prices  of  the  different  fertilizing 
materials  vary  somewhat  from  time  to  time  according  to  the  condition 
of  the  market,  the  calculations  must  be  revised  at  intervals.  The  aver- 
age retail  prices  of  raw-materials  and  chemicals  in  the  large  eastern 
fertilizer  markets  for  the  six  months  preceding  March  each  year  are 
calculated  by  a number  of  eastern  experiment  stations,  and  the  cost  of 
the  different  fertilizing  ingredients  which  commercial  fertilizers  on  the 
market  contain,  is  obtained  on  the  basis  of  these  figures;  these  values 
will  nearly  correspond  with  the  prices  of  fertilizing  materials  in  our 
main  fertilizer  markets,  and  may  be  used  for  the  purpose  of  comparing 
approximately  the  value  of  the  various  fertilizers  offered  for  sale  in 
this  state. 

The  trade  values  of  fertilizing  ingredients  in  raw-materials  and  chem- 
icals adopted  for  the  current  year  are  given  in  the  following  schedule: 


NITROGEN—  Cents  per  lb. 

in  ammonia  salts  17 

in  nitrates  13 V2 


ORGANIC  NITROGEN— 

in  dry  and  fine-ground  fisb,  meat,  blood,  and  in  high-grade  mixed  fer- 
tilizers   

in  fine  bone  and  tankage  

in  coarse  bone  and  tankage  

PHOSPHORIC  ACID- 

soluble  in  water  

soluble  in  ammonium-citrate  solution 

in  dry  fine-ground  fish,  bone  and  tankage 

in  coarse  bone  and  tankage 

in  cottonseed  meal,  linseed  meal,  castor  pomace  and  wood  ashes 

insoluble  (in  ammonium-citrate  solution)  in  mixed  fertilizers 


151/2 

15% 

ioy2 


41/2 

4 

4 

3 

4 
2 


POTASH— 

as  high-grade  sulfate,  and  in  forms  free  from  nuriate 5 

as  muriate  4% 


In  order  to  obtain  the  valuation  prices  of  100  lbs.  of  the  fertilizers  li- 
censed for  sale  in  our  state,  the  percentages  of  valuable  fertilizing  com- 
ponents are  in  each  case  multiplied  by  the  prices  given  in  the  preceding 
schedule;  to  this  actual  cost  of  the  fertilizing  ingredients  contained  in 
each  fertilizer  should  be  added  the  expense  of  placing  the  fertilizers  on 
the  market;  this  expense  will  vary  considerably  according  to  local  and 
other  conditions;  the  Pennsylvania  Department  of  Agriculture  esti- 
mates the  expense  as  follows: 


Mixing  $1.00  per  ton. 

Bagging  1.00  per  ton. 

Agent’s  commission  '.20  per  cent,  of  retail  cash  value  of  ingredients. 

Freight  $2.00  per  ton. 


6 


Bulletin  No.  86. 


The  approximate  value  of  the  various  licensed  fertilizers  may  be  as- 
certained by  this  method  of  calculation,  and  the  purchaser  may  thus 
learn  whether  or  not  the  price  asked  for  a certain  fertilizer  is  about 
what  it  is  worth. 

It  must  be  remembered,  however,  that  the  valuation  placed  on  the 
various  fertilizers  by  this  method  is  a commercial , and  not  an  agricul- 
tural one.  It  shows  the  average  retail  cash  price  of  the  different  fer- 
tilizing ingredients  plus  the  cost  of  placing  the  fertilizer  on  the  mar- 
ket; the  agricultural  value  of  a fertilizer  depends  on  a number  of  con- 
ditions beyond  the  control  of  the  seller,  such  as  the  need  of  the  soil  or 
the  crop,  of  the  particular  fertilizing  ingredients  or  ingredients  in  ques- 
tion: the  judgment  used  in  applying  the  same,  as  to  methods,  time  and 
quantities;  conditions  of  weather,  etc.;  the  agricultural  value  of  a fer- 
tilizer, in  other  words,  will  vary  according  to  the  season  and  according 
to  the  intelligent  application  of  the  fertilizer;  one  farmer  may  derive 
full  benefit  from  the  use  of  a fertilizer,  while  to  another  it  may  be 
money  thrown  away.  It  is  therefore  evident  that  only  a commercial 
valuation  of  fertilizers  is  ever  possible;  this  will  enable  persons  to  com- 
pare the  different  fertilizers  offered  for  sale,  and  will  assist  them  in 
deciding  which  are  the  most  economical  ones  for  their  special  purpose. 

ANALYSES  OF  LICENSED  FERTILIZERS  IN  WISCONSIN  DURING  1901. 


The  following  manufacturers  have  taken  out  a license  for  the  sale 
of  the  brands  of  fertilizers  given,  in  this  state  during  the  current  year, 
in  accordance  with  Wisconsin  statutes  of  1898,  sec.  1494c. 


Sta- 

tion 

No. 

Name  of  Manufacturer. 

Name  of  Brand. 

41 

Darling  & Co.,  Chicago,  111 

Darling’s  Tobacco  Special. 

42 

Currie  Bros.,  Milwaukee,  Wis 

Currie’s  Complete  Fertilizer  for 
for  Lawns,  Hay  and  Pasture. 

43 

Milwaukee  Tallow  and  Grease  Co.,  Milwau- 

kee, Wis 

Milwaukee  Tallow  and  Grease  Co.’s 
Bone  Meal. 

44 

Armour  Fertilizer  Works,  Chicago,  111 

Bone  Meal. 

45 

Armour  Fertilizer  Works,  Chicago,  111 

Ammoniated  Bone  and  Potash. 

The  Station  analyses  of  the  brands  given  are  shown  in  the  following 
table.  According  to  Wisconsin  statutes  of  1898,  section  1494c,  each 
manufacturer  “shall  affix  to  every  package  of  fertilizer  sold  ...  a 
statement  of  the  following  fertilizing  constituents,  namely:  The  per- 
centage of  nitrogen  in  an  available  form,  of  potash  soluble  in  water,  and 
of  available  phosphoric  acid,  soluble  and  reverted,  as  well  as  total  phos- 
phoric acid.”  The  guaranteed  composition  of  the  licensed  fertilizers  is 
given  in  the  table  in  connection  with  the  results  of  our  analyses  of  the 
samples  furnished  by  the  manufacturers  in  compliance  with  the  state 
fertilizer  law. 


Analysis  of  licensed  commercial  fertilizers  in  Wisconsin. 


Commercial  Fertilizers , 1901. 


8 


Bulletin  No.  86. 


The  mechanical  analysis  of  the  samples  of  bone  meal  included  among^ 
the  licensed  brands  of  fertilizers  gave  the  following  results,  the  portion 
passing  through  a sieve  of  ^ inch  mesh  being  designated  as  fine- 
ground,  and  that  remaining  on  such  a sieve  as  coarse. 


Mechanical  analysis  of  hone  meal. 


Sta- 

tion 

No. 

Brand. 

Fine- 

ground 

Coarse. 

Pr.  ct. 

Pr.  ct. 

43 

Milwaukee  Tallow  and  Grease  Co.’s  Bone  Meal 

89 

11 

44 

Bone  Meal 

59 

41 

Fertilizer  inspection. — It  is  impossible  to  tell  from  the  appearance  or 
odor  of  a commercial  fertilizer  whether  it  contains  a large  amount  of 
valuable  fertilizing  ingredients  or  only  a very  small  amount.  There  is 
therefore  a strong  temptation  for  irresponsible  parties  to  make  and  sell 
inferior  or  even  valueless  goods  as  standard  fertilizing  articles;  sa 
much  so,  that  it  has  been  found  necessary  in  all  states  where  the  fer- 
tilizer business  has  grown  to  be  of  any  importance,  that  the  state  should 
in  some  way  supervise  their  sale.  Laws  regulating  the  sale  of  commer- 
cial fertilizers  are  at  the  present  time  in  force  in  a large  majority  of  the 
states  of  the  Union.  The  Wisconsin  fertilizer  law  which  was  passed 
by  the  legislature  in  1895  is  given  in  full  in  the  following  pages.  Ac- 
cording to  the  provisions  of  the  law,  all  commercial  fertilizers  sold  in 
this  state  at  a cost  exceeding  $10.00  per  ton  are  to  be  licensed.  They 
must  be  sold  on  a guarantee  of  certain  amounts  of  valuable  fertilizing 
ingredients  contained  therein,  and  the  director  of  the  experiment  sta- 
tion, on  whom  is  laid  the  duty  of  seeing  to  it  that  the  law  is  enforced,  is 
authorized,  in  person  or  by  deputy,  to  take  samples  of  all  commercial 
fertilizers  sold  in  this  state  which  come  within  the  scope  of  the  law.  In 
case  of  licensed  fertilizers  it  may  thus  be  ascertained  whether  these 
come  up  to  the  guaranteed  composition,  and  when  it  is  found  that  par- 
ties are  selling  fertilizers  without  complying  with  the  provisions  of  the 
law,  the  offenders  may  be  brought  before  the  proper  legal  authorities 
and  convicted  according  to  section  1494d  of  Wisconsin  statutes  of  1898. 
This  section  imposes  a fine  of  $100.00  for  the  first  offense  and  $200.00 
for  each  subsequent  offense. 

It  is  hoped  that  all  dealers  in  commercial  fertilizers  in  the  state  will 
comply  with  the  law  in  all  particulars,  and  that  they  as  well  as  pur- 
chasers of  such  fertilizers,  will  assist  m the  enforcement  of  the  law  by 
giving  notice  of  violations  of  the  same.  A strict  compliance  with  the 
law  is  for  the  best  interests  of  all  honest  dealers  and  consumers  alike. 
Only  firms  that  live  up  to  the  requirements  of  the  law  and  have  taken 
out  licenses  for  the  sale  of  their  brands  of  fertilizers  should  be  patron- 
ized; the  law  does  not  offer  purchasers  any  protection  against  dealers 
in  other  states  who  sell  inferior  or  fraudulent  goods. 


Commercial  Fertilizers , 1901. 


9 


THE  WISCONSIN  FERTILIZER  LAW. 


[Sections  1494c,  1494d  and  1494e,  Wisconsin  Statutes  of  1898.] 

Section  1494c.  Every  person  who  shall,  in  this  state,  sell  or  expose  for 
sale  any  commercial  fertilizer  or  any  material  used  for  fertilizing  purposes, 
the  price  of  which  exceeds  ten  dollars  per  ton,  shall  affix  to  every  package 
of  such  fertilizer  or  material,  in  a conspicuous  place  on  the  outside  thereof, 
a plainly  printed  statement  clearly  and  truly  certifying  the  number  of  net 
pounds  therein,  name  or  trade-mark  under  which  the  article  is  sold,  name 
of  the  manufacturer  or  shipper,  place  of  manufacture,  place  of  business 
of  the  manufacturer  and  of  the  following  fertilizing  constituents,  namely: 
The  percentage  of  nitrogen  in  an  available  form,  of  potash  soluble  in  water 
and  of  available  phosphoric  acid,  soluble  and  reverted,  as  well  as  total 
phosphoric  acid.  Every  such  person  shall  also  file  with  the  director  of 
the  agricultural  experiment  station  of  the  university  of  Wisconsin,  in  the 
month  of  December  in  each  year,  a certified  copy  of  such  statement  for 
every  such  fertilizer  or  material  bearing  a distinguishing  brand  or  trade- 
mark and  which  he  sells  or  exposes  for  sale,  which  copy  shall,  when  re- 
quired by  such  director,  be  accompanied  by  a sealed  glass  jar  or  bottle 
containing  at  least  one  pound  of  such  fertilizer  or  material,  and  an  affi- 
davit that  such  sample  corresponds,  within  reasonable  limits,  to  the  fer- 
tilizer or  material  which  it  represents  in  the  percentage  of  the  aforesaid 
constituents,  which  affidavit  shall  apply  to  the  remaining  portion  of  the 
then  calendar  year.  Additional  brands  of  such  fertilizer  or  material  may 
be  offered  for  sale  during  the  year,  provided  samples  and  affidavits  are  so 
filed  at  least  one  month  before  they  are  offered,  in  which  case  an  analysis 
fee  of  double  the  usual  amount  must  be  paid.  A deposit  of  the  sample  of 
fertilizer  shall  be  required  by  said  director  unless  the  person  selling  or  offer- 
ing for  sale  a fertilizer  or  material  within  this  section  shall  certify  that  its 
composition  for  the  succeeding  year  is  to  be  the  same  as  given  in  the  last 
previously  certified  statement,  in  which  case  the  furnishing  of  a sample 
shall  be  at  the  discretion  of  said  director. 

Section  1494cZ.  Said  director  shall  analyze  or  cause  to  be  analyzed  all 
such  samples  and  publish  the  results  of  such  analysis  in  a bulletin  or  re- 
port on  or  before  the  first  day  of  the  next  succeeding  April.  Every  manu- 
facturer, importer,  agent  or  seller  of  any  such  fertilizer  or  material  shall 
pay  annually  to  said  director  for  each  brand  thereof  sold  within  this  state 
the  sum  of  twenty-five  dollars,  and  upon  doing  so  and  complying  with  the 
other  provisions  of  law  shall  receive  from  him  a certificate  of  such  com- 
pliance which  shall  be  a license  for  the  sale  of  each  brand  thereof  within 
the  state  for  the  calendar -year  for  which  such  fee  is  paid.  All  moneys  re- 
ceived by  said  director  pursuant  to  this  section  shall  be  paid  into  the 
treasury  of  said  station.  Any  person  who  shall  sell  or  expose  for  sale  any 
•commercial  fertilizer  or  material  used  for  fertilizing  purposes  which  is 
within  the  provisions  of  the  preceding  section  without  complying  with  the 
foregoing  provisions  or  which  contains  a substantially  smaller  percentage 
of  fertilizing  constituents  than  are  indicated  by  the  printed  statement 
thereon  shall  be  punished  by  a fine  of  one  hundred  dollars  for  the  first 
offense  and  of  two  hundred  dollars  for  each  subsequent  offense. 

Section  1494e.  Said  director  shall  annually  analyze  or  cause  to  be  ana- 
lyzed at  least  one  sample  of  every  fertilizer  or  material  used  for  fertilizing 
purposes  sold  or  exposed  for  sale  under  the  two  preceding  sections  and  en- 
force their  provisions  by  prosecuting  or  causing  the  prosecution  of  every 
person  who  shall  violate  them.  He  may  in  person  or  by  deputy,  on  tendering 
the  value  thereof,  take  a sample,  not  exceeding  two  pounds,  for  said  analysis 
from  any  lot  or  package  of  fertilizer  or  any  material  used  for  fertilizing 


10 


Bulletin  No.  86. 


purposes  which  may  be  in  the  possession  of  any  manufacturer,  importer, 
agent  or  dealer  in  this  state;  said  sample  shall  be  drawn  in  the  presence 
of  the  person  from  whom  taken  or  his  representative,  be  taken  from  a par- 
cel or  a number  of  packages  which  shall  not  be  less  than  ten  per  centum 
of  the  whole  lot  sampled,  be  thoroughly  mixed  and  divided  into  two  equal 
samples,  placed  in  glass  vessels  and  carefully  sealed  and  a label  placed  on 
each,  stating  the  name  or  brand  of  the  fertilizer  or  material  sampled,  the 
name  of  the  party  from  whose  stock  the  sample  was  drawn,  the  time  and 
place  of  such  taking;  said  label  shall  be  signed  by  the  director  or  his 
deputy  and  such  person  or  his  representative  at  the  drawing  and  sealing 
of  said  samples;  one  of  said  duplicate  samples  shall  be  retained  by  the  di- 
rector and  the  other  by  the  party  whose  stock  was  sampled;  the  sample 
retained  by  the  director  shall  be  for  comparison  with  the  certified  state- 
ment named  in  section  1494c.  The  result  of  the  analysis  of  the  sample  or 
samples  so  procured  shall  be  reported  to  the  person  requesting  the  analysis 
and  be  published  in  a report  or  bulletin  to  be  issued  within  a reasonable 
time. 


Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN. 

Madison,  March,  1901. 

SPECIAL  BULLETIN. 


THE  PREVENTION  OF  OAT  SMUT. 

E.  S.  GOFF. 

It  is  often  said  that  farmers  pay  more  than  their  just  share 
of  taxes.  However  this  may  be,  most  farmers  submit  to  some 
taxes  that  they  might  readily  avoid.  One  of  these  is  the  smut 
tax  on  grain  which  usually  amounts  to  from  3 to  20  per  cent,  of 
the  value  of  the  crop.  Ordinary  taxes  are  not  a total  loss,  for 
they  return  in  value  nearly  or  quite  as  much  as  they  cost.  But 
this  smut  tax  is  a total  loss.  The  smutted  plants  grow  from 
good  seed,  and  take  good  plant  food  from  the  soil,  returning  a 
crop  of  spores  to  infect  the  s'eed  grown  by  the  healthy  plants, 
and  thus  to  predispose  the  following  crop  to  smut. 

In  this  bulletin  we  offer  to  the  farmer  an  effectual,  cheap 
and  easily  applied  preventive  of  smut  in  oats,  barley  and 
wheat.* 

The  amount  of  damage  from  the  smuts. — On  this  point  we 
have  little  accurate  data  for  our  own  state,  but  this  little  is  suf- 
ficient to  show  that,  where  seed  is  not  treated,  the  amount  of 
smut  varies  greatly  in  different  fields  and  in  different  seasons. 
During  the  season  of  1900  the  average  per  cent,  of  smutted 
oat  heads  in  four  fields,  located  in  Columbia,  Dane,  Iowa  and 
Walworth  counties  respectively,  was  6.2  per  cent.  In  other 
words  something  over  six  heads  out  of  each  hundred  were  de- 
stroyed by  smut. 

♦There  are  two  smuts  of  wheat,  one  of  which  is  known  as  the  “stinking’'  smut 
and  the  other  as  the  “loose”  smut.  The  first-named  disease  is  prevented  by  the 
treatment  prescribed  in  this  bulletin. 


A count  made  at  our  Station  in  1807  showed  10.2  per  cent, 
of  smutted  oat  heads  and  a count  made  in  1889  showed  .055- 
per  cent,  of  smutted  oat  heads.  An  average  of  the  six  counts, 
made  in  three  different  years  and  from  four  different  counties 
shows  with  untreated  seed  a trifle  less  than  6 per  cent,  of  smut- 
ted oat  heads.  It  is  well  known,  however,  that  the  loss  is  often 
much  greater  than  this — sometimes  amounting  to  more  than  20' 
per  cent,  of  the  whole  crop. 

T1  le  Wisconsin  oat  crop  of  1808  was  estimated  by  the  IT.  S. 
Department  of  Agriculture  at  64,000,000  bushels,  valued  at 
$15,500,000.  Allowing  an  average  loss  from  smut  of  five  per- 
cent., which  is  probably  not.  an  excessive  estimate,  the  smut  tax 
of  1808  in  our  state  amounted  to  about  $775,000. 

The  nature  of  the  smuts. — The  smuts  of  the  small  grains  are 
due  to  fungous  parasites,  i.  e.,  minute  plants  that  grow  and 

multiply  inside  of  the  grain 
plantu,  coming  to  maturity 
in  the  kernels.  The  soot-like- 
dust  forming  the  so-called 
smut  is  composed  of  the 
spores  of  these  minute 
plants,  and  these  spores  prop- 
agate the  disease  as  the  seeds 
of  weeds  propagate  weed 
plants.  The  spores  cannot 
live  through  the  wdnter  in  or 
upon  the  ground,  hence  a 
crop  can  only  be  infested 
with  smut  from  live  spores 
that  adhere  to  the  seed 
grains  and  are  sown  with 
them.  It  follows  that  if  we 
treat  the  oats  used  for  seed 
before  sowing  with  some  sub- 
stance that  kills  the  smut 
spores  upon  them,  our  crop 
will  be  free  from  smut. 

Preventive  methods. — V a- 
rious  methods  have  been 
used  to  jmevent  smut  in  the 
small  grains  but  the  method 
now  acknowledged  to  be  best  is  that  known  as  the  “formalde- 
hvd”  treatment.  This  consists  in  sprinkling  the  seed  with  a 
40  per  cent,  solution  of  formaldehyd  gas,  according  to  the  di- 
rections given  on  the  next  page  of  this  bulletin. 


EormaTdehyd  is  a colorless,  pungent  gas  obtainable  from 
wood  alcohol  and  readily  soluble  irr  water.  It  may  be  pur- 
chased at  drug  stores  in  liquid  form,  that  is,  dissolved  in  water. 
Its  property  of  destroying  the  spores  of  fungi  was  discovered 
by  the  German  scientist  Loew,  in  1888.  It  is  not  poisonous  in 
moderate  amounts,  even  when  taken  internally.  In  1895  Prof. 
II.  L.  Bolley,  then  of  Indiana  but  now  of  the  North  Dakota 
Experiment  Station,  began  making  experiments  with  a solu- 
tion of  formaldehyd  for  the  prevention  of  grain  smuts,  and 
potato  scab.  His  results  were  so  satisfactory  that  the  formalde- 
hyd treatment  has  come  to  be  regarded  as  the  standard  pre- 
ventive for  these  diseases. 

Does  it  pay  to  treat  grain  to  prevent  smut ? — Suppose  a far- 
mer raises  25  acres  of  oats,  and  receives  a yield,  without  treat- 
ing the  seed,  of  40  bushels  per  acre.  His  crop  would  be  1,000 
bushels.  Suppose  5 per  cent,  of  the  heads  in  this  crop  were 
destroyed  by  smut.  His  crop  would  have  been  a fraction  over 
1,052  bushels  had  he  prevented  the  smut.  In  other  words,  he 
would  have  received  52  bushels  of  oats  for  treating  the  seed. 
If  oats  are  worth  25  cents  per  bushel,  the  gain  would  have  been 
$13.00.  How  much  would  it  have  cost  to  treat  the  seed?  The 
account  would  stand  about  as  follows : 


Dr. 

• 

Or. 

To  one  pound  formaldehyd . 

..  $.60 

By  52  bu.  oats  at  25c 

...  $13. OO 

To  4 hours  work  at  .15 

.60 

Less  cost  of  treating 

...  1.20 

Total 

..  $1.20 

Net  profit 

....  $11.80 

How  to  treat  the  seed. — Buy,  at  a drug  store,  one  pound  of 
40  per  cent,  formaldehyd  for  every  50  bushels  of  grain  it  is 
desired  to  treat.  Ascertain  at  once  if  your  druggist  has  it,  to 
give  him  time  to  procure  it  if  he  has  not.  Pour  one  pound  of 
the  formaldehyd  solution  into  a barrel  containing  45  gallons 
of  clean  water.  Then  place  a layer  of  grain  three  or  four  inches 
thick  on  the  barn  floor  and  sprinke  this  with  the  solution  until 
all  the  grains  are  entirely  wet.  A garden  sprinkler  is  good  for 
this  work.  Then  place  another  layer  of  grain  on  the  first  layer 
and  sprinkle  as  before,  repeating  the  process  until  all  the  seed 
has  been  sprinkled.  Leave  the  grain  in  the  pile  two  hours,  then 
spread  out  thinly  to  dry.  It  should  be  shoveled  over  once  or 
twice  a day  until  dry.  If  it  is  to  be  sown  broadcast  it  is  not 
necessary  to  dry  it. 

Corn  smut  cannot  be  prevented  by  treating  the  seed  corn,  as 
the  disease  is  of  a different  nature  from  the  other  grain  smuts. 


— 4 — 


In  case  more  grain  is  treated  with  the  formaldehyd  solution 
than  is  needed  for  sowing,  the  excess  may  be  safely  used  for 
feeding  by  mixing  it  with  ten  times  its  bulk  of  untreated  grain. 

Formaldehyd  for  potato  scab. — Formaldehyd  may  also  be 
used  to  lessen  damage  from  potato  scab.  Immerse  the  un- 
sprouted and  uncut  seed  potatoes  for  two  hours  in  a solution 
made  by  adding  one-half  pound  of  40  per  cent,  formaldehyd 
to  15  gallons  of  water.  If  the  tubers  are  deeply  scabbed,  ex- 
tend the  time  to  three  or  four  hours.  After  treatment,  cut  the 
tubers  in  the  usual  manner.  They  mlay  he  handled  freely  with- 
out danger.  The  same  solution  may  be  used  five  or  six  times 
in  succession  if  the  treatment  is  continued  a little  longer  each 
time. 

Do  not  use  the  potato  solution  for  grain  smut,  as  it  is  too 
strong,  nor  the  grain  solution  for  potatoes,  as  it  is  too  weak. 


The  bulletins  of  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  will 
be  sent  to  all  residents  of  the  state  free  of  charge  upon  request. 

Address:  W.  A.  IIenky,  Director , 

Agricultural  Experiment  Station, 

Madison,  Wis. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN 


Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


BULLETIN  NO.  87. 


NATIVE  PLUMS. 


MADISON , WISCONSIN.  APRIL.  WOK 


tW^Tlie  bulletins  and  Annual  Reports  of  tins  Station  are  sent  free  to  all 
residents  of  this  State  upon  request. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN. 

AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 


BOARD  OF  REGENTS. 

ACTING  PRESIDENT  of  the  UNIVERSITY,  ex-officio. 

STATE  SUPERINTENDENT  of  PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION,  ex-officio. 
State-at-large,  GEORGE  W.  PECK,  Milwaukee. 

State-at-large,  WILLIAM  F.  VILAS,  Madison. 

First  District,  OGDEN  H.  FETHERS,  Janesville. 

Second  District,  B.  J.  STEVENS,  Madison. 

Third  District,  JOHN  E.  MORGAN,  Spring  Green. 

Fourth  District,  GEORGE  II.  NOYES,  Milwaukee. 

Fifth  District,  JOHN  R.  RIESS,  Sheboygan. 

Sixth  District,  C.  A.  GALLOWAY,  Fond  du  Lac. 

Seventh  District,  BYRON  A.  BUFFINGTON,  Eau  Claire. 

Eighth  District,  ORLANDO  E.  CLARK,  Appleton. 

Ninth  District,  GEORGE  F.  MERRILL,  Ashland. 

Tenth  District,  J.  H.  STOUT,  Menomonie. 

Officers  of  the  Board  of  Regents. 

GEORGE  H.  NOYES,  President.  j STATE  TREASURER,  Ex-offlcio  Treasurer. 
J.  U.  STOUT,  ViCB-rRESiDENT.  | E.  F.  RILEY,  Secretary,  Madison. 


Agricultural  Committee. 

Regents  CLARK,  STOUT,  FETHERS,  RIESS,  MORGAN  and  ACTING  PRES. 
BIRGE. 


OFFICERS  OF  THE  STATION. 

THE  PRESIDENT  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY. 

W.  A.  HENRY,  ..........  Director 

S.  M.  BABCOCK,  . . . Assistant  Director  and  Chief  Chemist 


F.  H.  KING, 

E.  S.  GOFF, 

W.  L.  CARLYLE, 

F.  W.  WOLL,* 

R.  n.  SHAW, 

H.  L.  RUSSELL, 

E.  H.  FARRINGTON, 

A.  R.  WHITSON, 

ALFRED  VIVIAN, 

E.  G.  HASTINGS, 

R.  A.  MOORE, 

U.  S.  BAER, 

FREDERIC  CRANEFIELD, 

F.  PEWHIRST, 

LESLIE  H.  ADAMS, 

IDA  HERFURTH, 

EFFIE  M.  CLOSE 


. . . . Physicist 

. . . Horticulturist 

. . Animal  Husbandry 

Chemist. 

Acting  Chemist 
. . . Bacteriologist 

. Dairy  Husbandry 

. Assistant  Physicist 
. . Assistant  Chemist 

Assistant  Bacteriologist 
. Assistant  Agriculturist 
....  Dairying 
Assistant  in  IIoriiculturh 
. Assistant  in  Dairying 
. Farm  Superintendent 

Clerk 

Librarian  and  Stenographer 


FARMERS’  INSTITUTES. 

GEORGE  McKERROW,  .......  Superintendent 

HATTIE  V.  STOUT,  . . . . . . Clerk  and  Stenographer 

General  Offices  and  Departments  of  Agricultural  Chemistry,  Animal  Hus- 
bandry, Bacteriology,  Farmers’  Institutes  and  Library,  in  Agricultural  Hall, 
ne^r  University  Hall,  on  Upper  Campus. 

Dairy  Building  and  Joint  Horticulture-Physics  Building,  west  end  of  Obser- 
vatory Hill,  adjacent  to  Horticultural  Grounds  and  Experiment  Farm. 
Telephone  tq  Station  Office,  Dairy  Building  and  Farm  Office. 

•Absent  on  leave. 


NATIVE  PLUMS. 


E.  S.  GOFF. 

This  bulletin  is  intended  as  a supplement  to  our  Bulletin  No.  63, 
entitled,  “The  Culture  of  Native  Plums  in  the  Northwest,”  and  issued 
in  October,  1897.  It  gives  the  results  of  our  experience  in  the  culture 
of  native  plums  since  that  date  and  of  such  investigations  as  have 
been  completed  up  to  the  present  time,  but  repeats  no  information 
given  in  our  former  bulletin.  Copies  of  our  Bulletin  No.  63  may  still 
be  had  on  application. 

The  matter  presented  in  this  bulletin  is  arranged  under  the  follow- 
ing heads: 

I.  Cultural  notes. 

II.  Notes  on  varieties. 

III.  Culinary  uses  of  native  plums. 

IV.  Investigations  and  experiments. 

CULTURAL  NOTES. 

Mulching  versus  cultivation. — Three  years  ago  we  commenced  the 
experiment  of  mulching  a small  plum  orchard  with  marsh  hay.  The 
ground  was  then  in  sod  and  the  mulch  was  applied  during  the  winter 
to  the  depth  of  about  six  inches  after  it  had  been  packed  by  rain.  The 
result  has  been  very  satisfactory.  The  sod  was  killed  completely,  ex- 
cept in  some  places  where  it  contained  quack  grass.  Very  few  weeds 
grew  through  the  mulch  the  first  season.  The  effect  upon  the  trees 
was  soon  manifest  by  their  more  healthy  foliage  and  the  in- 
creased size  and  quantity  of  the  fruit.  The  following  spring  the  mulch 
was  not  renewed,  and  as  the  season  advanced  weeds  grew  up  freely 
through  it  making  it  necessary  to  hoe  the  ground  occasionally.  A thin 
mulch  was  added  in  the  fall  of  1899  and  the  spring  of  1900,  which 
proved  sufficient  for  the  past  summer.  The  mulch  not  only  saves  the 
labor  of  cultivation  and  the  damage  that  cultivation  causes  to  the 
trees,  but  it  forms  a clean  and  agreeable  cover  for  the  ground,  that 
is  very  desirable  during  the  picking  season.  It  also  supplies  all 
needed  fertilizing  materials.  Where  kept  four  inches  thick  it  is  an 
effective  preventive  of  most  weeds,  and  it  keeps  the  soil  in  an  excellent 
condition  for  the  trees.  It  is  doubtful,  however,  if  the  mulch  aids  t&e 


4 


Bulletin  No.  87. 


trees  much  to  endure  the  winter,  for  it  induces  the  roots  to  grow 
almost  on  top  of  the  ground.  During  the  severe  winter  of  1898-99 
several  mulched  trees  of  the  European  plum,  a few  of  the  Japanese  and 
Chicasaw  plums,  and  a single  one  of  the  Americana  class  were  root- 
killed. 

The  cost  of  the  mulch  will  of  course  depend  much  upon  the  price 
at  which  the  material  may  be  obtained.  Clean  wheat,  rye,  or  oats 
straw  would  answer  the  purpose  well,  and  in  many  localities  would 
be  cheaper  than  marsh  hay.  In  some  seasons  oats  sown  as  a second 
crop  would  grow  fast  enough  to  make  mulching  material  by  the  time 
of  frost.  In  the  vicinity  of  marshes  the  coarser  marsh  grasses  that 
have  no  value  as  hay  may  be  cut  after  the  ground  freezes  in  autumn 
and  would  make  excellent  material  for  mulching.  Cornstalks  have 
been  suggested,  but  they  are  probably  too  coarse  to  keep  down  weeds. 

It  has  been  suggested  that  by  sowing  rye  in  September,  and  harvest- 
ing the  crop  the  following  June,  and  then  sowing  the  same  ground  to 
millet,  the  rye  straw  with  the  millet  would  mulch  an  area  of  plums 
equal  to  that  on  which  the  two  crops  were  grown,  and  would  leave 
the  threshed  rye  to  compensate  for  the  labor.  This  is  certainly 
worth  trying  by  those  who  have  no  better  source  from  which  to  ob- 
tain mulching. 

The  chief  value  of  the  mulch  is  in  the  superior  quality  and  size  of 
the  fruit  grown  on  the  mulched  trees.  This  fact  was  well  shown  tlie 
past  season  where  a part  of  our  trees  were  mulched  while  others  were 
not.  There  is,  however,  a drawback  to  mulching  that  may  not  at  first 
occur  to  the  reader,  viz.,  the  danger  it  involves  from  fire.  In  dry 
weather  a lighted  match  or  cigar  dropped  upon  the  mulch  may  easily 
start  a conflagration  that  is  may  be  impossible  to  stop  until  the  orchard 
is  destroyed.  It  gives  disaffected  trespassers  in  the  orchard  an  excel- 
lent opportunity  to  take  vengeance  upon  the  owner. 

Experience  with  the  curculio. — Since  the  season  of  1894  our  plum 
trees  have  been  treated  regularly  for  the  curculio  at  the  proper  time 
by  the  “jarring  process”  which  was  fully  described  in  our  bulletin 
No.  63.  The  number  of  curculio  found  has  never  been  large,  rarely 
more  tnan  half  a dozen  at  a single  tree  at  one  treatment,  while  few 
trees  have  yielded  more  than  three.  The  number  does  not  percep- 
tibly increase  and  the  damage  wrought  by  them,  while  very  consider- 
able in  the  Aitkin  and  Cheney  varieties,  is  in  most  others  comparative- 
ly small.  What  the  result  would  have  been  had  we  not  given  the 
treatment  systematically  it  is  impossible  to  say.  We  only  know  that 
until  we  adopted  the  treatment  we  succeeded  in  growing  very  few 
plums,  and  since  adopting  it  we  have  had  a crop  every  year.  Some 
claim  that  the  curculio  is  the  cheapest  agent  for  thinning  the  fruit, 
but;  this  plan  will  not  satisfy  a thorough  plum  grower  in  a region 


Native  Plums. 


•Where  the  insect  is  as  disastrous  as  in  our  orchard.  The  past  season 
the  plum  gouger  has  proved  nearly  as  destructive  as  the  curculio. 

In  addition  to  the  home-made  apparatus  described  and  illustrated 
in  our  bulletin  No.  63,  we  have  used  a patented  apparatus,  mounted  on 
a wheelbarrow,  purchased  of  an  eastern  firm.  It  has  proved  much 
more  convenient  than  the  home-made  apparatus.  By  the  use  of  small 
cloth-covered  frames,  we  find  it  possible  to  successfully  combat  t*ne 
curculio  in  our  densely-planted  seedling  orchard. 

Systematic  thinning  of  the  fruit  in  which  the  specimens  stung  by 
the  curculio  are  removed  will  undoubtedly  aid  in  keeping  this  in- 
sect in  subjection.  We  endeavor,  also,  to  pick  up  and  destroy  all 
plums  that  fall  prematurely  as  the  result  of  injury  from  the  curculio. 

Pruning  the  native  'plums. — Trees  of  the  Americana  varieties  of  plum 
seem  to  require  more  pruning  than  those  of  the  European  or  Japanese 
varieties  As  the  trees  acquire  age  the  tops  in  many  varieties  of 
the  Americana  class  become  very  dense  unless  pruned  frequently. 
The  Americana  trees  in  our  oldest  orchard  werev  rather  severely  pruned 
the  past  spring  and  the  fruit  produced  the  past  season  was  finer  than 
ever  before.  Part  of  this  improvement  may  have  been  due  to  the  fact 
that  the  fruit  was  more  severely  thinned  than  usual,  but  thinning 
out  the  branches  is  one  way  of  thinning  the  fruit. 

Thinning  the  fruit. — Our  experience  has  shown  that  in  most  va- 
rieties of  native  plums  thinning  is  necessary  to  secure  the  finest  fruit 
and  to  prevent  deterioration  of  the  size  of  the  fruit  from  year  to  year, 
especially  in  the  Americana  varieties.  Thinning  does  not  increase  the 
total  yield  of  plums,  as  has  sometimes  been  claimed.  On  the  contrary, 
heavy  thinning  reduces  the  total  yield  materially.  Where  the  market 
does  not  discriminate  in  price  between  medium-sized  and  large  plums, 
thinning  will  not  pay  unless  the  trees  decidedly  overbear.  In  this  case 
it  will  pay  for  the  benefit  of  the  trees. 

We  find  that  while  early  thinning  is  to  be  preferred,  late  thinning 
is  far  better  than  none.  The  past  season,  it  was  impossible  to  begin 
the  systematic  thinning  of  our  plums  until  the  fruit  was  more  than 
half  grown,  but  even  then  the  effect  on  the,  size  of  the  fruit  was 
marked.  Even  after  the  plums  begin  to  ripen,  the  picking  of  the 
ripest  specimens  has  a visible  effect  in  increasing  the  size  of  those 
that  are  left.  The  best  time  to  thin  is  undoubtedly  as  soon  as  the 
plums  that  are  stung  by  the  curculio  can  be  determined.  The  amount 
of  thinning  to  be  practiced  will  of  course  depend  on  the  profusion 
of  bearing.  If  the  work  is  done  early,  the  plums  should  not  be  left 
nearer  than  one  and  a half  to  two  inches  apart.  Of  course  the  plums 
that  have  been  stung  by  the  curculio  or  plum  gouger  should  always 
be  removed.  In  early  thinning  the  stung  plums  may  be  dropped,  but 
if  the  fruit  is  nearly  grown  they  should  be  deeply  buried  or  burned 
to  prevent  the  escape  of  the  larvae  of  the  curculio  and  gouger. 


^ ' Bulletin  No.  S 

Pig.  1 is  from  a photograph  of  the  Speer  plum  and  illustrates  thd 
extent  to  which  some  varieties  of  the  Americana  plum  will  overbear, 
if  permitted  to  do  so.  Fig.  2 shows  the  effect  of  thinning  on  the  size 
of  the  Burbank  (Japanese)  plum.  The  upper  row  shows  six  fruits 
from  a tree  that  bore  but  a small  number  of  plums,  and  which  in  con- 
sequence grew  to  a very  large  size,  as  appears  from  the  rule  placed 
above  them.  The  second  row  from  the  top  shows  six  specimens  that 
had  oeen  thinned  to  two  inches  apart;  the  third  row  had  been  thinned 


Fig.  1 — Fruiting  branch  of  Speer  plum,  showing  the  tendency  of  some  varieties 

to  overbear. 


to  one  inch  apart  and  the  bottom  row1  was  not  thinned  at  all.  The 
thinning  was  done  the  first  week  in  June  and  the  unthinned  branches 
bore  so  heavily  that  it  was  necessary  to  prop  them  to  prevent  breaK- 
ing  down.  All  except  the  top  row  were  from  the  same  tree,  on  which 
different  branches  had  been  differently  thinned. 


ive  Plums. 


1 


FROM  TREE  T 


BUT  FEVA  PLUMS 


PRODi. 


NOT  THINNED  AT  ALL 


TH I MISTED  TO  TWO  INCHES  APART 


THINNED  to  one  incPf^part 


Fig.  2— Showing  effects  of  thinning  upon  the  size  of  Burbank  plums. 


8 


Bulletin  No.  87. 


In  order  to  express  more  accurately  the  difference  in  the  size  of 
the  various  lots,  the  volume  and  weight  of  the  fruits  are  given  as 
follows: 

Volume  of  the 

Weights  of 

fruits  in  cubic 

the  fruits  in 

centimeters. 

grammes. 

Top  row 

335 

318.5 

Second  row 

235 

296.7 

Third  row 

210 

218.8 

Bottom  row 

190 

191.6 

It  is  of  interest  that  the  specific  gravity  of  the  fruit  increased  with 
the  size  of  the  fruits,  which  probably  indicates  higher  quality  for  the 
larger  specimens. 

From  the  above  table  it  is  easy  to  calculate  the  effect  of  the  thinning 
on  the  weight  of  fruit  harvested.  The  fruits  on  several  branches  that 
had  not  been  thinned  were  counted  and  about  24  fruits  to  the  foot  ap- 
peared to  be  a fair  average.  Where  the  fruits  were  thinned  to  one 
inch  apart  there  could  not  have  been  more  than  12  left  to  the  foot,  and 
where  they  were  thinned  to  two  inches  apart  there  could  not  have  been 
more  than  6 left  to  the  foot.  By  computation  it  is  readily  ascertained 
that  where  the  fruits  were  thinned  to  2 inches  apart,  the  maximum 
yield  could  not  have  exceeded  296.7  grammes  (10.41  ounces)  per  foot  of 
branch;  where  they  were  thinned  to  one  inch  apart  the  maximum  yield 
could  not  have  exceeded  497. G grammes  (17.47  ounces)  per  foot  of 
branch,  and  where  they  were  not  thinned  at  all  the  actual  yield  was 
766.4  grammes  (26.9  ounces)  per  foot  of  branch.  It  appears  then  that 
thinning  the  fruits  to  one  inch  apart  decreased  the  yield  about  35  per 
cent,  and  thinning  them  to  two  inches  apart  decreased  the  yield  about 
61  per  cent.  Leaving  the  effect  of  the  thinning  upon  the  tree  out  of 
the  problem  for  the  present,  it  appears  that  to  make  the  thinning  pay 
expenses  when  the  lower  sample  of  fruit  would  bring  in  market  $1.00 
per  bushel,  the  second  sample  from  the  bottom  would  need  to  bring 
$1.35,  and  the  third  sample  would  need  to  bring  $1.61  per  bushel. 

It  may  be  questioned  if  thinning  the  Japanese  plums  as  they  grow 
with  us  will  pay  from  the  increased  value  it  gives  to  the  fruit.  But  it 
should  be  remembered  that  this  is  only  one  of  the  benefits  conferred 
by  thinning.  The  destruction  of  insects  and  the  relief  it  gives  to  the 
tree  are  probably  of  greater  value  than  the  increased  value  given  to 
the  fruit. 

It  is  doubtful  if  the  size  of  the  fruit  can  be  maintained  up  to  a mar- 
ketable standard  in  trees  that  habitually  overbear  without  thinning, 
especially  in  the  Americana  plums,  in  which  small  size  is  the  thing 
that  it  is  most  important  to  eliminate. 


Native  Ptum&. 


0 


Marketing  the  native  plums. — Our  best  Americana  plums,  put  up  in 
ten-pound  “Climax”  grape  baskets,  sold  readily  at  the  stores  in  Madi- 
son the  past  season  at  20  to  30  cents  per  basket.  This  is  equivalent 
to  about  $1.50  per  bushel.  These  plums  retailed  ac  the  same  prices  that 
were  received  for  fair-quality  Michigan  peaches.  The  smaller  plums 
sold  readily  for  preserving  at  $1.00  to  $1.25  per  bushel.  One  hotel- 
keeper  ordered  six  bushels  of  these.  The  demand  for  native  plums  has 
been  excellent,  especially  for  the  medium-season  and  later  varieties  and 
we  have  not  yet  had  enough  to  test  the  capacity  of  our  local  market. 
Our  experience  indicates  that  there  is  little  danger  of  overstocking  the 
market  with  the  choicer  varieties,  neatly  packed  in  clean,  handled 
baskets. 


Fig.  3— A market  load  of  native  plums. 


Growing  seedlings  of  the  native  plums. — Our  custom  has  been  to  save 
a quantity  of  pits  from  our  finest  native  varieties,  mixing  these  witli 
sand  at  once,  keeping  them  in  a cool  place  until  October  and  then  plant- 
ing them  about  half  an  inch  deep,  and  four  inches  apart,  in  rows  three 
and  a half  feet  apart.  The  only  difficulty  we  have  found  with  this 
method  is  the  taking  out  of  the  pits  by  gophers  after  planting.  We 
have  covered  the  planted  rows  with  narrow  boards  but  this  has  noc 
wholly  prevented  the  trouble.  To  avoid  this  loss  we  decided  the  past 
autumn  to  leave  the  pits  in  the  sand  until  spring.  The  sand  and  pits 


10 


Bulletin  Bio.  87. 

are  in  tightly-covered  greenhouse  pots  which  are  placed  in  ah  out-doof 
pit  where  they  are  fully  exposed  to  frost. 

We  find  that  seedling  trees  that  are  not  transplanted  sometimes  bear 
freely  the  third  season  after  planting.  Where  transplanted  the  third 
spring  they  do  not  bear  until  the  season  following.  Our  plan  has  been 
to  thin  out  the  trees  in  the  nursery  rows  the  third  spring  after  plant- 
ing, leaving  them  about  four  feet  apart  in  the  row.  This  permits  the 
fruiting  of  a part  of  the  trees  on  the  nursery  ground.  They  should, 
however,  be  given  more  room  than  this.  We  find  that  the  trees  that 
were  removed  from  the  nursery  and  planted  five  feet  apart  both  ways 
have  yielded  much  finer  fruit  the  first  year  they  bore  than  the  trees  left 
in  tne  nursery. 

By  this  method,  many  seedlings  may  be  tested  sufficiently  to  deter- 
mine which  are  the  promising  ones  in  three  or  four  years.  Some  trees, 
however,  will  not  Lear  until  the  fifth  season.  The  worthless  trees  can 
be  cut  out  as  they  are  known,  to  give  those  left  more  room.  We  find 
that  the  fruit  borne  by  seedling  trees  their  first  two  bearing  years  will 
largely  pay  the  cost  of  growing  them. 


NOTES  OxV  VARIETIES. 

Our  Station  has  undertaken  to  test  varieties  of  the  native  plum  that 
offer  promise  of  value  for  the  northwest.  As  the  varieties  are  quite 
numerous,  the  describing  of  them  is  necessarily  somewhat  voluminous, 
and  the  descriptions  will  prove  of  interest  only  to  persons  who  are 
making  a special  study  of  the  subject.  Yet  we  feel  that  these  data 
should  be  put  on  record.  We  therefore  present  them  in  small  type  m 
order  that  they  may  be  available  for  reference. 

The  varieties  of  which  the  name  is  printed  in  Italics  were  described 
in  our  Bulletin  No.  63,  and  the  notes  here  given  are  supplementary  to 
those  published  in  that  bulletin.  Those  who  are  making  a study  of 
the  native  plum  will  find  it  to  their  advantage  to  cut  out  the  descrip- 
tion of  the  different  varieties  from  this  bulletin  and  that  from  our 
Bulletin  No.  63  and  then  paste  the  notes  of  the  same  variety  on  a card 
for  reference.  We  will  supply  duplicate  copies  for  this  purpose  on  ap- 
plication. 

Varieties  of  which  the  names  are  printed  in  common  type  were  not 
included  in  our  Bulletin  No.  63.  The  date  of  ripening  given  in  the 
descriptions  is  usually  the  date  when  the  descriptions  were  made,  hence 
the  varieties  were  usually  fit  to  harvest  a little  before  this  date.  The 
notes  were  mostly  made  by  Mr.  uranefield. 

There  is  some  doubt  as  to  whether  illustrations  of  the  fruit  of  the  na- 
tive plums  add  sufficiently  to  the  description  to  justify  their  cost.  The 
stable  characters  are  not  numerous  and  are  mostly  of  a kind  that  can 


Native  Plums . 11 

be  conveyed  by  verbal  descriptions  about  as  well  as  by  pictures.  On 
this  account  few  illustrations  are  inserted. 

The  varieties  that  appear  to  us  most  promising  for  market  are,  in  al- 
phabetical order,  Aitkin,  Barnsback,  Bomberger,  Brittlewood,  DeSoto 
and  Japan  Cross,  Diana,  Etta,  Freeman,  Hammer,  Haag  (when  sprayed 
for  rot),  Hart’s  De  Soto,  Nellie  Blanche,  North  Star,  Ocheeda,  Piper, 
Poole’s  Pride,  Quaker,  Silas  Wilson,  Springer,  Surprise  and  Wyant. 
These  varieties  have  been  large  in  size,  productive  and,  with  few  ex- 
ceptions, excellent  in  quality. 

Aitkin. — Tlie  tree  has  proved  productive  and  the  fruit  when  free  from  injury 
by  the  curculio,  to  which  it  is  extremely  subject,  is  very  salable.  It  does  not 
keep  well  after  picking  and  the  tree  is  somewhat  subject  to  “plum  pockets.” 
Fruit  ripe  in  1809  about  Aug.  12;  in  1900  on  July  30.  The  earliness  of  this 
variety  will  make  it  profitable  to  grow. 

American  Eagle. — Fruit  slightly  flattened,  apex  truncate,  suture  indistinct ; 
skin  thick  and  tough,  sprinkled  with  numerous  large  dots  ; color  dull  purplish- 
red,  quite  unattractive  when  fruit  is  fully  ripe ; flesh  coarse,  not  rich ; stem 
medium,  stout ; stone  oval,  slightly  pointed  at  ^pex.  Ripe  Sept.  11,  1899. 

Not  productive,  too  poor  in  quality  and  in  color  to  be  recommended.  Ripe 
Aug.  15,  1900. 

Annual  Bearer  Prunus  Americana. — Fruit  large  to  very  large,  oblong,  suture 
distinct ; purplish-red  on  yellow  ground  with  numerous  small  dots  and  heavy 
bloom,  skin  thick,  tough  ; stone  rather  strongly  flattened,  oval,  pointed,  sharp 
both  sides,  margined  ; flesh  rich, . good  in  flavor  but  too  soft  for  market ; ripe 
Aug.  25,  19u0.  From  Edson  Gaylord,  Nora  Springs,  Iowa. 

Apricot. — Round*  sh-oblonj*,  suture  indistinct ; purplish  red  with  very  slight 
bloom  ; skin  thick,  tough  ; stone  large,  oblong,  smooth,  margined  ; flesh  coarse, 
acerb  near  stone  ; lacks  richness,  poor.  Fruited  first  with  us  in  1900  ; ripe  Aug. 
28. 

Baraboo. — With  us  this  was  ne’ther  as  large  nor  as  firm  as  DeSoto  ; quality 
average  ; fruit  drops  early  and  does  not  keep  well.  Fruited  first  with  us  in 
1900. 

Barnsback  Prunus  Americana. — Fruit  large  to  very  large,  with  a minute  point 
at  apex,  a little  one-sided,  suture  distinct,  but  not  depressed  ; roundish,  slightly 
flattened  ; a yellowish  ground  two-thirds  covered  with  light  red,  sparsely  dotted, 
with  abundant  bloom  ; stem  medium  ; stone  oval,  pointed  at  ends  smooth,  mar- 
gined, grooved  on  back  ; skin  medium,  harsh  and  sour  unless  fully  ripe ; flesh 
pale  yellow  or  reddish,  juicy,  s’weet,  nearly  free*  from  the  stone,  flavor  excel- 
lent. Fruit  ripe  Sept.  11,  1899,  and  in  1900  on  Sept.  5.  A good  plum,  worthy 
of  trial  for  market. 

Bean. — Fruit  medium  to  small,  decidedly  oblong,  apex,  flattened,  suture  slightly 
depressed  ; pale  yellow,  tinged  with  crimson  in  sun,  dots  scarcely  visible,  bloom 
medium  to  heavy ; skin  thin,  tender ; flesh  sweet,  rich ; stone  large,  oblong, 
rough,  pointed,  slightly  grooved  on  back.  Ripe  in  1899  Aug.  23  and  in  1900 
Aug.  30. 

Worthy  of  growing  for  family  use,  but  not  large  enough  for  market. 

Beatty  Prunus  Americana. — In  our  bulletin  No.  63  we  confused  two  varieties 
under  this  name.  There  is  a Beaty  plum  from  Texas  which  belongs  to  Prunus 
angustifolia,  but  the  one  from  Iowa,  to  which  we  appended  Prof.  Budd’s  de- 
scription, is  spelled  with  two  t’s  and  belongs  to  the  Americana  class.  There 
also  seems  to  be  obscurity  as  to  the  origin  of  the  Iowa  variety,  for  Prof.  Budd 
reported  it  as  grown  by  Snyder  & Son  of  Center  Point,  while  Dr.  Dennis  reports 
it  as  grown  by  Mr.  Beatty  of  Shellsby,  la.  Dr.  Dennis  reports  the  Iowa  Beatty 
as  “very  large,  and  the  very  best  quality,  in  fact  there  are  none  I know  that 
excel  it  in  quality,  and  about  the  size  of  Hawkeye.”  Not  yet  described  from 
our  specimens. 

Black  Hawk  has  proved  productive  with  us,  but  not  above  average  in  quality, 
Ripe  Aug.  31,  1899. 


12 


Bulletin  No.  &*t. 


Bomberger.  Prunus  Americana.  Fruit  large  to  very  large,  nearly  round,  sU* 
ture  indistinct ; yellow,  more  or  less  covered  with  red  ; skin  thin,  tender,  free 
from  harshness,  may  be  eaten  with  impunity;  flesh  tender,  sweet,  moderately 
rich,  above  the  average  in  quality  ; stone  roundish,  smooth,  obscurely  pointed  ; 
ripe  Aug.  20,  1900. 

This  was  rated  as  one  of  the  most  promising  of  the  newer  plums.  It  has 
fruited  with  us  but  once,  but  we  regard  it  worthy  of  trial  for  market.  It  orig- 
inated with  H.  A.  Terry,  of  Crescent,  la.,  from  seed  of  Harrison’s  Peach  ; fruited 
first  with  Mr  Terry  in  1897.  The  tree  is  described  as  an  upright,  strong  grower 
and  quite  productive. 

Brittlewood.  Prunus  Americana.  Mentioned  but  not  described  in  our  bulle- 
tin No.  63.  Fruit  very  large,  roundish,  slightly  flattened,  truncate  at  both  ends, 
very  dark-red  when  fully  ripe,  with  slight  bloom,  dots  numerous,  small;  skin 
medium,  tender  ; flesh  somewhat  coarse,  but  rich,  quality  excellent ; stone  nearly 
free,  oval,  grooved,  strongly  margined,  sharp  on  the  back  ; ripe  Aug.  25,  1900. 

This  was  the  largest  plum  we  have  grown.  The  tree  prom'ses  to  be  produc- 
tive and  the  high  quality  of  the  fruit  will  doubtless  render  it  very  valuable  both 
for  home  use  and  market.  Mr.  Kerr  catalogues  a Brittlewood  No.  1 and  a Brit- 
tlewood No.  3,  of  which  the  only  difference  is  a week's  variation  in  the  time 
of  ripening.  Both  were  grown  by  Theodore  Williams,  of  Benson,  Neb.  We  do 
not  know  to  which  number  ours  belongs. 

California.  Fruit  medium  to  large,  apex  truiicate,  suture  slightly  depressed, 
bloom  heavy,  dots  large,  conspicuous ; flesh  firm,  meaty,  not  rich,  somewhat 
astringent  and  sour  ; ripe  Sept.  20,  1900. 

Charles  Downing. — Fruit  large  for  its  class;  bright-red  with  very  slight  bloom, 
dots  large,  conspicuous,  irregular  in  outline,  forming  in  many  cases  irregular 
lines;  skin  thin,  tender;  flesh  rich,  firm;  stone  oval,  pointed  at  apex,  strongly 
margined,  with  a very  prominent,  sharp  edge  ; ripe  Sept.  1,  1900 — two  or  three 
weeks  later  than  Wild  Goose  and  of  better  quality. 

Chengy-  Fruit  ripened  in  1900  about  two  weeks  later  than  Aitkin  ; in  1899 
it  was  not  so  far  behind  Aitkin  ; size  medium  to  large.  The  tree  does  not  fruit 
annually  with. us;  quality  only  fair. 

Chop  lank.-  The  fruit  of  this  is  described  by  Mr.  Kerr  as  “oblong,”  but  with 
us  it  was  decidedly  roundish  ; suture  distinct ; skin  sparsely  dotted  with  large 
dots,  thin  but  tough  with  very  scanty  bloom  ; flesh  yellow,  a trifle  richer  than 
Wild  Goose  ; above  the  average  of  its  class  in  quality  ; stone  small,  with  pointed 
apex,  cling  ; ripe  Aug.  25,  1900. 

Col.  Wilder.  (The  Wilder  of  Kerr). — Fruit  with  us  small  to  medium,  round, 
dull  purplish-red  with  conspicuous  dots  and  very  light  bloom  ; flesh  juicy,  rich  ; 
stone  small.  Season  early.  Originated  with  H.  A.  Terry,  of  Crescent,  Iowa, 
from  seed  of  the  Wild  Goose,  fruiting  first  in  1885. 

Cottrell. — This  fruited  in  1900,  but  the  fruit  was  a total  loss  from  cracking 
and  rotting. 

De  Soto  and  Japanese  Cross. — Fruit  large  to  very  large,  oblong,  slightly  point- 
ed, resembles  Abundance  in  shape,  pale-red,  with  numerous  small  dots  ; bloom 
medium  ; skin  thick  but  tender ; flesh  orange,  crisp,  tender,  juicy,  rich  with  a 
perceptible  flavor  of  the  Japanese  plums,  free  from  the  oval,  pointed,  margined 
and  grooved  stone ; ripe  Aug.  10,  1900.  The  tree  appears  to  be  a weak  and 
drooping  grower,  but  very  productive.  The  size,  appearance  and  quality  of  this 
plum  make  it  well  worthy  of  a trial  for  market.  From  Prof.  Budd  of  Ames,  la. 

Deep  Creek. — Fruit  small,  slightly  oval,  round  in  transverse  section,  suture 
distinct ; skin  deep  purplish-red,  sprinkled  with  minute  yellowish  specks  ; flesh 
tender,  rich-yellow,  sweet,  firm  and  good,  scarcely  adhering  to  the  very  thick, 
small,  margined  and  creased  stone  ; ripe  Aug.  -26,  1899,  and  Aug.  25,  1900.  Ours 
appears  to  be  different  from  the  one  of  this  name  described  by  Bailey  in  Cornell 
Bulletin  No.  38.  This  plum  is  good  in  quality,  but  its  small  size  is  objectionable. 

Diana.  Prunus  Americana.- — Fruit  large,  slightly  oblong,  somewhat  flattened, 
with  truncate  ends,  suture  distinct,  greenish-yellow,  washed  and  spotted  with 
purplish-red  over  two-thirds  of  the  surface,  the  purplish  color  assuming  the  form 
of  irregular  dots  in  some  places,  in  others  irregular  lines — no  whitish  dots  vis- 
ible ; skin  thick  and  tough,  but  peels  well  ; flesh  firm,  meaty,  sweet  and  rich  ; 
stone  very  large,  oval,  slightly  pointed  at  apex,  broadly  margined  with  very 
sharp  edges. 


Native  Plums . 


13 


Dunlap. — Small  to  medium,  oblong,  distinctly  flattened,  apex  slightly  pointed, 
suture  marked  by  a darker  purplish  line ; skin  greenish-yellow  obscured  with 
pale  purplish-red,  thick  and  tough,  with  heavy  bloom  ; flesh  tender,  juicy,  fairly 
sweet  and  rich,  entirely  free  from  the  oval,  thick,  very  smooth,  blunt,  margined 
stone.  This  may  be  the  “Dunlap's  No.  1,”  of  Kerr. 

Etta.  Prunus  Americana. — Fruit  large,  nearly  round,  yellow,  striped  and 
splashed  with  pale  red,  suture  distinct ; skin  medium,  tender ; flesh  sweet  and 
rich  ; stone  oval,  smooth,  grooved  on  back  ; ripe  Aug.  29,  1900.  Originated  with 
II.  A.  Terry,  Crescent,  la.  ; parentage  unknown,  fruiting  first  in  1895  ; tree  de- 
scribed as  a slow  grower.  A fine  plum,  attractive  in  appearance,  high  in  quality, 
and  promises  to  be  very  productive.  Worthy  of  trial  for  market. 

Freeman. — Fruit  medium  to  large,  apex  blunt,  suture  distinct ; color  bright 
shining  crimson,  very  rich  and  striking,  lower  half  of  surface  sprinkled  with 
numerous  small  dots  ; skin  thin,  tender,  not  in  the  least  harsh,  peels  very  read- 
ily ; flesh  very  tender,  juicy,  rich,  with  a peculiar  sprightly  flavor ; ripe  Aug. 
10,  1900.  Grown  by  Mr.  Terry  from  seed  of  Wild  Goose  in  1885.  “Tree  a 
vigorous  grower  and  fairly  productive  of  fruit  of  fine  quality  and  large  size.” 
Terry.— A choice  plum,  worthy  of  trial  for  market  where  the  hortulana  plums 
succeed. 

Gale  Seedling. — Has  been  abandoned  as  unworthy  of  cultivation. 

Gaylord. — Seems  very  productive ; the  flesh  is  rather  soft,  but  of  excellent 
flavor,  the  skin  is  thick,  tough  and  harsh  unless  the  fruit  is  fully  ripe ; tree 
appears  to  be  a weak  grower. 

Haag. — -Fruit  medium  to  large,  dark  purplish-red,  thickly  dotted  with  minute 
dots,  roundish,  slightly  oblong,  apex  truncate  ; stem  stout ; suture  distinct ; skin 
medium,  not  harsh,  peels  readily  ; flesh  greenish-yellow,  tender,  sweet  and  rich  ; 
stone  oval,  much  flattened  toward  apex,  not  margined  ; ripe  Aug.  25,  1900.  The 
tree  is  vigorous  and  very  productive  and  the  fruit  is  above  the  average  in  quality, 
but  rotted  quite  badly  in  1900. 

Hammer. — Bloom  on  fruit  moderate,  suture  distinctly  marked  but  not  de- 
pressed ; stem  long,  slender ; flesh  yellow  with  a slight  reddish  tinge,  juicy, 
sweet,  fine  ; skin  not  as  thick  as  in  most  Americana'  plums,  peels  rather  readily  ; 
stone  oval,  smooth,  not  margined  or  creased  ; fruit  ripened  first  week  in  Septem- 
ber in  1899  and  in  1900.  An  excellent  plum,  worthy  of  trial  for  market. 

Hart’s  De  Soto. — Fruit  medium  to  large,  roundish,  slightly  flattened,  apex 
truncate,  suture  distinct ; yellow,  partly  obscured  by  crimson  which  changes  to 
purplish-red  when  fully  ripe,  dots  small  and  numerous,  bloom  heavy  ; skin  thick 
and  tough  ; flesh  moderately  rich  ; stone  oval,  thick,  smooth,  pointed,  strongly 
margined,  grooved  on  back  : ripe  Sept.  1,  1900.  Closely  resembles  De  Soto,  but 
slightly  better  in  quality  and  about  a week  earlier. 

Hawkeye. — The  tree  has  proved  productive,  and  the  fruit  large  and  attractive, 
but  the  latter  is  too  poor  in  quality  to  recommend  for  culture  as  compared  with 
the  many  better  varieties  we  now  have.  It  cracked  and  rotted  among  the  worst 
in  1900 ; the  latter  half  of  the  crop,  however,  ripened  well. 

Hilman. — Fruit  small  to  medium,  oblong,  yellow  about  two-tliirds  covered  with 
purple,  sparingly  dotted  with  large,  conspicuous  dots ; stem  long  and  slender ; 
skin  medium,  not  harsh,  peels  readily;  nesh  yellow,  firm,  sweet;  stone  small, 
oval,  not  pointed  or  margined  ; ripens  with  Rollingstone,  which  it  resembles  in 
quality  ; ripe  Aug.  24,  1899. 

Homestead. — Fruit  too  small — discarded. 

Honey.  Prunus  Americana. — Fruit  small,  roundish,  slightly  pointed  at  apex, 
greenish-yellow  with  many  large,  purplish  dots  and  washed  with  purplish-red, 
suture  scarcely  visible  ; skin  medium,  not  very  tough  ; flesh  sweet  but  only  fair 
in  quality  ; stone  small,  thick,  widely  margined.  Fruit  too  small  to  have  value. 

Hunt. — Fruit  large  to  very  large,  oblong,  flattened,  slightly  pointed,  suture  dis- 
tinct, somewhat  depressed  ; yellow,  largely  covered  with  bright  red  : flesh  greenish 
yellow,  firm  but  not  rich  or  sweet,  harsh  next  to  stone.  The  stone  of  this  vari- 
ety suggests  Americana  parentage,  but  the  leaves  seem  pure  hortulana. 

Illinois  Ironclad. — Fruit  large,  very  irregular  in  form,  mostly  roundish-oblong  : 
dark  purplish-red,  very  thickly  dotted  with  minute  whitish  dots  and  covered 
with  thick  bloom  ; flesh  firm,  meaty,  rich  orange-yellow,  fair  in  quality  ; stone 
large,  oval,  smooth,  indistinctly  margined.  The  fruit  keeps  firm  longer  after 
picking  than  that  of  any  other  variety  tested  : the  curculio  and  plum-gouger  were 
paore  troublesome  than  on  many  other  varieties, 


14 


Bulletin  No.  87. 


James  Vick.  Prunus  hortulana. — Fruit  roundish-oval,  with  numerous  dots, 
distinct  suture  and  very  light  bloom  ; skin  thin,  but  tough  ; flesh  yellowish-green, 
tender ; stone  small,  oval,  thick,  rough  and  wrinkled,  pointed  at  apex,  distinctly 
margined.  The  fruit  was  medium  to  small,  and  of  fair  to  good  quality.  H.  A. 
Terry  (with  whom  this  plum  originated  from  seed  of  the  Wild  Goose,  bearing 
first  in  1885),  describes  the  tree  as  “a  spreading,  straggling  but  vigorous  grower, 
quite  productive,”  and  the  fruit  as  “of  large  size,  round,  bright  red,  good 
quality.” 

Jewell. — Fruit  bright,  shining-red,  with  numerous  inconspicuous  dots,  suture 
indistinct ; skin  thin,  peels  readily ; flesh  greenish-yellow* ; lacking  in  richness 
and  flavor ; stone  very  small,  roundish,  thick  ; ripe  Aug.  25,  1900  ; ripened  slowly 
and  unevenly. 

Jones. — Fruit  oblong-oval  with  roundish  apex,  dark  purplish-red,  with  indis- 
tinct suture  and  light  bloom  ; skin  thick,  tender  ; flesh  firm,  meaty,  adhering  to 
the  stone,  which  is  oblong,  smooth,  rather  thick  and  hot  margined ; quality 
scarcely  average. 

Knudso'nts  Peach. — Fruit  too  small  to  have  value  ; w*ill  be  discarded. 

Late  Rollingstone. — With  us,  this  has  proved  little  if  any  later  than  the 
Rollingstone,  and  not  superior  to  the  latter  in  any  respect. 

Luedloff’s  Seedling.  Prunus  Americana. — Fruit  medium,  bright-red  on  yellow 
ground,  sprinkled  with  small  dots,  suture  distinct ; skin  very  thick  and  tough  ; 
stone  nearly  free,  oval,  sharply  pointed,  distinctly  margined  with  sharp  edge, 
grooved  on  back.  With  us  this  plum  has  been  too  small  and  too  poor  in  quality 
to  have  value. 

Manlmto. — This  5s  a choice  plum  in  quality,  but  the  tree  is  only  moderately 
productive  and  drops  its  fruit  quite  badly  ; ripe  Aug.  14,  1899. 

Maquolceta. — Has  proved  a reliable  late  plum,  of  fair  size  and  quality  ; ripe 
Sept.  11,  1899. 

Melon.  Prunus  Americana.^- Fruit  small  to  medium,  round,  dark-red  with 
indistinct  suture  and  heavy  bloom  ; skin  thin,  tender,  peels  readily  ; flesh  firm, 
meaty,  rich,  fx*ee  from  the  small,  oval,  widely-margined  stone';  ripe  Sept.  3, 
1900 ; origin  unknown  ; from  Chas.  Luedloff,  Cologne,  Minn.  This  variety  ap- 
pears to  have  merit  for  its  high  quality  and  small,  free  stone. 

Nellie  Blanche.  Prunus  Americana.— Fruit  large,  roundish-oblong  with  dis- 
tinct suture,  yellow,  mottled  with  crimson  and  sprinkled  with  inconspicuous 
dots  ; skin  thick  and  tough,  does  not  peel  readily,  somewhat  harsh  ; flesh  very 
sweet  and  rich  except  near  the  stone,  which  is  very  large  and  thick,  oblong, 
pointed  at  apex  and  widely  margined.  This  variety  is  promising  for  its  large 
size,  productiveness  and  fine  color  ; worthy  of  a trial  for  market. 

Newton  Egg. — Fruit  dark  purplish-red  when  fully  ripe,  thickly  sprinkled  with 
nrnute  dots,  suture  distinct ; skin  medium,  peels  readily  ; flesh  light  yellow,  me- 
dium to  poor  in  quality  ; stone  oblong-oval,  smooth,  not  pointed  or  margined. 

New  Ulm. — Our  trees  of  this  variety  limited  well  in  1900,  but  the  fruit  wras 
wholly  destroyed  by  rot  before  maturity. 

North  Star. — With  us  this  plum  has  proved  similar  to  the  Surprise  in  size, 
quality  and  general  appearance  ; ripe  Aug.  24,  1899.  Originated  by  Martin  Pen- 
ning, Sleepy  Eye,  Minn.,  from  seed  of  the  Surprise. 

Noyes.  Prunus  Americana. — Fruit  large  to  very  large,  roundish,  truncate  at 
apex,  suture  distinct,  slightly  depressed ; dark  red,  closely  dotted  with  large, 
yellowish  dots,  bloom  medium  ; skin  thick,  tough  and  harsh  ; flesh  reddish-green, 
rich  and  sweet : stone  oval,  roughened,  strongly  margined  ; ripe  Sept.  7,  1900. 

Ochecda. — This  continues  to  be  one  of  our  most  reliable  varieties.  It  has  not 
failed  to  fruit  since  1894  and  the  fruit  has  always  been  of  good  size  and  quality; 
ripe  Aug.  31,  1899. 

Odegard.  Prunus  Americana  (Nigra  group). — Fruit  large  to  very  large,  ob- 
long, regular  with  distinct  suture,  bright  crimson,  thickly  dotted  over  whole 
surface,  without  bloom  ; skin  medium,  tender  ; stone  flattened,  distinctly  pointed  ; 
ripe  Aug.  25.  1899.  Showy,  but  poor  in  quality. 

Old  Gold. — Fruit  small  to  medium,  oblong,  or  sometimes  roundish,  light,  clear 
yellow  during  early  stages  of  ripening  but  changes  to  dark-red  over  two-thirds  of 
its  surface  at  full  maturity,  with  rather  conspicuous  dots ; skin  thick,  tough, 
very  harsh  ; flesh  lacking  in  texture  and  richness ; stone  large,  roundish-oval, 
smooth,  not  pointed,  prominently  margined.  The  foliage  was  injured  in  1900  by 
sliot-ftoJe  fungus,  and  the  fruit  rotted  quite  badly. 


Native  Plums. 


15 


Owatonna. — Fruit  medium  in  size  ; flesh  yellow,  tender,  slightly  bitter ; skin 
does  not  peel  well ; ripe  Aug.  20,  1899.  This  has  not  proved  productive  with 
us,  but  it  is  top-worked  on  a Wyant  which  has  overgrown  it  somewhat. 

Pilot. — Fruit  large,  oblong-oval  with  rounded  apex  and  distinct  suture,  green- 
ish-yellow, partly  obscured  with  light-red  on  sun-side,  mottled  with  red  in  shade, 
dots  small,  numerous  ; skin  thick  and  tough  ; flesh  firm,  rich  and  sweet ; stone 
long-oval,  moderately  thick,  pointed,  margined,  shallow-grooved  on  back.  This 
plum  is  above  the  average  in  quality,  but  the  fruit  cracked  and  rotted  badly  in 
1900 ; the  trees  appear  to  be  poor  drooping  growers. 

Piper.  Primus  Americana. — This  is  the  “Piper's  Peach”  of  our  Bulletin  No. 
63.  The  fruit  is  large,  roundish,  bright-red  ; skin  rather  thick  ; flesh  sweet  and 
rich,  nearly  free  from  the  roundish,  slightly  margined  stone  ; ripe  Aug.  25,  1899  ; 
tree  a free  grower  with  short-jointed  wood,  quite  productive,  but  is  apparently 
rather  slow  in  coming  into  bearing.  Received  in  the  fall  of  1889,  from  J.  S. 
Harris,  of  La  Crescent,  Minn.,  who  procured  it  in  the  vicinity  of  Mankato, 
Minn.,  about  two  years  previously.  The  tree  has  proved  so  productive  with  us 
as  to  suggest  its  value  for  market.  See  Fig.  4. 

Poole’s  Pride. — Fruit  medium  to  large  with  distinct  suture,  bright  red,  sparsely 
dotted  with  large,  white  dots  and  covered  with  heavy  bloom ; skin  medium, 
tough,  peels  readily  ; flesh  medium  Arm,  sweet  and  rich,  much  higher  in  quality 
than  that  of  Wild  Go'ose  or  Pottawattamie  : stone  small,  oval,  thick,  sharply 
pointed  at  both  ends,  distinctly  margined.  If  tfie  flower-buds  prove  sufficiently 
hardy,  this  will  doubtless  prove  a valuable  market  variety. 

Pottawattamie. — One  of  our  two  trees  of  this  variety  was  root-killed  during 
the  winter  of  1898-9  and  the  other  was  seriously  injured.  The  Wild  Goose  and 
Robinson  survived. 

Prairie  Flower.  Prunus  hortulana  (Miner  group). — Fruit  medium,  roundish- 
oblong,  dark-red  with  conspicuous  dots  and  distinct  suture  ; skin  thin,  tender  ; 
flesh  firm,  meaty,  rich,  sugary,  clinging  to  the  short  and  broad,  thick  stone  ; re- 
sembles Miner  in  appearance  but  higher  in  quality  ; keeps  well.  Introduced  by 
Stark  Brothers,  of  Louisiana,  Mo. 

Quaker. — This  continues  to  be  one  of  our  most  satisfactory  plums  in  hardiness, 
productiveness,  size  and  quality  ; ripe  Aug.  24,  1899. 

Quality.  Prunus  Americana. — Fruit  small  to  medium,  round,  dull  purplish-red 
with  numerous  small,  white  dots  and  heavy  bloom  ; skin  thin  ; flesh  soft ; stone 
medium,  thick,  margined.  This  plum  is  only  average  in  quality  and  does  not 
keep  well  ; not  valuable  with  us.  From  Edson  Gaylord,  Nora  Springs,  la. 

Robert’s  Free  Stone.  Prunus  Americana. — Fruit  med’um  to  large,  oblong,  flat- 
. tened,  of  a peculiar  shade  of  light,  greenish-yellow,  partly  obscured  with  purplish 
red  and  sprinkled  with  many  small,  whitish  dots  and  also  with  large  purplish 
spots  ; suture  uist’nctly  marked  by  a band  of  dark-red  ; skin  thick,  tough,  not 
peeling  readily  ; flesh  moderately  firm,  very  sweet  but  not  very  rich,  stone  oval, 
thick,  smooth,  slightly  margined,  almost  free  ; ripe  Sept.  3,  1900. 

Robinson. — This  is  the  most  reliable  of  the  Chickasaw  class  that  we  have  test- 
ed. The  tree  is  uniformly  productive  : the  fruit  is  excellent  for  jelly  and  attrac- 
tive in  appearance ; ripe  Aug.  21,  1899. 

Sada.  Prunus  Americana. — Fruit  large,  showy,  round,  sparingly  dotted,  with 
indistinct  suture;  stem  long;  skin  thick,  harsh  and  sour;  flesh  dark-yellow,  mod- 
erately rich,  “mushy”  and  of  poor  flavor  when  ripe  ; stone  oval,  strongly  mar- 
gined, slightly  pointed  ; ripe  Sept.  5,  1899.  Grown  from  seed  of  Van  Buren  by  H. 
A.  Terry,  of  Crescent,  la.,  bearing  fruit  first  in  1893.  “Tree  a strong  grower  of 
spreading  habit,  and  a heavy  bearer.”- — Terry. 

Silas  Wilson.  Prunus  Americana.-— Fruit  meduim  to  large,  roundish-oblong, 
flattened,  truncate  at  both  ends,  yellow,  washed  with  bright  red,  with  large 
irregular  dots  ; suture  marked  with  a heavy  line  of  purplish-red  ; skin  thick  but 
not  tough  ; flesh  tender  and  rich,  meaty,  sweet,  of  excellent  flavor ; stone  very 
large,  alm'ost  circular,  smooth,  widely  and  sharply  margined  ; ripe  Sept.  3,  1900. 
The  fruit  rotted  badly  the  past  season.  This  plum  is  promising  for  market. 

Sixby.  Prunus  Americana. — Fruit  small  to  medium,  bright  red,  sprinkled  over 
whole  surface  with  conspicuous  dots  ; suture  distinct,  depressed  ; stem  slender  ; 
skin  thick,  rather  tender,  does  not  peel  readily  ; flesh  deep-yellow  tinged  with 
red,  crisp,  rich  ; stone  oval,  smooth,  slightly  margined.  From  Edson  Gaylord, 
Nora  Springs,  la.  Fruit  not  large  enough  to  give  much  promise, 


Bulkliu  No,  87. 


1G 


Fig.  4— Piper  plum— natural  size. 


Native  Plums, 


17 


Fig.  5— Springer  plum— natural  size. 


18 


Bulletin  No.  87, 


Smith. — Fruit  medium  to  large,  roundish,  inclined  to  oblong  in  some  speci- 
mens, very  dark,  dull-red,  thickly  dotted  with  heavy  bloom  ; skin  thick,  tough 
and  harsh,  does  not  peel  readily  ; flesh  greenish-yellow,  juicy  but  lacking  in  rich- 
ness and  flavor ; ripe  Aug.  25,  1900.  Attractive  in  appearance  but  of  only  aver- 
age quality. 

Snooks.  Prunus  Americana. — Fruit  large  to  very  large,  oblong,  slightly  flat- 
tened, apex  somewhat  pointed,  of  a dull,  unattractive  red  color,  sparsely  sprinkled 
with  large  dots  ; skin  thick  but  not  very  tough  ; flesh  tender,  crisp,  rather  rich  ; 
ripe'  Aug.  22,  1900.  This  plum  resembles  the  Quaker  in  many  respects  but  is 
not  quite  equal  to  it  in  quality.  Received  from  Prof.  J.  L.  Budd,  of  Ames, 
la.  ; further  than  this  its  history  is  unknown.  Prof.  Craig  rated  it  nearly  or 
quite  identical  with  Ne^y  Him.  (Bull.  46,  Iowa  Expt.  Sta.) . With  us  these 
two  did  not  appear  to  be  the  same. 

Speer. — This  plum  is  too  small,  and  the  tree  is  too  much  given  to  over-bearing 
with  us  to  have  value.  See  Fig.  1. 

Springer.  Prunus  Americana. — Fruit  large  to  very  large  ; deep  purplish-red, 
shading  to  yellow  on  side  away  from  sun,  thickly  sprinkled  with  yellow  dots, 
with  moderate  bloom,  suture  distinct ; skin  thick,  tender  and  free  from  harsh- 
ness ; flesh  rich-yellow,  sweet  and  rich,  adhering  to  the  large,  thick-margined 
stone  ; ripe  Aug.  25,  1899,  and  first  week  in  Sept.,  1900. 

This  plum  was  sent  to  our  Station  in  1890  by  the  late  Win.  A.  Springer,  of 
Fremont,  Wis',  and  was  found  wild  by  him  in  the  vicinity  of  his  home.  The 
tree  has  proved  uniformly  productive,  and  the  fruit,  when  properly  thinned,  is  of 
large  size  and  fine  appearance.  I regard  it  well  worthy  of  trial  for  market.  Tne 
plum  had  no  name  when  received  by  us,  and  Mr.  Springer  did.  not  name  it  to 
my  knowledge.  We  have  called  it  after  him  with  the  hope  that  it  will  prove 
worthy  of  the  name. 

Surprise. — Fruit  large,  bright-red,  densely  sprinkled  with  yellowish  dots,  with 
heavy  bloom  ; suture  distinct ; skin  peels  readily  from  the  ripe  fruit : flesh  pale- 
yellow,  very  tender  and  rich,  strongly  adherent  to  the  stone,  which  is  oval, 
double-pointed,  thick,  a little  rough  and  very  obscurely  margined.  When  fully 
ripe  the  color  differs  little  from  that  of  many  Americana  plums,  viz.,  a purplish 
red  ; but  before  fully  ripe  it  is  a peculiar  reddish-pink,  that  will  help  to  identify 
the  variety.  We  rated  this  plum  best  in  quality  of  those  fruited  in  1899,  when  it 
was  ripe  Aug.  24  ; in  1900  the  tree  failed  to  bear. 

Van  Burcn.— Fruit  small  to  medium,  roundish,  only  slightly  tinged  with  pur- 
ple when  fully  ripe,  dots  indistinct,  bloom  light ; skin  tough,  flesh  yellow,  sweet ; 
stone  very  large.  This  plum  is  of  fair  to  good  quality,  but  is  too  small  with  us 
and  the  fruit  rotted  badly  in  1900  : ripe  Sept.  9,  1899. 

Van  Deman. — This  bore  heavily  in  1900,  but  the  fruit  all  cracked  and  rotted 
before  maturity.  Grown  by  II.  A.  Terry,  of  Crescent,  Iowa,  from  seed  of  the 
Hawkeye  in  1891.  “Fru;t  very  large,  round,  slightly  inclining  to  oblong,  dark- 
red,  of  good  quality.  Tree  quite  upright  until  it  bears  fruit,  when  the  branches 
become  depressed  with  the  great  weight,  and  it  has  the  appearance  of  a weeping 
tree  ; ripe  last  of  August.”- — -Terry. 

Wolf  Cling.  Prunus  Americana. — Fruit  large  to  very  large,  oblong,  suture  in- 
distinct ; dark  purplish-red,  thickly  dotted  and  covered  with  heavy  bloom  ; skin 
thick,  tough  and  harsh ; stone  small,  oval,  smooth.  The  tree  appears  to  be 
productive  and  the  fruit  is  showy,  but  the  quality  is  not  above  average. 

Wragg  Free  Stone. — Fruit  medium  to  small,  roundish,  dark  purplish-red  with 
numerous  elongated  yellowish  markings  and  heavy  bloom : stem  long,  slender ; 
skin  medium-tender,  not  harsh  ; flesh  greenish-yellow,  crisp,  very  rich  but  harsh 
next  the  stone,  which  is  not  wholly  free,  round  and  -grooved  on  back.  This  plum 
would  rank  very  high  in  quality  but  for  the  harshness  next  the  stone.  Received 
from  Edson  Gaylord,  Nora  Springs,  la. 

'Wyant. — —This  continues  to  be  one  of  our  most  reliable  varieties,  having  not 
failed  to  yield  a crop  since  1894  ; ripe  Sept.  1,  1899.  Introduced  by  Prof.  J.  L. 
Budd,  of  Ames,  Iowa,  who  procured  cions  of  it  from  J.  E.  Wyant,  of  Shellsburg, 
Iowa.  The  latter  obtained  it  from  his  mother’s  yard  in  Janesville,  la.  (Craig 
Pull.  46,  Iowa  Expt.  Sta.) 


Native  Plums. 


19 


Cions  and  trees  of  the  native  plums. — Our  Station  receives  numerous 
applications  for  cions  and  trees  of  the  native  plums.  We  take  this  op- 
portunity to  announce  that,  as  yet,  we  have  no  trees  to  offer.  We  have, 
however,  sometimes  furnished  cions  to  applicants.  While  we  desire 
to  aid  in  the  dissemination  of  the  finer  varieties  of  native  plums,  the 
cost  of  cutting,  labeling,  wrapping  and  mailing  cions  is  so  great  that 
we  cannot  undertake-  to  furnish  them  gratis,  nor  would  such  a course 
be  just  to  our  nurserymen.  We,  therefore,  announce  that  hereafter 
cions  of  named  varieties,  so  far  as  we  have  them  to  spare,  will  be  sent 
postpaid  at  the  uniform  price  of  one  cent  each.  We  are  always  ready 
to  exchange  cions  for  varieties  which  we  desire  to  obtain. 


CULINARY  USES  OF  NATIVE  PLUMS. 

During  the  summer  of  1898  a number  of  ladies  residing  in  several 
different  states,  who  were  kndwn  to  have  had  large  experience  in  using 
the  native  plums,  were  invited  to  contribute  recipes  for  the  preparations 
they  had  found  most  satisfactory.  Their  response  was  generous,  and 
from  the  contributions  sent  in  we  compiled  a list  of  approved  recipes 
which  was  published  in  a number  of  newspapers  of  our  own  and  adjoin- 
ing states.  The  interest  manifested  in  these  recipes  then  and  since,  war- 
rants the  reprinting  of  them  here. 

“The  native  plums,  especially  those  with  firm  pulp,  after  being  treated 
by  any  of  the  methods  mentioned  below,  are  well  adapted  to  all  pur- 
poses for  which  the  foreign  plums  are  used.  As  a rule,  more  sugar  is 
required  for  the  native  plums,  but  the  preparations  are  richer  in  pro- 
portion. The  harshness  in  the  skin  and  stone  of  some  native  plums  is 
readily  removed  by  steaming  them  in  an  ordinary  cooking  steamer  un- 
til the  skin  cracks;  or  pour  over  them  boiling  water  to  which  has  been 
added  common  baking  soda  in  the  proportion  of  half  a teaspoonful  to  a 
quart.  The  thicker-skinned  varieties  may  be  readily  peeled  by  placing 
them  in  boiling  water  2 or  3 minutes.  The  recipes  follow:  — 

“ Canning . — Pick  the  fruit  when  well  colored  but  a little  hard,  steam 
or  cook  in  a porcelain-lined  kettle  until  tender,  put  in  cans  that  have 
first  been  treated  to  boiling  water  and  cover  with  boiling  syrup  maCe 
of  equal  parts  of  granulated  sugar  and  water,  filling  the  can  to  the  top; 
then  run  a silver  knife  around  the  can  inside  and  let  out  the  air,  and 
seal  at  once.  Plums  cooked  in  the  syrup  are  likely  to  be  tougn. 
Canned  plums  may  be  used  for  pies  and  for  mixing  with  or  flavoring 
other  fruits.  Plums  are  often  canned  without  sugar  to  be  used  in  win- 
ter for  making  fresh  plum  butter.  The  juice  of  canned  plums  makes 
excellent  jelly.”  One  lady  recommends  splitting  native  plums  to  thq 
stone  on  one  side  before  cooking,  to  avoid  crumbling. 


20 


Bulletin  No.  87. 


“Drying.  De  Soto,  Wyant  and  doubtless  other  varieties  may  be 
pared,  pitted,  and  spread  on  plates,  lightly  sprinkled  with  sugar  and 
dried,  first  in  the  oven  and  later  in  the  sun.  Cook  like  dried  peaches. 

“ Plum  jelly. — The  fruit  should  be  gathered  when  only  part  ripe — 
about  half  colored.  This  point  is  very  essential.  Put  plums  In  a large 
granite  or  porcelain  kettle— the  latter  is  best— with  barely  enough 
water  to  cover  them.  Cook  until  tender  but  not  until*  they  are  in  a 
pulpy  mass.  Having  previously  covered  a large  jar  with  a cloth,  strain 
the  fruit  in  and  let  the  juice  drop  through,  but  do  not  squeeze.  When 
all  has  drained  through,  strain  once  or  twice  more  through  another 
cloth,  until  the  juice  is  perfectly  clear.  To  one  measure  of  juice  pro- 
vide one  measure  of  granulated  sugar,  but  do  not  put  together  at  once. 
A very  important  point  in  the  making  of  all  jelly  is  that  only  a small 
quantity  should  be  cooked  at  one  time.  Into  a medium-sized  kettle  put, 
say,  4 tumblers  of  juice;  let  it  boil  briskly  15  or  20  minutes,  then  add 
the  4 tumblers  of  sugar,  and  in  a very  short  time — usually  from  3 to  lu 
minutes — the  jelly  will  be  finished,  light,  clear  and  delicious.  To  test 
the  jelly,  dip  a spoon  into  the  boiling  juice  and  sugar  and  hold  it  up; 
when  the  jelly  clings  to  the  spoon  in  thick  drops,  take  it  off  quickly  and 
put  into  jelly  glasses.  ‘The  plum  pulp  which  is  left  can  be  put  through 
a colander  and  used  for  plum  butter.” 

The  following  is  regarded  as  important  by  one  contributor:  “The 
earlier  in  the  morning  and  the  clearer  the  day  the  better  will  be  your 
jelly.  A cloudy  day  makes  dark  jelly,  and  if  not  made  early  in  the  day 
the  juice  requires  boiling  so  much  longer  that  tne  jelly  is  dark,  and 
sometimes  it  is  almost  impossible  to  get  it  to  jelly.” 

“Another  correspondent  writes:  ‘It  is  well  to  begin  to  test  it  after 
boiling  15  minutes,  putting  a teasponful  at  a time  in  a saucer  and  set- 
ting in  a cool  place  for  a moment;  scrape  it  to  one  side  with  a spoon 
and'  if  u is  done,  the  surface  will  be  partly  solid;  then  roll  the  tumblers 
in  boiling  water  quickly  and  fill  them  with  the  jelly.  On  the  top  oi 
each,  while  it  is  still  hot,  drop  a lump  of  clean  paraffin,  which  will  melt 
and  cover  the  top  quickly,  preventing  moulding.  If  prepared  in  tills 
way  it  will  not  need  to  be  tied  with  brandied  paper  or  other  special 
care  taken.’ 

“ Plum  Gutter,  jam  or  marmalade. — Boil  the  fruit  in  clear  water  until 
nearly  done.  Remove  from  the  stove  and  put  through  a colander  to  re- 
move the  pits.  Then  rub  through  a sieve  to  make  the  pulp  fine.  Place 
pulp  in  a kettle  with  about  half  as  much  sugar  as  pulp,  or  if  you  wisTl 
to  have  it  very  rich,  nearly  as  much  sugar  as  pulp,  and  boil  down  to 
the  desired  thickness.  Stir  almost  constantly  to  prevent  sticking  to 
the  kettle. 

“Another  recipe. — To  make  very  nice  plum  butter  out  of  DeSoto, 
Wyant  or  any  other  freestone  plum,  pare  and  take  out  the  pits,  put  in 


Native  Flams. 


21 


granite  kettle  or  pan  and  sprinkle  heavily  with  sugar,  and  let  stand 
over  night.  In  the  morning  there  will  be  juice  enough  to  cook  them. 
Stir  constantly  while  cooking  and  add  more  sugar  if  not  sweet  enough. 
This  way  preserves  the  grain  of  the  fruit  and  with  the  DeSoto  plum 
makes  a butter  equal  or  superior  to  peach  butter.  If  put  in  glass  and 
canned,  less  cooking  is  required  than  if  kept  in  open  jars.  A third  cor- 
respondent would  add:  Do  not  attempt  to  make  a fine  quality  of  either 
plum  butter,  jam  or  marmalade  without  first  steaming  the  fruit. 

“ Plum  preserves. — Use  plums  that  will  peel,  like  Wild  Goose  or  Pot- 
tawattamie. No  water  is  required  if  the  sugar  is  allowed  to  remain 
on  them  long  enough  to  draw  out  the  juice.  Boil  until  the  syrup  is 
clear  and  as  thick  as  honey. 

“Another  recipe. — Take  equal  weights  of  fruit  and  sugar;  place  in 
stone  jar  a layer  of  fruit,  then  a layer  of  sugar — alternating  thus  until 
quantity  desired  is  reached.  Let  stand  over  night;  in  the  morning 
drain  off  the  syrup  that  will  have  formed  into  a porcelain-lined  kettle, 
place  same  over  the  fire  and  let  syrup  come  to  a ooil;  then  pour  it  over 
fruit  in  jar  again;  repeat  this  every  day  until  the  fourth  heating,  when 
fruit  and  syrup  are  both  put  in  kettle  and  boiled  for  a few  minutes. 
Place  same  in  glass  jars  while  hot,  seal  and  put  away  in  some  cool  and 
preferably  dark  place. 

“Still  another  recipe. — To  each  pound  of  plums  add  a pcuad  or  sugai ; 
put  the  fruit  into  boiling  water  until  the  skins  will  slip;  peel  and 
sprinkle  sugar  upon  each  layer  of  fruit  in  a bowl,  allowing  them  to 
stand  over  night;  then  pour  off  the  juice,  bring  quickly  to  a boil,  skim 
and  add  the  plums;  cook  very  slowly  till  tender  and  clear,  which  will 
take  about  one-half  hour;,  take  them  out  carefully  and  put  into  a pan; 
boil  the  syrup  a few  minutes  longer  till  it  thickens;  pour  it  over  the 
fruit;  seal  or  tie  them  up. 

“Spiced  plums. — Make  a syrup,  allowing  4 pounds  of  -sugar  and  1 pint 
of  vinegar  to  each  7 pounds  of  plums;  to  this  add  a teaspoonful  of  all- 
spice, 1 of  cloves,  2 of  cinnamon,  and  y2  ounce  of  ginger  root,  tying 
these  spices  into  muslin,  and  cooKing  them  in  the  syrup.  When  it 
boils,  add  the  plums,  bringing  all  to  the  boiling  point,  then  simmer 
slowly  for  15  minutes  and  stand  in  a cool  place  over  night.  Next  drain 
the  syrup  from  the  plums,  put  the  plums  into  stone  or  glass  jars,  and 
boil  the  syrup  till  quite  thick,  pour  it  over  the  fruit  and  set  away. 

“Another  correspondent  recommends  pouring  the  boiling  spiced  syrup 
over  the  plums  in  a stone  jar,  drawing  it  off  and  bringing  it  to  a boil 
every  other  day  and  pouring  over  the  plums  again  until  it  has  been 
heated  5 times,  after  which  the  fruit  and  syrup  are  placed  in  a kettle 
and  boiled  slowly  for  5 minutes,  and  sealed  hot  in  glass  jars.  This  is 
said  to  preserve  the  plums  whole. 

“ Other  ways  of  using  native  plums. — The  choicest  varieties,  peeled, 
and  served  fresh  are  equal  to  the  finest  peaches.  By  simply  covering 


22 


Bulletin  No.  87. 


the  fresn  plums  with  cold  well  water,  they  may  be  kept  for  3 weeks  or 
longer,  and  the  water  removes  all  harshness  from  the  sKin  and  pit. 
They  may  be  kept  in  good  condition  for  use  until  winter  or  the  fol- 
lowing spring  by  placing  in  a barrel  or  jar  and  pouring  boiling  water 
over  them.” 

The  past  autumn  two  one-quart  cans  were  put  up  of  each  of  the  fol- 
lowing named  varieties,  in  one  can  of  each  sort  the  plums  being  peeled 
and  in  the  other  unpeeled:  Rollingstone,  Hawkeye,  Ocheeda,  Poole’s 
Pride,  Robinson  and  Springer,  with  one  can  of  the  Wyant,  of  which  the 
fruit  was  not  peeled.  The  cans  were  packed  full  of  the  fruit,  and  then 
were  filled  up  to  the  neck  with  a syrup  made  by  adding  just  enough 
water  to  granulated  sugar  to  liquify  it.  The  rubbers  were  then  put  on 
the  cans,  after  boiling  them  to  remove  the  rubber  taste,  and  the  caps 
were  screwed  on  loosely  and  the  cans  were  placed  in  a vessel  of  cold 
water  which  was  then  brought  to  a boil  as  quickly  as  possible.  After 
the  water  had  boiled  one  minute,  the  cans  were  removed  and  the  tops 
were  screwed  dov/n  tightly. 

On  Dec.  1st  last,  these  cans  were  opened  and  the  fruit  tested.  The 
plums  in  all  of  the  cans  remained  whole.  The  unpeeled  cans  of  the 
Robinson  and  Poole’s  Pride  had  fermented  a very  little;  all  the  others 
had  Kept  perfectly.  With  the  exception  of  the  two  varieties  named,  in 
which  the  sauce  lacked  character,  the  canned  produ’ct  was  pronounced 
delicious  by  all  who  tasted  it.  It  was  conceded  that  the  sauce  of  the 
peeled  plums  was  more  desirable  than  that  of  the  unpeeled,  but  the 
skin  was  tender  and  free  from  astringency  in  every  case,  and  was  far 
less  objectionable  in  the  canned  than  it  is  in  the  fresh  fruit.  The  skin 
evidently  tenus  to  redden  the  color  of  the  fruit  a little,  especially  in  the 
varieties  that  are  pale  in  color  when  canned,  as  the  Rollingstone. 

Of  the  Americana  varieties  tested,  the  Hawkeye  was  pronounced  least 
desirable;  the  others  were  about  equal.  If  we  may  judge  from  the 
Robinson  and  Poole’s  Pride,  the  Chicasaw  and  Hortulana  plums  are  less 
desirable  for  canning  than  the  Americana  sorts.  On  the  whole,  our 
test  of  canned  plums  was  very  satisfactory,  and  we  shall  not  hesitate  to 
recommend  the  best  Americana  plums  as  superior  in  quality  for  can- 
ning. 

INVESTIGATIONS  AND  EXPERIMENTS. 

The  self  sterility  of  plums. — Prof.  P.  A.  Waugh,  of  the  Vermont  Ex- 
periment Station  has  made  extended  experiments  to  ascertain  the  va- 
rieties of  plums  that  are  fertile  with  their  own  pollen:  i.  e.,  that  can 
bear  fruit  without  receiving  pollen  from  some  other  variety.  His  ver- 
dict is  that  “In  all  the  tests  which  we  have  made  in  three  years,  both 
in  Maryland  and  Vermont,  practically  all  varieties  of  plums  have 
proved  to  be  absolutely  self-sterile.  The  only  positive  exception  to  this 
rule  is  the  Chicasaw  variety  Robinson.”* 

*Eleventh  Ann.  Rep.  Vt.  Exp’t  Sta.,  p.  240. 


Native  Plums. 


23 


Prof.  Waugh’s  method  was  to  inclose  the  blossoms  before  the  petals 
opened,  in  paper  sacks,  leaving  the  sacks  on  until  the  pollination  season 
had  passed.  As  a proof  that  the  pistils  actually  received  pollen  from 
the  stamens  of  the  inclosed  flowers  “sacks  were  removed  in  many  cases 
and  stigmas  examined  with  a lens.  In  all  such  instances,  quite  without 
exception,  the  stigmas  were  found  to  be  liberally  covered  with  pollen.” 
To  show  that  the  lack  of  fecundation  was  not  due  to  unnatural  condi- 
tions existing  within  the  sack,  he  removed  the  sack  in  certain  cases, 
and  applied  pollen  from  another  variety,  and  in  such  cases  fruit  almost 
always  formed;  sometimes  even  when  the  rest  of  the  tree  gave  no  crop. 

While  the  careful  experiments  of  Prof.  Waugh  seem  to  leave  no  ques- 
tion as  to  the  correctness  of  his  conclusions,  it  seemed  to  the  writer 
that  one  question  had  not  been  sufficiently  considered,  viz.,  that  the 
sacks  shut  out  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun.  It  has  been  found  in  the 
greenhouse  culture  of  tomatoes  that  partial  shade  often  prevents  fruit- 
ing.* To  eliminate  this  doubt,  the  following  experiment  was  made  in 
the  spring  of  1898  and  1899.  The  end  of  a branch  that  gave  evidence 
of  blooming  freely  on  one  tree  each  of  the  Springer,  Rollingstone, 
Maquoketa,  Wyant  and  Ocheeda  plums  was  inserted  into  a large  glass 
beaker,  which  \^as  supported  in  a position  slightly  inclined  toward  the 
open  end  by  being  securely  tied  to  stakes  driven  into  the  ground.  The 
mouth  of  the  beaker  was  then  closed  with  two  thicknesses  of  cheese 
cloth  which  was  tied  about  the  rim  of  the  beaker,  and  also  about  the 
branch.  In  1898,  the  inserted  branches  were  left  free,  but  as  one  of 
them  was  forced  through  the  bottom  of  the  beaker  by  wind,  the  tree 
was  securely  propped  in  1899,  to  prevent  the  wind  from  moving  the 
trunk  toward  the  beaker.  The  sun’s  rays  shone  freely  through  the  clear 
glass  walls  of  the  beakers  and  the  flowers  opened  in  an  apparently  nor- 
mal manner.  Though  muqh  vapor  condensed  on  the  glass,  pollen  was 
freely  shed  by  the  stamens  of  the  inclosed  flowers,  and  the  moving  of 
the  branch  within  the  beaker  by  the  wind,  combined  with  an  occasional 
artificial  shaking*  insured  distribution  of  the  pollen. 

In  not  a single  instance  was  a fruit  formed  on  a branch  within  the 
beakers,  though  in  every  case  but  one  the  tree  bore  a good  crop  on  the 
other  branches.  Thus  our  work  confirmed  Prof.  Waugh’s  results,  at 
least  for  the  varieties  experimented  with.  We  can  hardly  escape  the 
conclusion  that  the  plums,  except  in  a very  few  varieties,  can  produce 
fruit  only  when  the  stigmas  receive  pollen  from  another  variety. 

The  amount  of  'pollen  produced  by  different  varieties  of  plums. — 
Since  inter-pollination  between  different  varieties  of  plums  has  been 
shown  to  be  so  important,  the  question  as  to  the  amount  of  pollen  pro- 
duced by  the  stamens  of  different  varieties  becomes  of  interest.  To 
throw  light  on  this  question,  my  assistant,  Mr.  Cranefield,  investigated 
the  pollen  of  a number  of  varieties  in  the  spring  of  1898.  It  was  pre- 


*See  “The  Forcing  Book,”  Bailey,  p.  154. 


24 


Bulletin  No.  87. 


sumed  that  the  plumpness  of  the  anthers,  as  between  different  varieties 
of  the  same  species,  would  be  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  pollen 
grains  they  contained,  and  that  the  plumpness  of  the  pollen  grains 
would  be  in  proportion  to  their  virility.  These  presumptions  were  not, 
however,  demonstrated.  The  plan  pursued  was  to  weigh  on  a chemical 
balance  100  anthers  that  were  apparently  full  grown  but  that  had  not 
yet  burst,  and  to  measure  the  greatest  length  and  greatest  diameter 
of  ten  individual  pollen  grains.  The  pollen  was  gathered  by  placing 
the  flowers  with  their  stems  in  water,  over  a sheet  of  white  paper  in  a 
still  room.  The  stamens  were  also  counted  in  several  flowers  of  most 
of  the  varieties.  The  data  gathered  appear  in  the  following  table: 


Table  showing  the  weight  of  anthers,  dimensions  of  pollen  grains  and 
number  of  stamens  in  different  varieties  of  plum. 


Variety . 

Species. 

Aitkin 

Primus  A mericana 

do 

do 

Forest  Garden 

do 

Hawkeye 

do 

Late  Rollingstone. . . 

do 

Le  Due 

do 

Mankato 

do 

North  Scar. 

do 

Oeheeda  

do 

Piper  . . 

do 

Quaker 

do 

Kockford 

do 

Rollingstone 

do 

Seedling,  J.  S.  Wood. 

Speer. 

do 

Smith’s  Red. 

do 

Springer 

do 

Surnrise 

do 

Wolf 

do 

W vant 

do 

Average 

Frotheringham 

Prunus  dnmestica. .. 

Hungarian  .. 

do 

Moldnvka  

do  . . 

Average  

Berckmans 

Prunus  triflora 

Burbank . 

do 

Unknown 

do 

Average  

Marianna 

Prunus  myrabolana 

Forest  Rose  . 

Prunus  hortulana. .. 

Maquoketa 

, . . do 

Moreman 

do 

Average 

Pottawattamie 

Prunus  any  ustifolia. 

Weight 
of  1(XJ 
anthers 
(grammes) 

Length  of 
j lO  pollen 
grains 
(milli- 
meters.) 

Diameter 
of  10  pol- 
len grains 
(milli- 
meters.) 

Number 

of 

stamens 

.0081 

99  _•« 

.0119 

.506 

.231 

27-28 

.0091 

.513 

* .281 

30-32 

.0140 

.457 

.280 

30-32 

.0182 

.492 

.280 

30-32 

.0163 

.443 

.241 

30  _ 

.0139 

.422 

.211 

30 

.0081 

.478 

.233 

30 

.0093 

.493 

.280 

30 

.0182 

.385 

.211 

90 

.0113 

.469 

.260 

27-29 

.0150 

.480 

.266 

30 

.0152 

.49  2 

.281 

28-30 

.0199 

.420 

.233 

30-32 

.0079 

.452 

.214 

28-30 

.0140 

.478 

.291 

30 

.0202 

.493 

.148 

32-37 

.0114 

.492 

.231 

90 

.0170 

.464 

.239 

25-28 

.0155 

.486 

.228 

25-30 

.0141 

.438 

.240 

30-34 

.0137 

.467 

.245 

A&t* 

.0367 

.470 

.281 

.0279 

.508 

.281 

18-20 

.0109 

.479 

.253 

.0352 

.492 

.272 

.0182 

.345 

.202 

25-30 

.0232 

.426 

.211 

• .02/2 

.394 

.218 

0229 

.388 

.220 

.0081 

.281 

.152 

20 

.0133 

.442 

.242 

22-26 

.0154 

.462 

.217 

25-23 

.0122 

20- 

.0316 

.452 

.229 

.0155 

.422 

.211 

17-20 

Native  Plums. 


25 


As  appears  from  the  table,  the  majority  of  the  varieties  investigated 
were  of  the  Americana  species.  It  is  evident  that  the  anthers  of  the 
domestica  plums  examined  were  decidedly  larger  than  those  of  the  other 
species,  and  that  those  of  the  Japanese  plums  examined  were  larger 
than  those  of  any  others,  except  the  domestica  varieties.  The  smallest 
pollen  grains  were  found  in  the  Mariana,  but  with  this  exception  the 
difference  between  the  other  varieties  was  not  marked.  The  lightest 
grains,  however,  were  from  certain  Americana  varieties.  The  infer- 
ence from  the  data  would  seem  to  be  that  the  pollen-bearing  capacity 
of  the  different  varieties  does  not  vary  much.  We  were  able  to  trace  no 
relation  between  the  productiveness  of  varieties  and  the  size  of  their 
anthers  and  pollen-grains,  but  as  none  of  the  varieties  are  self-fertile 
we  should  hardly  expect  this. 

The  blooming  period  of  the  native  plums. — Since  it  is  well  established 
that  the  flowers  of  the  native  plums  are,  almost  without  exception,  in- 
fertile when  self  pollenized,  it  is  evident  that  if  two  varieties  are  to 
pollenize  each  other,  they  must  be  in  bloom  at  the  same  time.  For 
some  years  past  Mr.  Kerr  has  published  in  his  catalogue*  a chart  show- 
ing the  time  of  blooming  of  the  varieties  he  lists,  grouping  those  to- 
gether that  are  in  bloom  simultaneously.  But  the  climate  of  Mary- 
land is  quite  unlike  that  of  the  northwestern  states,  and  it  may  there- 
fore be  unsafe  to  use  his  bloom  charts  for  our  section.  In  the  follow- 
ing list  the  varieties  that  began  to  open  their  flowers  and  that  reached 
their  period  of  full  bloom  on  the  same  days  at  Madison  the  past  season 
are  grouped  together,  and  the  list  is  so  printed  as  to  indicate  clearly 
the  comparative  earliness  or  lateness,  the  time  of  first  bloom,  and  also 
the  time  from  the  first  bloom  to  the  full  bloom  in  the  different  varieties. 
The  trees  were  counted  in  full  bloom  when  the  first  petals  began  to 
fall.  A few  of  the  Japanese  and  European  varieties  are  included  for 
comparison.  Of  these  the  names  are  printed  in  Italics. 

A comparison  of  the  records  of  blooming  during  the  season  of  1900 
and  previous  years  shows  that  the  order  of  blooming  of  the  different 
varieties  is  fairly  constant  from  year  to  year. 

*Catalogue  of  Eastern  Shore  Nurseries,  J.  W.  Kerr,  Denton,  Md. 


26 


Bulletin  No.  87. 


Yosebe—  April  28  to  May  5. 

Red  June— April  29  to  May  3. 

Strawberry — April  29  to  May  3. 

Cheney— April  30  to  May  4. 

Aitkin— April 30  to  May  5. 

Manitoba  No.  6— May  1 to  3. 

Manitoba  No.  4— May  1 to  4. 

Manitoba  No.  5— May  1 to  4. 

August— May  1 to  5. 

Odegard— May  1 to  6. 

Pilot — May  1 to  6. 

Gaylord— May  1 to  8. 

Green  Gage — May  2 to  6. 

Hunt— May  2 to  6. 

Marianna— May  2 to  7. 

Mankato— May  2 to  8. 

Speer— May  2 to  8. 

Wragg  Free  Stone— May  2 to  8. 
Penning’s  Peach— May  3 to  5. 
Tatge—  May  3 to  6. 

Apricot— May  3 to  8. 

Comfort— May  3 to  8. 

Deep  Creek— May  3 to  8. 

English  Damson— May  3 to  8. 

Fr other ingham— May  3 to  8, 

Haag— May  3 to  8. 

Gaylord’s  Gold— May  3 to  8. 
Lombard— May  3 to  8. 

Mold ovka— May  3 to  8. 

Piper— May  3 to  8. 

Springer— May  3 to  8. 

Weimetz— May  3 to  8. 

Yellow  Dame  Aubert—May  3 to  8. 
Annual  Bearer— May  4 to  8. 
Barnsback— May  4 to  8. 

Bean— May  4 to  8. 

Blackhawk— May  4 to  8. 

Diana— May  4 to  8. 

Hart’s  DeSoto— May  4 to  8. 
Hawkeye— May  4 to  8. 

Hillman— May  4 to  8. 

Luedloff’s  Seedling— May  4 to  8. 
North  Star— May  4 to  8. 

Robert’s  Free  Stone— May  4 to  8. 
Rollingstone— May  4 to  8.\ 
Surprise— May  4 to  8. 

Nellie  Blancli-May  4 to  10. 
Wyant— May  4 to  10. 

Bixby— May  5 to  8. 

Dr.  Dennis,  May  5 to  8. 

For.  Garden— May  5 to  8. 
Honey— May  5 to  8. 

J.  B.  Rue-May  5 to  8. 
Jones— May  5 to  8. 

Marcus— May  5 to  8. 

Melon— May  5 to  8. 

Silas  Wilson— May  5 to  8. 
Sixby — May  5 to  8. 

#Snooks— May  5 to  8. 
Stoddard— May  5 to  8. 
Wood— May  5 to  8. 

Brittle  wood— May  5 to  10. 


Native  Plums. 


2 


California—  May  5 to  10. 

New  Ulm— May  5 to  10. 

Noyes— May  5 to  10. 

Owatonna— May  5 to  10. 

Peach  (Knudson’s)  — May  5 to  10. 

Quaker -May  5 to  10.  « 

Robinson— May  5 to  10. 

Sada— May  5 to  10. 

Kieth  -May  6 to  8. 

Late  Rollingstone— May  6 to  8. 
Cottrel— May  6 to  10. 

Hammer— May  6 to  10. 

Le  Due— May  6 to  10. 

Nettie— May  6 to  10. 

Rockford— May  6 to  10. 

Smith— May  6 to  10. 

Wilson— May  6 to  10. 

Van  Buren— May  6 to  11. 

Dunlap— May  6 to  12. 

Harrison’s  Peach— May  6 to  12. 
Illinois  Ironclad— May  6 to  12. 

James  Vick— May  6 to  12. 

Wilder— May  6 to  12. 

Am.  Eagle— May  7 to  10' 

Decker’s  Seedling— May  7 to  10. 
Newton  Egg — May  7 to  10. 
Quality— May  7 to  11. 

Baraboo— May  8 to  10. 
Champion — May  8 to  10. 
DeSoto— May  8 to  10. 

Etta— May  8 to  10. 
Homestead— May  8 to  10. 
Jewell— May  8 to  10. 

Louise — May  8 to  10. 

Reel— May  8 to  10. 

Smith’s  Red— May  8 to  10. 
Wild  Goose— May  8 to  10. 

W.  J.  Bryan— May  8 to  10. 
Wolf— May  8 to  10. 

For.  Rose— May  8 to  12. 
Freeman— May  8 to  12. 
Galena— May  8 to  12. 
Maquotata— May  8 to  12. 

Old  Gold— May  8 to  12. 

Peach  Leaf— May  8 to  12. 
Prairie  Flower— May  8 to  12. 
Purple  Yose  mite  — May  8 tol. 
Rose  A. — May  8 to  12. 

Van  Deman— May  8 to  12. 
Hungarian — May  10  to  12. 


Experiment  with  cuttings. — It  is  well  known  that  the  Marianna  plum 
is  readily  propagated  from  cuttings.  The  question  arose  if  some  of  the 
native  varieties  might  not  be  propagated  in  the  same  way.  To  test 
this  point,  cuttings  were  taken  from  all  of  our  named  varieties  and 
seedlings  of  the  Americana,  Chickasaw  and  hortulana  species  from 
which  any  young  wood  could  be  obtained  and  placed  in  a propagating 
bed  in  the  greenhouse  in  the  spring  of  1899,  and  subjected  to  mild  bot- 


28  Bulletin  No.  87. 

tom  heat  for  several  weeks.  With  the  single  exception  of  the  Marianna, 
all  failed  to  root. 

The  skin  of  the  native  plums. — The  thickness  and  harshness  of  the 
skin  that  is  characteristic  of  so  many  varieties  of  Americana  plums  are 
undoubtedly  the  most  serious  drawback  to  the  popularity  of  the  fruit. 
The  harshness  of  the  skin  and  stone  can  be  largely  eliminated  by  good 
culture,  but  the  thickness  of  the  skin  must  be  worked  out  chiefly  by 
plant  breeding.  Those  who  have  made  a study  of  the  subject  have  ob- 
served that  there  are  two  objectionable  qualities  in  the  skin  of  Ameri- 
cana plums,  viz.,  thickness  and  toughness.  A skin  may  be  thick,  and 
yet  comparatively  tender,  as  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  in  many  varieties 
the  skin  when  the  fruit  first  becomes  edible  is  extremely  tough,  while 
it  later  becomes  quite  tender. 

As  a guide  to  breeding  with  the  view  of  reducing  the  thickness  of 
the  skin  in  the  Americana  plums,  a brief  study  has  been  made  of  the 
skin  of  sample  varieties  of  the  different  cultivated  plums  growing  on 
our  grounds.  Our  study  includes  but  two  varieties  of  the  Americana 
species  (one  each  of  the  common  and  nigra  groups),  and  one  each  of  the 
domestica  (European),  triflora  (Japanese),  hortulana  and  chicasaw 
species.  Varieties  within  the  species  may  vary  considerably  between 
themselves,  especially  in  the' Americana  species,  but  our  study  already 
clearly  points  out  a promising  direction  in  which  to  work. 

The  accompanying  illustrations  show  a thin  cross-section  of  the  skin 
of  the  different  varieties  magnified  about  fifteen  times.  The  skin  was 
peeled  off  from  the  ripe  fruit,  and  no  attempt  was  made  to  remove  the 
adhering  flesh.  The  samples  were  placed  in  a fixing  solution  for  a 
time,  after  which  the  solution  was  washed  out  and  the  specimens  were 
slowly  dehydrated  in  alcohol  and  were  finally  imbedded  in  paraffin. 
They  were  cut  with  the  microtome,  stained  with  haematoxalin  and 
drawn  through  the  camera  lucida. 

The  Quaker  plum  (Americana)  was  selected  because  it  is  one  of  the 
thicker-skinned  varieties,  and  its  reputation  in  this  particular  is  cer- 
tainly borne  out  by  the  drawing.  The  Aitkin  on  the  other  hand  is 
recognized  as  one  of  the  thinner-skinned  varieties  of  the  Americana 
class.  It  is  evident  that  the  epidermis  of  this  variety  is  extremely 
thick,  but  that  inside  of  this  the  flesh  becomes  tender  at  once,  as  is 
shown  by  the  thinness  of  the  cell-walls.  The  contents  of  the  cells  that 
appear  in  the  drawing  were  some  substance  that  took  the  stain,  but 
added  little  or  nothing  to  the  tenacity  of  the  skin.  The  Lombard  (Eu- 
ropean) has  a thick  layer  of  small  thick-walled  cells  located  just  inside 
the  epidermis  which  is  quite  thin.  The  thick  walls  of  these  small 
cells  are  evidently  not  very  tough,  otherwise  this  variety  would  rank 
next  to  the  Quaker  in  toughness  of  skin.  The  skin  of  the  Burbank 
(Japanese)  and  of  the  Robinson  (chicasaw)  appear  to  be  about  on  a par 
as  regards  thickness,  while  that  ci  the  Wild  Goose  (hortulana)  is  evi- 


N alive  Plums. 


29 


dently  thinnest  of  all.  As  the  latter  species  is  now  regarded  as  a 
hybrid  between  the  chicasaw  and  Americana  species  there  is  every  rea- 
son to  hope  that  other  hybrids  between  the  chicasaw  or  hortulana  spe- 
cies and  the  Americana  plums  may  produce  the  thinness  of  skin  that  is 
so  much  desired.  It  is  well  known  that  these  species  readily  hybridise 
under  culture,  and  some  of  our  finest-flavored  native  plums  have  ap- 
parently originated  in  this  way. 


Fig  6— Quaker. 


Fig.  9— Burbank. 


Fig.  10— Robinson. 

Figs.  6-11—  Showiug  cross-section  of  the  skin  of  6 varieties  of  plum,  X 15.  [Original. 1 


Suggestions  for  breeding  in  the  native  plums . — The  rapid  increase  in 
popularity  of  the  native  plums  as  a market  fruit  is  unquestionable  evi- 
dence that  these  plums  are  to  be  a permanent  addition  to  our  cultivated 
fruits.  But  it  is  what  we  may  hope  to  produce  from  these  plums  by 
breeding  that  renders  them  of  greatest  interest  to  the  progressive  horti- 
culturist. When  we  consider  the  shortness  of  the  time  that  they  have 
been  under  culture,  their  great  value  for  culinary  uses  and  the  'high 
dessert  quality  and  fine  appearance  of  a few  varieties,  we  have  every 


30 


Bulletin  No.  87. 


reason  to  hope  that  varieties  may  be  developed  that,  while  differing  ma- 
terially in  their  qualities  from  both  the  European  and  Japanese  plums, 
will  prove  quite  as  popular  as  the  best  of  any  class.  The  rapidity  of 
improvement  in  our  native  plums  will  doubtless  be  in  proportion  to  the 
number  of  those  who  are  engaged  in  the  work.  As  has  already  been 
stated  in  this  bulletin,  the  sales  of  the  fruit  from  a plantation  of  seed- 
ling plum  trees,  properly  cared  for,  will  repay  the  cost  of  cultivation, 
while  the  chance  of  acquiring  varieties  of  superior  merit  are  sufficient 
to  make  seedling  growing  a very  promising  work. 

As  a guide  to  those  who  feel  an  interest  in  breeding  the  native  plums, 
a list  of  varieties  is  offered  that  seem  to  us  to  possess  qualities  that 
render  them  especially  valuable  for  plant  breeding.  To  those  who  de- 
sire to  pursue  the  work  from  a scientific  standpoint,  we  suggest  that 
artificial  crosses  be  made  between  such  of  these  varieties  as  offer  the 
characteristics  that  seem  most  desirable.  But  those  who  regard  im- 
provement as  the  most  important  object  to  be  attained,  and  are  willing 
to  dispense  with  accurate  knowledge  of  parentage  will  find  much  more 
satisfaction  in  planting  trees  of  the  varieties  named  in  groups  suffi- 
ciently remote  from  other  plums  to  be  free  from  contamination  with 
other  pollen,  and  then  planting  all  of  the  pits  from  this  group,  growing 
all  of  the  trees  thus  secured  to  fruiting  size,  under  good  culture.  The 
group  of  parent  trees  should  also  be  given  the  highest  culture. 

The  following  list  is  offered  for  plum  breeding  with  the  belief  that 
the  different  varieties  possess  in  a high  degree  the  qualities  assigned  to 
them : 

Surprise  for  quality,  Brittlewood  for  size,  Freeman  for  color,  Aitkin 
for  earliness,  and  Wild  Goose  for  thinness  of  skin. 

Longevity  of  the  Americana  plum. — How  long  does  the  Americana 
plum  tree  live?  It  is  difficult  to  answer  this  question,  because  few 
specimens  that  have  been  planted  in  cultivated  grounds  have  as  yet  out- 
lived their  usefulness.  It  is  certain  that  the  trees  do  not  often  succumb 
to  the  conditions  that  render  most  fruit  trees  in  Wisconsin  so  short 
lived. 

Fig.  12  shows  a tree  that  is  known  to  have  been  planted  at  least 
forty  years.  It  grows  on  a dry,  gravelly  knoll  and  has  had  very  little 
care,  but  has  generally  borne  fruit,  and  bore  a fair  crop  the  past  season. 
As  appears  from  the  illustration,  it  shows  no  signs  of  failure,  and  to 
all  appearances  is  likely  to  continue  yet  many  years.  Those  who  con- 
template planting  this  fruit  need  not  fear  that  the  trees  will  fail  young. 


Native  Plums . 


31 


Fig.  12 — An  Americana  plum  tree  that  has  been  planted  at  least  forty  years 

Dane  Co.,  Wis. 


Wis.  Bull.  No.  88. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN 


Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


BULLETIN  NO.  88, 

With  Accompanying  Wall  Map  Showing  Distribution  of 
Creameries  and  Cheese  Factories  in  the  State. 


DAIRY  INDUSTRY  IN  WISCONSIN. 


MADISON , WISCONSIN,  SEPTEMBER,  1901. 


%gT°The  Bulletins  and  Annual  Beports  of  this  Station  are  sent  free  to  all 
residents  of  this  State  upon  request. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN 


AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 


BOARD  OF  REGENTS. 

PRESIDENT  OP  THE  UNIVERSITY,  ex-officio. 

STATE  SUPERINTENDENT  of  PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION,  ex-officio. 
State-at-large,  GEORGE  W.  PECK,  Milwaukee. 

State-at-large,  WILLIAM  F.  VILAS,  Madison. 

First  District,  H.  C.  TAYLOR,  Orfordville. 

Second  District,  B.  J.  STEVENS,  Madison. 

Third  District,  DWIGHT  T.  PARKER,  Fennimore. 

Fourth  District,  ALMAH  J.  FRISBY,  Milwaukee. 

Fifth  District,  GEORGE  H.  NOYES,  Milwaukee. 

Sixth  District,  JOHN  H.  RIESS,  Sheboygan. 

SeTenth  District,  BYRON  A.  BUFFINGTON,  Eau  Claire. 

Eighth  District,  JAMES  C.  KERWIN,  Neenah. 

Ninth  District,  E.  A.  EDMONDS,  .Oconto  Falls. 

Tenth  District,  GEORGE  F.  MERRILL,  Ashland. 

Eleventh  District,  J.  II.  STOUT,  Menomonie. 

Officers  of  the  Board  of  Regents. 

J.  H.  STOUT,  President.  I STATE  TREASURER,  Ex-officio  Treasurer. 

B.  J.  STEVENS,  Vice  President.  | E.  F.  RILEY,  Secretary,  Madison. 


Agricultural  Committee. 

Regents  STOUT,  RIESS,  KERWIN,  TAYLOR,  PARKER  and  PRES.  ADAMS. 


OFFICERS  OF  THE  STATION. 
THE  PRESIDENT  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY. 


W.  A.  HENRY,  ..........  Director 

S.  M.  BABCOCK,  . . . Assistant  Director  and  Chief  Chemist 

F.  H.  KING, Physicist 

E.  S.  GOFF Horticulturist 

W.  L.  CARLYLE, Animal  Husbandry 

F.  W.  WOLL,*  .........  Chemist 

R.  H.  SHAW,  ........  Acting  Chemist 


H.  L.  RUSSELL, 

H.  H.  FARRINGTON, 
A.  R.  WHITSON, 
ALFRED  VIVIAN, 

J.  F.  NICHOLSON, 
R.  A.  MOORE, 

U.  S.  BAER, 


. . Bacteriologist 

Dairy  Husbandry 
. Assistant  Physicist 
. Assistant  Chemist 
Assistant  Bacteriologist 
Assistant  Agriculturist 
. . . Dairying 


F.  M.  McCONNELL,  . . . Assistant  in  Animal  Husbandry 


FREDERIC  CRANEFIELD,  ....  Assistant  in  Horticulture 

F.  DEWHIRST,  .......  Assistant  in  Dairying 

LESLIE  H.  ADAMS,  ......  Farm  Superintendent 

IDA  HERFURTH,  Clerk 

DAISY  G.  BEECROFT,  ....  Librarian  and  Stenographer 


FARMERS’  INSTITUTES. 

GEORGE  McKERROW Superintendent 

HATTIE  V.  STOUT,  ......  Clerk  and  Stenographer 

General  Offices  and  Departments  of  Agricultural  Chemistry,  Animal  Hus- 
bandry, Bacteriology,  Farmers’  Institutes  and  Library,  in  Agricultural  Hall, 
near  University  Hall,  on  Upper  Campus. 

Dairy  Building  and  Joint  Horticulture-Physics  Building,  west  end  of  Obser- 
vatory Hill,  adjacent  to  Horticultural  Grounds  and  Experiment  Farm. 
Telephone  to  Station  Office,  Dairy  Building  and  Farm  Office. 


'Absent  on  leave. 


DAIRY  INDUSTRY  IN  WISCONSIN. 


H.  L.  RUSSELL. 

Five  years  ago  this  Experiment  Station  issued  a bulletin*  calling  par- 
ticular attention  to  the  cheese  industry  and  the  resources  of  Wisconsin 
as  a cheese  state.  Accompanying  this  was  a small  map  showing  the 
location  of  the  creameries  and  cheese  factories  as  they  existed  at  that 
time.  The  data  that  served  as  a basis  for  this  map  was  taken  from  the 
published  report  of  the  State  Dairy  and  Food  Commissioner.  The  re- 
cent rapid  settlement  of  the  state  in  the  north  central  and  northern  parts, 
ankl  the  marked  development  of  portions  of  this  region  in  dairying  have 
led  us  to  prepare  a new  outline  map  of  the  state  showing  a similar  dis- 
tribution of  cheese  factories  and  creameries  as  they  existed  at  the  be- 
ginning of  this  year. 


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. 

In  the  preparation  of  this  map.  the  data  have  been  gathered  by  per- 
sonal correspondence  with  various  parties  situated  in  each  county. 
Newspapers,  county  officials,  members  of  the  legislature,  and  friends  In- 
terested in  the  cause  of  dairying  have  all  contributed  more  or  less  to  the 
work,  and  while  it  is  impossible  to  make  personal  acknowledgment  of 
our  indebtedness  to  each  of  these,  it  is  a pleasure  in  this  connection  to 
recognize  these  gratuitous  services,  which  in  many  cases  have  cost 
considerable  effort. 

The  laborious  duty  of  carrying  on  most  of  this  correspondence,  check- 
ing up  and  confirming  data  of  a doubtful  character,  has  been  performed 
by  my  father,  Dr.  E.  F.  Russell,  without  whose  unremitting  efforts  it 
would  have  been  impossible  for  us  to  present  this  summary  of  one  of 
Wisconsin’s  greatest  industries.  It  is  my  privilege  to  make  special  men- 
tion of  his  aid  in  this  work.  Acknowledgment  should  also  be  made  of 
the  aid  we  have  received  from  the  office  of  the  State  Dairy  and  Food 
- Commission,  under  whose  auspices  an  independent  list  of  dairy  factor- 
ies has  been  compiled. 


*Bulletin  No.  60,  entitled  “The  Cheese  Industry:  Its  Development  and  Pos- 
sibilities in  Wisconsin.” 


4 


Bulletin  No.  88. 


While  every  effort  has  been  made  to  perfect  this  map  as  much  as 
possible  so  that  it  represents  the  status,  as  to  number  and  location,  of 
the  various  dairy  factories  within  the  state,  it  is  hardly  to  be  hoped  that 
the  same  has  been  made  without  some  errors,  but  it  is  believed  that  the 
data  are  substantially  correct,  as  in  most  instances  the  number  and  lo- 
cation of  the  various  factories  have  been  checked  by  two  or  more  cor- 
respondents. 


DAIRYING  IN  WISCONSIN. 

The  commercial  position  occupied  by  Wisconsin  is  in  large  part  at- 
tributable to  her  dairy  and  stock  interests.  The  rich  rolling  prairies  in 
the  eastern  and  southern  parts  of  the  state  that  were  prepared  for  the 
hand  of  man  by  the  ice  sheets  of  the  glacial  epoch  offered  a soil  of  ex- 
ceptional fertility,  and  it  is  not  surprising  that  the  early  settlers  in  the 
state  turned  their  attention  more  particularly  to  grain  raising.  Dairy- 
ing began  to  be  practiced  to  some  extent  at  an  early  day,  especially  in 
the  eastern  counties,  but  it  was  not  until  many  were  driven  to  some 
sort  of  a change  as  a result  of  diminishing  prices  and  the  frequent  fail 
ure  of  the  wheat  crop,  due  to  the  ravages  of  chinch  bugs,  that  some  por- 
tions of  the  state  began  to  pay  special  attention  to  the  dairy  business. 
What  was  considered  as  a calamity  at  that  time,  however,  was  in  reality 
a blessing,  as  it  forced  a change  in  agricultural  methods  from  the  con- 
tinual robbing  of  the  soil  to  a method  of  practice  in  which  not  only  was 
the  fertility  of  the  land  not  diminished,  but  actually  increased. 

The  enhanced  profits  of  this  type  of  intensive  agriculture  are  seen  in 
the  very  material  advance  which  these  dairy  and  stock  regions  enjoy  in 
comparison  with  those  that  still  persist  in  the  growing  of  cereals  alone. 
The  rapid  amd  continual  advance  in  the  price  of  farm  lands  Is  Indicative 
of  the  general  prosperity  of  these  regions. 


ADAPTABILITY  OF  WISCONSIN  TO  DAIRYING. 

Practical  experience  has*  already  shown  the  adaptability  of  this  state 
to  dairy  purposes,  particularly  in  the  southern  and  eastern  parts.  The 
enormous  development  of  the  cheese  industry  in  the  lake-shore  counties 
on  the  eastern  border,  and  more  particularly,  the  rapid  increase  in  the 
output  of  foreign  cheese  in  Green  and  adjoining  western  counties,  attest 
the  suitability  of  Wisconsin  to  this  phase  of  the  dairy  business.  But 
prominent  as  is  the  cheese  industry  in  the  state,  butter-making  is  rela- 
tively much  more  important,  for  in  this  phase  of  the  dairy  industry,, 
private  dairying  was  much  more  easily  carried  on. 


Dairy  Industry  in  Wisconsin.  5 

The  following  data  derived  from  the  census  and  other  reports  give  hn 
idea  of  the  rapfd  growth  of  dairying  in  Wisconsin: 

* No.  pounds  of  dairy  products 

made  in  Wisconsin. 


Butter.  Cheese. 

1850 3,633,750  400,280 

I860 13,611,328  1,104,300 

1870 22,473,036  13,288,581 

1880 33,812,336  19,535,324 

1S90  60,355,499  51,614,861 

1900  * 80,000,000  60,000,000 


For  successful  dairying  the  natural  conditions  must  be  favorable  for 
the  economical  growing  of  cattle,  but  in  addition  to  these,  conditions 
also  should  be  suitable  for  the  keeping  of  milk;  for  in  the  production 
of  the  finest  quality  of  dairy  products,  the  quality  of  the  milk  with  ref- 
erence to  its  keeping  quality  is  of  major  importance. 


DAIRY  ADVANTAGES  OF  THE  NORTHERN  COUNTIES. 

Wisconsin,  especially  in  the  central  and  northern  parts  of  the  state, 
is  so  abundantly  supplied  with  these  conditions  that  by  nature  this  re- 
gion seems  predestined  to  be  a great  dairy  center. 

One  great  advantage  which  this  region  possesses  that  has  been  forci- 
bly shown,  especially  in  recent  years,  is  that  a clover  crop  is  rarely  sub- 
ject to  failure.  In  the  southern  counties  the  snow  fall  is  often  so  light 
that  clover  winter-kills,  and  it  is  therefore  difficult  at  times  to  secure 
luxuriant  pasturage  and  maintain  the  fertility  of  the  soil.  In  the  cen- 
tral and  northern  counties  this  has  never  yet  happened,  and  the  result 
is  that  these  highly  nitrogenous  forage  crops  can  be  raised  in  great 
abundance.  Tnis  region  is  preeminently  a grass  region,  wild  grasses 
growing  in  the  greatest  profusion,  while  the  domesticated  grasses,  like 
timothy,  red  top  and  Kentucky  blue  grass  are  introduced  with  the  great- 
est ease.  This  can  be  seen  even  in  the  primeval  forests  where  timothy 
and  clover  spring  up  in  the  “tote  roads”  whenever  the  sunlight  Is  let 
in  through  the  cutting  of  the  timber.  Not  infrequently  timothy  reaches 
a development  of  five  feet  in  height. 

On  these  relatively  cheap  lands  that  support  such  an  abundance  of 
succulent  forage  crops,  stock  can  be  grown  most  economically  and  the 
cost  of  milk  production  is  thereby  reduced  to  a minimum. 

Many  portions  of  this  region  are  also  abundantly  supplied  with 
springs  and  flowing  streams,  the  temperature  of  which  is  often  as  low 
as  50  degrees  F.,  and  in  some  regions  even  lower.  With  these  conditions 


♦Estimates  furnished  by  State  Dairy  and  Food  Commissioner,  H.  C.  Adams. 


6 


Bulletin  No.  88. 


it  is  possible  to  keej>  milk  in  a much  better  condition  than  in  a hot  dry 
climate. 

Proximity  to  the  great  lakes,  such  as  Superior  and  Michigan,  materi- 
ally affect  the  temperature  conditions.  These  large  open  seas  temper 
the  climate,  keeping  it  cooler  in  summer  and  warmer  in  winter,  besides 
materially  affecting  the  moisture  conditions  of  the  atmosphere.  All  of 
these  factors  are  of  moment  in  the  development  of  dairying,  particularly 
in  that  phase  of  it  that  is  related  to  the  production  of  cheese. 

The  curing  of  cheese  is  a problem  towards  which  but  little  Improve- 
ment has  been  made  until  very  recently.  It  is  now  a well  ascertained 
fact  that  the  best  quality  of  cheese  is  made  where  the  curing  change*? 
go  on  slowly  at  considerably  lower  temperatures  than  has  hitherto  been 
customary.  This  result  can  of  course  be  reached  in  hotter  regions,  by 
the  use  of  artificial  methods  of  refrigeration,  but  for  some  time  to  come, 
the  bulk  of  cheese  will  undoubtedly  be  cured  under  conditions  where 
the  natural  temperature  environment  approximates  somewhat  closely 
that  needed  for  the  process.  The  ability  to  use  natural  ice  in  compari- 
son with  artificial  refrigeration  practiced  in  states  further  south  renders 
the  control  of  this  problem  in  this  and  similar  regions  comparatively 
easy. 

The  possibilities  for  dairy  advancement  in  these  regions  is  therefore 
very  great.  Whether  agriculture  will  develop  in  this  directon  or  not 
as  this  country  is  opened  up  for  settlement  is  a question  for  the  future. 
Surely  the  natural  advantages  of  the  region  invite  such  a development. 

It  is  not  necessary  for  one  to  study  this  question  to  any  great  extent 
In  order  to  be  convinced  that  the  farmers  of  this  region  appreciate  the 
natural  advantages  offered  in  this  phase  of  agricultural  pursuits. 

The  rapid  settlement  of  many  portions  of  this  region  has  occurred 
within  the  last  few  years.  Farmers  in  the  southern  counties  and  in 
other  states  are  disposing  of  lands  that  have  become  so  valuable  com- 
mercially that  they  think  they  can  no  longer  afford  to  till  soils  that 
must  carry  a heavy  charge  in  interest  or  rent.  These,  with  others  that 
are  perhaps  less  fortunate,  are  rapidly  opening  up  this  new  north.  And 
although  the  subjugation  of  the  forest  is  by  no  means  complete,  it  is 
surprising  how , rapidly  the  introduction  of  creameries  and  cheese  fac- 
tories has  taken  place. 

This  wide-spread  extension  of  factory  dairying  practically  covers  the 
whole  state  wherever  the  cow  population  is  sufficiently  dense  to  support 
a creamery  or  factory.  Of  course  on  the  frontier  of  civilization,  co- 
operative or  factory  dairying  cannot  develop  immediately,  for  the  num- 
ber of  animals  kept  by  the  first  settlers  cannot  of  necessity  be  large. 


Dairy  Industry  in  Wisconsin. 


7 


NUMBER  OF  FACTORIES  IN  INDIVIDUAL  COUNTIES. 

In  order  that  the  distribution  of  dairy  factories  may  be  studied  by 
counties,  the  following  table  is  appended,  giving  the  number  of  cheese 
factories  and  creameries  in  each  county  of  the  state  as  determined  by 
our  census  taken  this  year.  These  are  arranged  geographically  by  coun- 
ties in  order  to  show  the  development  of  the  industry  in  various  por- 
tions of  the  state. 


Table  II. — Distribution  of  cheese  factories  and  creameries  in  Wis- 
consin in  1901. 


Group  I. 

Northern  section , including:  *! 
as  yet,  counties  practically  I 
undeveloped  agriculturally. 


I 


r 


Group  II. 

Northwestern  section,  in--j 
eluding  upper  Mississippi  and 
adjoining  counties. 


I 

Group  III. 

Central  section,  including] 
recently  developed  counties  j 
in  upper  Wisconsin  river  val- 
ley. 


I 

r 


Group  IV. 

Eastern  section , including-! 
Lake  Winnebago  counties  and 
lake  shore  district. 


I 


Cheese 

factories. 

Cream- 

eries. 

Combined 

factories. 

Bayfield  

Z 

1 

1 

Vilas  . . 

Forest 

Marinette 

3 

2 

Langlade  

4 

1 

Lincoln 

2 

3 

Burnett 

1 

8 

Polk 

8 

25 

4 

St.  Croix 

12 

21 

Pierce  

12 

21 

Barron 

3 

11 

Dunn 

y 

18 

1 

Pepin 

7 

Buffalo 

21 

11 

Chippewa 

15 

14 

l 

Eau  Claire 

4 

6 

Trempealeau 

5 

15 

1 

Jackson  

1 

20 

Taylor 

5 

2 

Clark  

17 

15 

1 

Marathon 

34 

17 

Wood 

21 

11 

Portage 

18 

1 

Juneau 

14 

12 

Adams  

6 

3 

1 

Marquette 

2 

7 

1 

Green  Lake 

6 

11 

Waushara 

8 

24 

2 

Waupaca 

28 

17 

Shawano 

14 

6 

Door 

28 

4 

Oconto 

5 

10 

Kewaunee 

66 

2 

Brown  

47 

5 

Outagamie 

50 

14 

3 

Manitowoc 

81 

6 

11 

Sheboygan  

112 

6 

5 

Ozaukee 

26 

11 

Calumet 

53 

4 

6 

Winnebago  

35 

28 

5 

Fond  du  Lac 

70 

50 

Washington 

34 

17 

3 

Dodge  

102 

46 

2 

8 


Bulletin  No.  88. 


Table  II. — Distribution  of  cheese  factories  and  creameries  in  Wis- 
consin in  1901  — Continued.  > 


Cheese 

factories. 

Cream- 

eries. 

Combined 

factories. 

f. 

1 

Group  V. 

17 

1 

21 

Southeastern  section,  in--{ 

Walworth 

o 

57 

6 

eluding  lower  lake  shore  and  i 

Waukesha  

6 

50 

adjoining  counties. 

• L 

Jefferson 

12 

72 

3 

Rock 

12 

43 

r 

. . i 

Group  VI. 

Green  

234 

30 

LaFayette 

Grant  . . 

Iowa 

Dane 

59 

37 

77 

40 

19 

33 

21 

76 

3 

1 

l 

Southwestern  section,  in-! 

Colombia 

10 

24 

eluding  the  counties  in  the] 
lower  valleys  of  the  Mississ- 
ippi and  Wisconsin  rivers. 

Sauk 

24 

35 

Richland 

32 

14 

Crawford  

9 

10 

Vernon  

6 

8 

1 

1 

1 jaCrosse 

5 

5 

[ 

Monroe 

7 

21 

Total 

1,540 

1,086 

71 

A gtance  at  the  map  accompanying  this  bulletin  shows  that  the  dairy 
industry  of  the  state  is  more  or  less  concentrated  in  certain  regions,  al- 
though this  concentration  is  relatively  less  marked  at  present  than  it 
was  a few  years  ago. 

Group  I.  represents  the  undeveloped  regions  of  the  forested  areas  of 
the  state.  In  some  cases,  as  in  the  Lake  Superior  counties,  a consid- 
erable urban  population  is  to  be  found,  but  in  the  majority  of  these 
counties,  lumbering  and  mining  still  lead  as  industries,  and  agriculture 
has  not  yet  been  developed  to  any  considerable  extent.  In  proximity 
to  the  towns,  the  cow  population  is  -often  considerable  but  the  milk  sup- 
ply is  used  in  direct  consumption  rather  than  the  manufacture  of  fac- 
tory products. 

Group  II.  includes  the  tier  of  counties  embraced  in  the  valleys  of  the 
upper  Mississippi  and  St.  Croix  rivers  and  tributaries.  The  river  coun- 
ties have  been  settled  for  a considerable  period  and  those  contiguous  to 
the  St.  Croix  river  have  been  developed  agriculturally  for  years.  Only 
recently,  however,  have  the  relative  advantages  of  dairying  been  appre- 
ciated and  a marked  development  in  this  region  is  now  going  on.  This 
is  exemplified  in  some  recently  published  statistics  by  E.  L.  Peet  in  the 
Burnett  County  Journal,  which  shows  that  within  the  last  year  over 
7,000  tubs  of  butter  have  been  shipped  from  this  county  that  five  years 
ago  had  only  one  creamery.  This  is  more  than  a tub  for  every  man, 
woman  and  child  in  the  county.  The  output  for  this'  season  will  from 
all  appearances  be  considerably  augmented. 

Group  III.  includes  a region  in  which  the  lumber  interests  no  longer 
control  entirely  the  attention  of  the  population  and  which  is  exception- 


Dairy  Industry  in  Wisconsin. 


9 


ally  rich  from  an  agricultural  point  of  view.  This  region  is  now  toeing 
rapidly  settled,  and  in  it  associated  dairying  is  making  marked  strides. 
The  very  noticeable  development  of  factories  in  western  Marathon, 
Clark  and  Wood  counties  gives  promise  of  a new  dairy  center  for  the 
state  that  may  in  time  rival  the  lake  shore  or  Green  county  districts. 

It  is  noteworthy  that  the  cheese  industry  is  obtaining  a strong  foothold 
in  this  region. 

Group  IV.  This  region  has  long  been  the  seat  of  marked  dairy  activ- 
ity, particularly  in  the  manufacture  of  cheese.  Originally  confined  to 
the  lake  shore  district,  this  phase  of  dairying  is  now  spreading  westward 
and  northward. 

Group  V.  This  section  is  the  most  densely  populated  of  any  region 
of  the  state,  and  consequently  the  demand  for  milk  for  direct  consump- 
tion consumes  a large  portion  of  the  product.  Not  only  is  this  region 
called  upon  to  supply  Wisconsin  cities  and  towns  but  its  southern  bound- 
ary is  directly  tributary  to  Chicago  for  similar  purposes.  Where  factor- 
ies exist,  butter  making  almost  exclusively  prevails,  the  counties  of  Jef 
ferson,  Waukesha,  Walworth,  Rock  and  eastern  Dane  being  the  greatest 
butter-producing  region  of  the  state. 

Group  VI.  includes  the  most  highly  specialized  dairy  region  of  the 
state.  Green  county  is  the  home  of  the  Swiss  cheese  industry,  started 
by  the  Swiss  settlers  in  the  Sugar  river  valley  about  1870.  From  this 
center,  this  type  of  cheese  making  has  spread  to  the  west  and  norths 
embracing  in  part  the  counties  of  Dane,  Iowa  and  La  Fayette. 

In  Richland  county  the  American  or  Cheddar  method  of  cheese  making 
prevails,  and  the  quality  of  the  product  produced  has  justly  made  this 
region  famous. 

COMPARISON  OF  DAIRY  DEVELOPMENT  AT  PRESENT  WITH  THAT  OF  1896. 

If  one  compares  the  map  accompanying  this  bulletin,  showing  the  dis- 
tribution of  factories  within  this  state,  with  that  prepared  five  years  * 
ago,*  the  remarkable  development  of  this  industry  in  the  north-central 
and  northwestern  portions  of  the  state  is  strikingly  evident.  Five  years 
ago  the  dairy  belt,  as  represented  by  factory  dairying,  was  confined  to 
the  eastern  and  southern  counties.  The  great  bulk  of  the  industry  lay 
south  of  a line  drawn  from  Green  Bay  to  the  mouth  of  the  Wisconsin 
river,  mainly  included  in  Groups  IV,  V and  VI.  Of  course  here  and 
there  in  isolated  regions  were  to  be  found  small  groups  of  factories,  es- 
pecially creameries,  hut  the  appearance  of  the  map  presented  at  that 
time  indicated  that  factory  dairying  had  not  obtained  a foothold  that 
was  at  all  comparable  with  the  regions  south  of  the  line  mentioned. 

Today  a comparison  shows  a marked  change  .While  of  course  fac- 
tories are  by  no  means  so  numerous  in  this  western  and  southern  region 
as  they  are  in  the  older  dairy  settlements,  yet  the  increase  is  so  phe- 


*See  Bulletin  60,  Wis.  Expt.  Station. 


10 


Bulletin  No.  88. 


nomenal  that  it  is  destined  unquestionably  to  .exert  a profound  effect 
upon  the  industries  of  the  state.  In  order  to  bring  out  this  relation 
more  forcibly,  a compilation  of  the  number  of  factories  (cheese  and 
butter)  recorded  in  1896  and  1901,  is  presented  in  table  III.  In  this  com 
pilation  the  older  dairy  counties  in  the  eastern  and  southern  part  of 
the  state  are  excluded  for  the  reason  that  some  of  the  data  respecting 
these  counties  taken  from  the  Dairy  and  Food  Commissioner’s  Report 
for  1896  is  now  known  to  be  inaccurate.  The  apparent  diminution  In 
number  or'  factories  is  due  to  the  fact  that  some  factories  were  dupli- 
cated under  owner’s  and  maker’s  name;  also  to  the  fact  that  a consoli- 
dation of  small  factories  has  in  some  cases  taken  place.  In  presenting 
the  tabular  data  comparing  numbers  of  factories  in  1896  with  the  past 
year,  two  classes  have  been  made  as  follows: 

Class  I including  those  counties  (mostly  northern)  which  have  been 
recently,  or  are  now  being  rapidly  settled. 

Class  II  includes  the  older  settle.d  counties  but  not  those  that  are  dis- 
tinctively dairy  counties. 

Table  III. — Comparison  of  number  of  factories  and  creameries  in 
various  Wisconsin  counties  in  1901  and  1896. 


) 

Class  I. 

1901. 

1896. 

GAIN. 

Cheese. 

Butter.  1 

1 

Combined. 

Cheese. 

Butter. 

Cheese. 

m 

! Combined. 

1 • 

Burnett.  . 

1 

8 

1 

1 

7 

Polk 

8 

25 

"i’ 

“Y 

9 

7 

16 

4 

Washburn 

1 

j 

Barron 

3 

11 

1 

3 

9 

8 

St.  Croix 

12 

21 

12 

16 

5 

Pierce  • 

12 

21 

9 

6 

3 

15 

Chippewa 

15 

14 

1 

10 

4 

5 

10 

1 

Taylor 

5 

2 

1 

4 

2 

Clark  

11 

15 

1 

13 

16’ 

4 

—l* 

1 

Lincoln 

2 

3 

2 

2 

1 

Marathon 

31 

17 

13 

6 

21 

11 

Wood 

21 

11 

14 

5 

7 

6 

Portage 

18 

1 

3 

15 

1 

Marinette 

3 

1 

2 

1 

-1 

Oconto  

5 

10 

4 

8 

1 

2 

Langlade 

4 

1 

2 

1 

2 

Shawano  

14 

6 

20 

4 

—6 

2 

Class  II. 

Pepin 

7 

2 

7 

—2 

Buffalo 

21 

11 

8 

19 

13 

-8 

Trempealeau 

5 

15 

1 

1 

13 

4 

2 

1 

Ban  Claire 

4 

6 

4 

4 

2 

Waupaca 

28 

17 

30 

3 

2 

It 

Waushara 

8 

24 

2 

18 

13 

— 10 

11 

2 

Green  Lake  . 

6 

11 

5 

ll 

1 

Marquette 

2 

7 

l 

1 

7 

1 

1 

Adams 

6 

3 

1 

6 

2 

1 

1 

Juneau  

14 

12 

16 

5 

2 

7 

Jackson 

20 

3 

4 

_2 

16 

Monroe  . . 

7 

21 

8 

14 

—1 

7 

LaCrosse  . . . 

5 

3 

9 

2 

—4 

Vernon  

6 

8 

1 

7 

13 

—5 

1 

Crawford . . . 

2 

10 

2 

11 

-1 

Sauk  . . 

24 

35 

18 

13 

6 " 

22 

Columbia 

10 

24 

16 

39 

—6 

—15 

* Loss  is  shown  by  — sign. 


11 


Dairy  Industry  in  Wisconsin. 

It  is  evident  from  the  above  table  that  the  most  rapid  development  in 
the  dairy  industry  is  now  taking  place  in  the  north-central  and  north- 
western counties  rather  than  in  the  older  settled  regions  to  the  south. 

The  distinctively  dairy  belt  that  was  marked  in  the  state  five  years 
ago  is  now  spreading  rapidly  to  the  northward  and  the  westward,  and  it 
seems  quite  probable  that  the  industry  will  reach  as  marked  develop- 
ment in  these  portions  as  it  has  in  the  east  and  south. 

Of  course  it  should  be  remembered  that  the  quantitative  estimates  of 
this  industry  should  be  based  on  output  of  product  rather  than  number 
of  factories  occupied,  but  there  are  no  available  statistics  that  give  the 
individual  output  of  the  respective  factories.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that 
the  graphical  representation  of  the  dairy  industry  that  accompanies  this 
bulletin  in  the  form  of  a large  wall-map  may  serve  to  emphasize  the  pos- 
sibilities that  are  in  store  for  Wisconsin  if  she  continues  to  develop  her 
natural  resources  in  this  direction. 


LIBRARY 

OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  of  ILLINOIS, 


UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN 


Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


BULLETIN  NO.  89. 


THE  LAW  REGULATING  THE  SALE  AND  ANALYSIS  OF 
CONCENTRATED  FEEDING  STUFFS  IN  WISCONSIN. 


MADISON,  WISCONSIN,  NOVEMBER,  1901. 


%£T°The  Bulletins  and  Annual  Reports  of  this  Station  are  sent  free  to  all 
residents  of  this  State  upon  request. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN 


AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 

HOARD  OF  REGENTS. 

THE  ACTING  PRESIDENT  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY,  ex-officio. 

STATE  SUPERINTENDENT  of  PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION,  ex-officio. 
State-at-large,  GEORGE  W.  PECK,  Milwaukee. 

State-at-large,  WILLIAM  F.  VILAS,  Madison. 

First  District,  H.  C.  TAYLOR.  Orfordville. 

Second  District,  B.  J.  STEVENS,  Madison. 

Third  District,  DWIGHT  T.  PARKER,  Fennimore. 

Fourth  District,  ALMAH  J.  FRISBY,  Milwaukee. 

Fifth  District,  GEORGE  IT.  NOYES,  Milwaukee. 

Sixth  District,  JOHN  R.  RIESS.  Sheboygan. 

Seventh  District,  BYRON  A.  BUFFINGTON,  Eau  Claire. 

Eighth  District,  JAMES  C.  KERWIN",  Neenah. 

Ninth  District,  E.  A.  EDMONDS,  Oconto  Falls. 

Tenth  District,  GEORGE  F.  MERRILL,  Ashland. 

Eleventh  District,  J.  H.  STOUT,  Menomonie. 

Officers  of  the  Board  of  Regents. 

J.  H.  STOUT,  President.  I STATE  TREASURER,  Ex-offtcio  Treasurer. 

B.  J.  STEVENS,  Vice  President.  | E.  F.  RILEY,  Secretary,  Madison. 


Agricultural  Committee. 

Regents  RIESS,  MERRILL,  KER WIN , TAYLOR,  PARKER,  Acting  Pres.  BIRGE. 


OFFICERS  OF  THE  STATION. 

THE  ACTING  PRESIDENT  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY. 

W.  A.  HENRY Director 

S.  M.  BABCOCK.  . . . Assistant  Director  and  Chief  Chemist 


E.  S.  GOFF 

W.  L.  CARLYLE, 

F.  W.  WOLL,  .... 

H.  L.  RUSSELL. 

E.  H.  FARRINGTON, 

A.  R.  WHITSON, 

ALFRED  VIVIAN. 

J.  F.  NICHOLSON, 

R.  A.  MOORE,  . 

U.  S.  BAER 

t.  f.  McConnell, 

FREDERIC  CRANEFIELD, 

LESLIE  II.  ADAMS,  . . . 

IDA  HERFURTI1,  . 

DAISY  G.  BEECROFT, 


. . . . Horticulturist 

Animal  Husbandry 
Chemist 

. . . . Bacteriologist 

. . Dairy  Husbandry 

Physicist 

. . . Assistant  Chemist 

. assistant  Bacteriologist 
Agriculturist 

Dairying 

Assistant  in  Animal  Husbandry 
Assistant  in  Horticulture 

. . Farm  Superintendent 

Clerk 

. Librarian  and  Stenographeb 


FARMERS’  INSTITUTES. 

GEORGE  McKERROW,  .......  Superintendent 

HATTIE  V.  STOUT.  ......  Clerk  and  Stenographeb 

General  Offices  and  Departments  of  Agricultural  Chemistry,  Ani- 
mal Husbandry,  Bacteriology,  Farmers’  Institutes  and  Library,  in 
Agricultural  Hall,  near  University  Hall,  on  Upper  Campus. 

Dairy  Building  and  .Joint  Horticnlt nre-Pliysies  Building,  west 
end  of  Observatory  Hill,  adjacent  to  Horticultural  Grounds  and 
Experiment  Farm. 

Telephone  to  Station  Office,  Dairy  Building  and  Farm  Office. 


THE  LAW  REGULATING  THE  SALE  AND  ANALYSIS  OF 
CONCENTRATED  FEEDING  STUFFS  IN  WISCONSIN. 


W.  A.  HENRY. 

The  purpose  of  this  bulletin  is  to  call  the  attention  of  feed  dealers, 
stockmen  and  farmers  to  Chapter  377,  Laws  of  1901,  entitled,  “An  act 
to  regulate  the  sale  and  analysis  of  concentrated  feeding  stuffs.,,  A 
similar  law  is  in  force  in  Maine,  New  Hampshire,  Massachusetts,  Con- 
necticut, Rhode  Island,  New  York,  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania  and  Mary- 
land. The  necessity  for  such  a law  has  grown  out  of  newly  formed 
conditions  arising  in  this  country.  In  addition  to  flour  and  meal,  a rap- 
idly increasing  variety  of  human  food  products,  the  quantity  of  which 
is  great  in  the  aggregate,  is  now  being  manufactured  from  the  leading 
cereals.  In  the  manufacture  of  these  new  food  articles  enormous 
quantities  of  by-products  are  left  over  from  the  grains  used  and  these 
possess  a high  nutritive  value  for  the  feeding  of  domestic  animals. 
These  newer  by-products  are  being  brought  to  the  attention  of  stock- 
men  and  farmers  under  unfamiliar  names,  or  they  come  to  them  under 
a name  already  known,  but  perhaps  changed  in  character  and  composi- 
tion because  of  changes  in  the  process  of  manufacture,  or  for  other 
causes  known  to  the  producers.  The  stockman  who  buys  a high-priced 
concentrated  feeding  stuff  generally  does  so  for  the  purpose  of  secur- 
ing the  large  percentage  of  protein  which  such  materials  are  supposed 
to  contain.  Protein  is  essential  to  the  formation  of  the  lean  meat  tis- 
sues of  the  animal  body,  to  the  production  of  wool,  to  the  formation 
of  the  cheese  part  of  milk,  etc.  In  considering  the  purchase  of  these 
newer  forms  of  concentrated  feeding  stuffs  the  woiud-be  buyer  often 
has  no  data  for  his  guide  as  to  their  nutritive  contents  beyond  what  is 
told  him  in  the  advertisements  or  by  solicitors  offering  the  goods  for 
sale. 

Again,  different  lots  of  a feeding  stuff  bearing  a certain  name  or 
brand  nave  been  found  by  the  chemist  to  vary  materially  one  from  an- 
other in  the  proportion  and  total  of  the  several  nutrients  contained. 

To  illustrate  this  variation,  the  following  data  have  been  gathered 
from  the  reports  of  other  experiment  stations:  In  205  samples  of  cot- 


4 


Bulletin  No.  89. 


ton-seed  meal  sold  in  the.  New  England  market  between  the  years  1898 
and  1900,  the  protein  varied  between  the  limits  of  40.3  and  52.6  per 
cent.;  in  76  samples  of  Chicago  Gluten  Meal  the  protein  varied  from 
30.7  to  41.3  per  cent.;  in  Cream  Gluten  Meal  the  variation  ranged  from 
30.1  to  41.3  per  cent.;  the  Diamond  brand  of  Gluten  Feed  contained  pro- 
tein ranging  between  20.3  and  30.1  per  cent.;  Quaker  Oat  Feed  showed 
as  little  protein  as  7.4  and  as  much  as  12.8  per  cent. 

The  oil  contained  in  some  of  these  feeding  stuffs  likewise  varied 
greatly,  cotton  seed  meal  showing  a range  of  from  6.4  to  17.0  per  cent. 
Chicago  Gluten  meal  showed  a minimum  and  maximum  of  1.4  and  7.4 
per  cent.  Cream  Gluten  meal  showed  a range  of  from  1.4  to  6.1  per  cent. 

It  will  be  seen  that  in  the  above  examples  the  percentage  of  both 
protein  and  oil  varies  materially  in  different  samples  of  a given  brand; 
these  variations  represent  a difference  in  feeding  value  of  several  dol- 
lars per  ton.  The  new  Wisconsin  law  compels  the  manufacturer  to 
place  on  each  package  of  all  such  feeding  stuffs  offered  for  sale  in  the 
state  a statement  giving  within  reasonable  limits  the  percentage  of 
crude  protein  and  crude  fat  which  the  feeding  stuff  is  guaranteed  to 
contain. 

Again,  there  has  been  practiced  in  the  west  a form  of  adulteration 
of  feeding  stuffs  wrhich  has  worked  much  loss  to  purchasers.  Great 
quantities  of  oat  hulls  are  turned  out  by  the  oatmeal  mills.  Unscrupu- 
lous dealers  have  in  some  cases  mixed  these  almost  worthless  hulls 
with  ‘corn  meal,  or  corn  and  cob  meal,  selling  the  mixture  as  p.ure 
ground  corn  and  oats.  The  purchaser  examining  such  material  will 
usually  fail  to  detect  its  fraudulent  nature.  The  law  will  tend  to 
prevent  frauds  of  this  character.  One  of  the  effects  of  similar  laws 
in  the  states  previously  named  is  to  cause  manufacturers  to  ship  only 
their  best  grades  of  feeding  stuffs  to  such  states  in  order  to  make  good 
high  guarantees;  an  indirect  effect  is  to  cause  the  same  manufacturers 
to  dispose  of  their  low-grade  products  in  states  which  have  no  such 
laws.  This  makes  it  all  the  more  necessary  for  Wisconsin,  which  buys 
such  large  quantities  of  feeding  stuffs,  to  fall  in  line  with  the  more  ad- 
vanced states. 

The  bill  which  was  enacted  into  a law  by  the  last  legislature  did  not 
originate  with  the  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station,  either  directly  or 
indirectly,  but  since  its  enforcement  rests  with  the  Station,  this  duty 
will  be  assumed  in  the  earnest  effort  to  secure  to  all  parties  in  interest 
their  equities.  It  was  evident  that  the  legislature  did  not  intend  that 
the  fees  asked  in  the  law  should  be  onerous  to  those  paying  the  same, 
nor  on  the  other  hand  did  they  intend  that  the  law  should  bring  in- 
creased expense  to  the  state.  The  income  arising  from  the  fees  does 
not  accrue  to  the  Station  for  general  use,  but  must  be  expended  in  car- 
rying out  the  provisions  of  the  act.  With  this  law  in  force  the  dealer 


The  Wisconsin  Feeding  Stuffs  Law.  5 

In  feeding  stuffs  will  know  just  what  he  is  selling,  and  the  purchaser 
will  have  knowledge  of  the  composition  and  the  probable  feeding  value 
of  the  different  feeding  materials  he  may  purchase. 

All  Wisconsin  retail  dealers  in  concentrated  feeding  stuffs  are  urged 
to  insist  hereafter  that  each  and  every  package  of  concentrated  feed- 
ing stuffs  handled  by  them  shall  comply  with  the  law  as  to  label  and 
guarantee;  they  should  not  accept  goods  without  such  labels.  The  law 
provides  that  when  a manufacturer  or  general  dealer  has  paid  the  li- 
cense fee  of  $25  for  a given  brand  of  feeding  stuff,  all  his  sub-agents 
and  all  dealers  handling  that  brand  are  free  to  sell  the  same  without 
any  further  payment  or  fee  being  required.  Each  license  granted  is 
for  the  calendar  year  and  must  be  renewed  before  the  end  of  the  year. 
Users  of  concentrated  feeding  stuffs  in  making  purchases  should  insist 
that  each  and  every  package  purchased  be  labeled  according  to  law,  and 
they  are  requested  to  report  all  delinquencies  to  the  Director  of  this  Sta- 
tion. Where  there  is  suspicion  of  adulteration,  or  where  the  goods  of- 
fered appear  to  be  below  grade,  information  should  be  sent  at  once  to 
the  Director  of  this  Station.  Upon  application,  instruction  blanks  giv- 
ing directions  for  taking  samples  will  be  furnished  by  the  Station,  free 
of  charge.  No  samples  of  such  feeding  stuffs  should  be  forwarded  to 
the  Station  until  the  proper  directions  for  taking  samples  and  transmit- 
ting the  same  have  been  secured  from  the  Station.  Samples  properly 
takeh  and  properly  forwarded  to  the  Station  will  be  examined  or 
analyzed,  if  necessary,  and  the  results  reported  with  the  least  possible 
delay,  without  expense  to  the  person  seeking  the  information. 

For  the  assistance  and  guidance  of  those  interested  the  following 
digest  of  the  law  is  given: 

DIGEST  OF  THE  WISCONSIN  FEEDING  STUFF  INSPECTION  LAW  (CHAPTER  377, 

LAWS  OF  1901). 

Section  1.  The  following  feeding  stuffs  are  subject  to  examination 
and  license  under  the  law: 

Linseed  meal. 

Cottonseed  meal. 

Oil  meals  of  all  kinds. 

Peameal. 

Cocoanut  meal. 

Sucrene  feed. 

Hominy  feed. 

Rice  meal. 

Ground  beef. 

Fish  scrap. 


Mixed  feeds  of  all  kinds. 
Gluten  meal. 

Gluten  feed. 

Maize  feed. 

Starch  feed. 

Sugar  feed. 

Cerealine  feed. 

Oat  feed. 

Corn  and  oat  feed. 
Cond'mental  stock  foods. 


Bulletin  No.  Hi). 


6 


The  following  feeding  stuffs  are  exempt  from  the  provisions  of  the 
law: 

All  forms  of  hay  and  straw. 

Dried  and  wet  brewers'  grains. 

Malt  sprouts. 

Broom-corn  seed. 

Sorghum  seed. 

Whole  and  ground  seeds  and  grains , such  as  wheat,  rye,  barley,  oats, 
corn  and  buckwheat. 

Meals  made  by  grinding  mixtures  of  pure  grains,  such  as  corn, 
icheat,  rye,  barley,  oats,  buckwheat. 

Bran  and  middlings  made  from  wheat,  rye  and  buckwheat,  not 
mixed  with  other  substances. 


Section  2 provides  that  every  seller  of  feeding  stuffs  coming  within 
the  law  shall  place  on  each  package  of  feeding  stuffs  a printed  state- 
ment, giving  the  address  of  the  manufacturer,  the  name  of  the  article 
contained,  the  net  weight  of  the  same,  together  with  the  percentage  of 
crude  protein  and  of  crude  fat  which  the  feeding  stuff  is  guaranteed  to 
contain. 

Section  3 provides  that  each  manufacturer  shall  each  year  file  a 
statement  of  guarantee  with  the  Director  of  the  Wisconsin  Experiment 
Station,  together  with  a sample  of  each  brand  of  feeding  stuff  he  in- 
tends to  sell  in  the  state  during  the  coming  year. 

Section  4 provides  that  the  manufacturer  shall  pay  to  the  Experiment 
Station  a license  fee  of  $25  for  each  distinct  brand  of  feeding  stuffs  he 
intends  to  sell  in  the  state  during  the  coming  year.  The  license  fees 
so  paid  shall  constitute  a special  fund  to  be  used  for  defraying  the  ex- 
penses of  inspection,  analysis  and  otherwise  carrying  out  the  purposes 
of  the  act. 

On  the  payment  by  the  manufacturer  or  dealer  of  a license  fee  of  $25 
for  each  distinct  brand  sold  in  the  state,  no  payment  or  fee  shall  be  re- 
quired of  any  of  his  agents  or  of  any  dealers  handling  the  particular 
brand  for  which  the  license  fee  was  paid. 

Section  5 provides  that  the  Experiment  Station  shall  each  year  take 
a sample  of  every  brand  of  commercial  feeding  stuffs  coming  under  the 
provisions  of  the  law  and  shall  analyze  the  same  and  publish  the  re- 
sults in  reports  or  bulletins. 

Section  6 provides  that  any  company  or  person  selling  concentrated 
commercial  feeding  stuffs  within  the  state  not  complying  with  the  law 
or  selling  any  feeding  stuff  which  contains  substantially  a smaller  per- 
centage of  constituents  than  certified,  shall  be  fined  not  less  than  twenty- 
five  nor  more  than  one  hundred  dollars  for  the  first  offense,  and  not 
more  than  two  hundred  dollars  for  each  subsequent  offense. 

Section  7 provides  that  any  person  who  shall  adulterate  any  kind 
of  meal  or  ground  grain  with  milling  or  manufacturing  offals,  unless 
they  shall  state  the  true  composition  of  such  mixtures  or  adulteration 
on  the  labels,  or  any  person  who  shall  sell  any  meal  or  ground  grain 
which  has  been  adulterated,  and  who  does  not  give  the  true  composition 
of  the  mixture  or  adulteration,  shall  be  fined  not  less  than  twenty-five 
or  more  than  one  hundred  dollars  for  each  offense. 

Section  8 provides  that  whenever  the  Director  of  the  Station  becomes 
cognizant  of  violations  of  the  law  he  shall  report  the  same  to  the  Dairy 
and  Food  Commissioner,  who  shall  prosecute  the  offender. 


The  Wisconsin  Feeding  Stuffs  Law. 


7 


THE  LAW  REGULATING  THE  SALE  AND  ANALYSIS  OF  CONCEN- 
TRATED COMMERCIAL  FEEDING  STUFFS. 

(chapter  377,  laws  of  1901.) 

Section  1.  The  term  “concentrated  commercial  feeding  stuffs,”  as 
used  in  this  act,  shall  include  linseed  meals,  cotton  seed  meals,  pea- 
meals,  cocoanut  meals,  gluten  meals,  oil  meals  of  all  kinds,  gluten  feeds, 
maize  feeds,  starch  feeds,  sugar  feeds,  sucrene,  hominy  feeds,  cerealine 
feeds,  rice  meals,  oat  feeds,  corn  and  oat  feeds,  ground  beef  or  fish 
scraps,  mixed  feeds  of  all  kinds,  also  all  condimental  stock  foods, 
patented  and  proprietary  stock  foods  claimed  to  possess  nutritive  as 
well  as  medicinal  properties,  and  all  other  materials  intended  for  feed- 
ing to  domestic  animals;  but  shall  not  include  hays  and  straws,  the 
whole  seeds  nor  the  unmixed  meals  made  directly  from  the  entire 
grains  of  wheat,  rye,  barley,  oats,  Indian  corn,  buckwheat,  dried 
brewers’  grains,  wet  brewers’  grains,  malt  sprouts,  sorghum,  and  broom 
corn.  Neither  shall  it  include  wheat,  rye  and  buckwheat  brans  or  mid- 
dlings not  mixed  with  other  substances,  but  sold  separately,  as  distinct 
articles  of  commerce,  nor  pure  grains  ground  together. 

Section  2.  Every  manufacturer,  company  or  person  who  shall  sell, 
offer  or  expose  for  sale  or  for  distribution1  in  this  state  any  concen- 
trated commercial  feeding  stuff,  used  for  feeding  farm  live  stock, 
shall  furnish  with  each  car  or  other  amount  shipped  in  bulk  and 
shall  affix  to  every  package  of  such  feeding  stuff  in  a conspicuous  place 
on  the  outside  thereof  a plainly  printed  statement  clearly  and  truly 
certifying  the  number  of  net  pounds  in  the  car  or  package  sold  or  of- 
fered for  sale,  the  name  or  trade  mark  under  which  the  article  is  sold, 
the  name  of  the  manufacturer  or  shipper,  the  place  of  manufacture, 
the  place  of  business  and  the  percentages  it  contains  of  crude  protein, 
allowing  one  percentum  of  nitrogen  to  equal  six  and  one-fourth  per- 
centum  of  protein  and  of  crude  fat,  both  constituents  to  be  determined' 
by  the  methods  prescribed  by  the  Director  of  the  Wisconsin  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station.  Whenever  any  feeding  stuff  is  sold  at  retail  in 
bulk  or  in  packages  belonging  to  the  purchaser,  the  agent  or  dealer, 
upon  request  of  the  purchaser  shall  furnish  to  him  a certified  copy  of 
the  statement  named  in  this  section. 

Section  3.  Before  any  manufacturer,  company  or  person  shall  sell, 
offer  or  expose  for  sale  in  this  state  any  concentrated  commercial  feed- 
ing stuffs,  he  or  they  shall  for  each  and  every  feeding  stuff  bearing  a 
distinguishing  name  or  trade  mark,  file  annually  during  the  month  of 
December  with  the  Director  of  the  Wisconsin  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station  a certified  copy  of  the  statement  specified  in  the  preceding  sec- 
tion, said  certified  copy  to  be  accompanied,  when  the  Director  shall  so 
request,  by  a sealed  glass  jar  or  bottle  containing  at  least  one  pound 
of  the  feeding  stuff  to  be  sold  or  offered  for  sale,  and  the  company  or 
person  furnishing  the  said  sample  shall  also  submit  a satisfactory  af- 
fidavit that  saia  sample  corresponds  within  reasonable  limits  to  the 
feeding  stuff  which  it  represents  in  the  percentage  of  protein  and  fat 
which  i-  contains. 

Section  4.  Each  manufacturer,  importer,  agent  or  seller  of  any  con- 
centrated commercial  feeding  stuffs  shall  pay  annually  to  the  Director 
of  the  Wisconsin  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  a license  fee  of 
twenty-five  dollars.  Whenever  a manufacturer,  importer,  agent  or 
seller  of  concentrated  commercial  feeding  stuffs  desires  at  any  time 
to  sell  such  material  and  has  not  paid  the  license  fee  therefor  in  the 
preceding  month  of  December,  as  required  by  this  section,  he  shall  pay 
the  license  fee  prescribed  herein  before  making  any  such  sale.  The 
license  fees  received  by  such  Director  pursuant  to  the  provisions  of  this 
section  shall  be  paid  into  the  treasury  of  the  university  and  shall  con- 
stitute a special  fund  from  which  to  defray  the  expenses  incurred  in 
making  the  inspections  and  analyses  required  by  this  act  and  enforc- 
ing the  provisions  thereof,  and  he  shall  report  annually  to  the  regents 
of  the  University  of  Wisconsin  the  amount  received  ahd  the  expense 


8 


Bulletin  No,  89. 


incurred  for  salaries,  laboratory  expenses,  chemical  supplies,  traveling 
expenses,  printing  and  other  necessary  matters.  Whenever  the  manu- 
facturer, importer  or  shipper  of  concentrated  commercial  feeding  stuffs 
shall  have  filed  the  statement  required  by  section  two  of  this  act  and 
paid  tne  license  fees  as  prescribed  in  this  section,  no  agent  or  seller  of 
such  manufacturer,  importer  or  shipper  shall  be  required  to  file  sucn 
statement  or  pay  such  fee. 

Section  5.  The  Director  of  the  Wisconsin  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station  shall  annually  analyze  or  cause  to  be  analyzed  at  least  one  sam- 
ple to  be  taken  in  the  manner  hereinafter  prescribed,  of  every  concen- 
trated commercial  feeding  stuff  sold  or  offered  for  sale  under  the  pro- 
visions of  this  act.  Said  director  shall  cause  a sample  to  be  taken,  not 
exceeding  two  pounds  in  weight,  for  said  analysis,  from  any  lot  or 
package  of  such  commercial  feeding  stuff  which  may  be  in  the  posses- 
sion of  any  manufacturer,  importer,  agent  or  dealer  in  this  state,  but 
said  sample  shall  be  drawn  in  the  presence  of  the  parties  in  interest  or 
their  representatives,  and  taken  from  a parcel  or  a number  of  pack- 
ages which  shall  not  be  less  than  ten  percentum  of  the  whole  lot  sam- 
pled, and  shall  be  thoroughly  mixed,  and  then  divided  into  equal  sam- 
ples, and  placed  in  glass  vessels,  and  carefully  sealed  and  a label  placed 
on  each,  stating  the  name  of  the  party  from  whose  stock  the  sample 
was  drawn  and  the  time  ahd  place  of  drawing,  and  said  label  shall  also 
be  signed  by  the  person  taking  the  sample,  and  by  the  party  or  parties 
in  interest  or  their  representative  at  the  drawing  and  sealing  of  said 
samples;  one  of  said  duplicate  samples  shall  be  retained  by  the  director 
and  the  other  by  the  party  whose  stock  was  sampled;  and  the  sample 
or  samples  retained  by  the  director  shall  be  for  comparison  with  the 
certified  statement  named  in  section  three  of  this  act.  The  result  of 
the  analyses  of  the  sample  or  samples  so  procured,  together  with  such 
additional  information  as  circumstances  advise,  shall  be  published  in 
reports  or  bulletins  from  time  to  time. 

Section  6.  Any  manufacturer,  importer  or  person  wno  snail  sell, 
offer  or  expose  for  sale  or  distribution  in  this  state  any  concentrated 
commercial  feeding  stuff,  without  complying  with  the  requirements  of 
this  act,  or  any  feeding  stuff  which  contains  substantially  a smaller 
percentage  of  constituents  than  are  certified  to  be  contained,  shall,  on 
conviction  in  a court  of  competent  jurisdiction,  be  fined  not  less  than 
twenty-five  nor  more  than  one  hundred  dollars  for  the  first  offense, 
and  not  more  than  two  hundred  dollars  for  each  subsequent  offense. 

Section  7.  Any  person  who  shall  adulterate  any  kind  of  meal  or 
ground  grain  or  other  feeding  stuff  with  milling  or  manufacturing  of- 
fals, or  any  other  substance  whatever,  for  the  purpose  of  sale,  unless 
the  true  composition,  mixture  or  adulteration  thereof  is  plainly  marked 
or  indicated  upon  the  package  containing  the  same  or  in  which  it  is 
offered  for  sale;  or  any  person  who  sells,  or  offers  for  sale  any  meal, 
ground  grain  or  other  feeding  stuff  which  has  been  so  adulterated, 
unless  the  true  composition,  mixture  or  adulteration  is  plainly  marked 
or  indicated  upon  the  package  containing  the  same,  or  in  which  it  is 
offered  for  sale,  shall  be  fined  not  less  than  twenty-five  or  more  than 
one  hundred  dollars  for  each  offense. 

Section  8.  Whenever  the  director  aforesaid  becomes  cognizant  of 
the  violation  of  any  of  the  provisions  of  this  act,  he  shall  report  such 
violations  to  the  dairy  and  food  commissioner,  and  said  commissioner 
shall  prosecute  the  party  or  parties  thus  reported;  but  it  shall  be  the 
duty  of  said  commissioner  upon  thus  ascertaining  any  violation  of 
sections  two,  three  or  four  of  this  act,  to  forthwith  notify  the  manu- 
facturer, importer  or  dealer  in  writing  and  give  him  not  less  than  thirty 
days  thereafter  in  which  to  comply  with  the  requirements  of  this  act, 
but  there  shall  be  no  prosecution  in  relation  to  the  quality  of  any  con- 
centrated commercial  feeding  stuff  if  the  same  shall  be  found  substan- 
tially equivalent  to  the  certified  statement  named  in  section  two  of 
this  act. 

Section  9.  This  act  shall  take  effect  July  1st,  nineteen  hundred  and 
one. 

Approved  May  13,  1901. 


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